Forces, types effects

Four fundamental forces;

Gravitational force: Law of Universal Gravitation states all objects with mass exert a gravitational force
of attraction on all other objects with mass: It is this gravitational force that keeps the Moon revolving
around the Earth, and the planets revolving around the Sun. 9 , 81m)

Electromagnetic force; explains how both moving and stationary charged particles interact. The electric
force acts between all charged particles, whether or not they're moving. The magnetic force acts
between moving charged particles. This means that every charged particle gives off an electric field,
whether or not it's moving. Moving charged particles (like those in electric current) give off magnetic
fields.

The strong nuclear force: Although being the strongest of all forces, it is the one with the shortest range.
Particles must be really close for its effect to be felt. Its main job is to hold together the subatomic
particles of the nucleus (protons, which carry a positive charge, and neutrons, which carry no charge.
These particles are collