Chapter 12 DNA and RNA Review

Biology 122
Terms:
amino acid – compound with an amino group (−NH2) on one end and a carboxyl group
(−COOH) on the other end.
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) – nucleic acid that contains the sugar deoxyribose.
hydrogen bond – a weak bond between two molecules resulting from an electrostatic
attraction between a proton in one molecule and an electronegative atom in the other.
initiator – a site, upstream from a structural gene, for attachment of a protein that
stimulates initiation of transcription.
mutation – change in a DNA sequence that affects genetic information.
ribonucleic acid (RNA) – single-stranded nucleic acid that contains the sugar ribose.
double helix – description of the molecular shape of a double-stranded DNA molecule,
in which two strands are wound around each other.
DNA polymerase – enzyme involved in DNA replication that joins individual nucleotides
to produce a DNA molecule.
RNA polymerase – enzyme like DNA polymerase that binds to DNA and separates the
DNA strands during transcription.
nucleotide – monomer of nucleic acids made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate
group, and a nitrogenous base.
proofreaders – during DNA replication DNA polymerases check their work with each
base that they add.
protein – macromolecule that contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen; needed
by the body for growth and repair and to make up enzymes.
radiation – the emission of energy as electromagnetic waves or as moving subatomic
particles, especially high-energy particles which cause ionization.
replication – copying process by which a cell duplicates its DNA.
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – type of RNA that makes up a major part of ribosomes.
messenger RNA (mRNA) – RNA molecule that carries copies of instructions for the
assembly of amino acids into proteins from DNA to the rest of the cell.
 transfer RNA (tRNA) – type of RNA molecule that transfers amino acids to ribosomes
during protein synthesis.
semi-conservative – replication is a semi-conservative process which means that each
strand of DNA is half old and half new.
template – refers to a nucleotide sequence that directs the synthesis of a sequence
complementary to it; a molecule that provides the structural mould to create similar
molecules.
terminator – a section of nucleic acid sequence that marks the end of a gene or operon
in genomic DNA during transcription.
translation – decoding of a mRNA message into a polypeptide chain.
transcription – process in which part of the nucleotide sequence of DNA is copied into a
complementary sequence in RNA.
unzip – the process of separating the two strands of a double-stranded DNA molecule.
Each strand then serves as a template for a new complementary strand to be created.
codon – three-nucleotide sequence on messenger RNA that codes for a single amino
acid.
operon – group of genes operating together.
repressor – a protein that turns off the expression of one or more genes.
TATA box – DNA sequence that indicates where a genetic sequence can be read and
decoded. It is a type of promoter sequence, which specifies to other molecules where
transcription begins.
hox genes – series of genes that controls the differentiation of cells and tissues in an
embryo.
differentiation – process in which cells become specialized in structure and function.
1.
- Experiment 1: Mice were injected with the disease-causing strain of bacteria. The
mice developed pneumonia and died.
- Experiment 2: Mice were injected with the harmless strain of bacteria. These mice
did not get sick.
- Experiment 3: Griffith heated the disease-causing bacteria. He then injected the
heat-killed bacteria into the mice. The mice survived.
- Experiment 4: Griffith mixed his heat-killed, disease-causing bacteria with live,
harmless bacteria and injected the mixture into the mice. The mice developed
pneumonia and died.
 - Griffith concluded that the heat-killed bacteria passed their disease-causing ability
to the harmless strain.
- Griffith called this process transformation because one strain of bacteria (the
harmless strain) had changed permanently into another (the disease-causing strain).
2.
- The structure of DNA was a double helix, in which two strands were wound around
each other.
- DNA is made up of nucleotides.
- A nucleotide is a monomer of nucleic acids made up of a five-carbon sugar called
deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
- The backbone of a DNA chain is formed by sugar and phosphate groups of each
nucleotide.

3.
James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the double helix which is the structure of
DNA.
4. There are four kinds of bases in in DNA:
- adenine and guanine paired together as purines.
- cytosine and thymine paired together as pyrimidines.
5.
DNA Replication:
- DNA replication is carried out by enzymes that “unzip” a molecule of DNA.
- Hydrogen bonds between base pairs are broken and the two strands of DNA
unwind.
- The DNA molecules separate into two strands.
- It then produces two new complementary strands following the rules of base
pairing.
- Each strand of the double helix (old strands) serves as a template for the new strand.
6.
- DNA replication is important because it is essential for cell division during growth or
repair of damaged tissues.
- Without the copying of the DNA life would not continue as existing organisms would
not be able to reproduce and replace themselves.
- Without DNA replication a person would die as cells would stop reproducing without
the genetic information telling them to divide.
7.
Three main differences between RNA and DNA:
- The sugar in RNA is ribose instead of deoxyribose.
- RNA is generally single-stranded.
- RNA contains uracil in place of thymine.
8.
Mutations may occur if a mistake is not corrected.
9.
- Mutations are changes in the genetic material.
- A mutation in fetus is much more harmful than in an adult because of Hox genes.
- Hox genes control the differentiation of cells and tissues in the embryo.
- Careful control of expression in hox genes is essential for normal development.
- While an adult has already developed so a mutation will not have as drastic of
effects.
- X-rays are also more harmful because they use radiation that can cause mutations.
10.
Gene Mutations
- Substitution – swaps one (or more) nucleotide with another.
- Insertion – adds one (or more) nucleotide that was not previously present.
- Deletion – removes one (or more) nucleotide.
Chromosome Mutations
- Inversion – results when a segment of a chromosome is reversed end to end.
 - Deletion – results when a segment of a chromosome is lost.
- Duplication – results when a segment of a chromosome is copied.
- Translocation – results when a segment of a chromosome breaks off and attaches to
another chromosome.
External causes
- smoking, sunlight, and radiation.
11.
messenger RNA – carries copies of instructions for assembling amino acids into
proteins.
ribosomal RNA – Ribosomes are made up of proteins and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
transfer RNA – During protein construction, transfer RNA (tRNA) transfers each amino
acid to the ribosome.
12.
Replication
- The principal enzyme involved in DNA replication is DNA polymerase.
- DNA polymerase joins individual nucleotides to produce a DNA molecule and then
“proofreads” each new DNA strand.
- During DNA replication, the DNA molecule separates into two strands, then
produces two new complementary strands following the rules of base pairing. Each
strand of the double helix of DNA serves as a template for the new strand.
Transcription
- RNA molecules are produced by copying part of a nucleotide sequence of DNA into a
complementary sequence in RNA. This process is called transcription.
- Transcription requires the enzyme RNA polymerase.
13.
Transcription
- During transcription, RNA polymerase binds to DNA and separates the DNA strands.
- RNA polymerase then uses one strand of DNA as a template from which nucleotides
are assembled into a strand of RNA.
- RNA polymerase binds only to regions of DNA known as promoters.
- Promoters are signals in DNA that indicate to the enzyme where to bind to make
RNA.
14.
Translation
- Messenger RNA is transcribed in the nucleus, and then enters the cytoplasm where
it attaches to a ribosome.
- The ribosome binds new tRNA molecules and amino acids as it moves along the
mRNA.
- Protein synthesis occurs.
- The process continues until the ribosome reaches a stop codon. (terminator)
15.
- Frameshift mutations may change every amino acid that follows the point of the
mutation.
- Frameshift mutations can alter a protein so much that it is unable to perform its
normal functions.
16.
Gene Mutations – any mutation which affects only one gene.
- Substitution – swaps one (or more) nucleotide with another.
- Insertion – adds one (or more) nucleotide that was not previously present.
- Deletion – removes one (or more) nucleotide.
17.
Chromosome Mutations - Chromosomal mutations involve changes in the number or
structure of chromosomes.
- Inversion – results when a segment of a chromosome is reversed end to end.
- Deletion – results when a segment of a chromosome is lost.
- Duplication – results when a segment of a chromosome is copied.
- Translocation – results when a segment of a chromosome breaks off and attaches to
another chromosome.
18.
DNA: TAC TTA CGT AAA TTT GTC GTA CTT GCG ATT
RNA: AUG AAU GCA UUU AAA CAG CAU GAA CGC UAA
Amino acids: Methionine, asparagine, alanine, phenylalanine, lysine, glutamine,
histidine, glutamic acid, arginine, stop.
19.
Gene regulation – the process of turning genes on and off.
20.
Hox genes – control the differentiation of cells and tissues in the embryo.
21.
*look over work sheets*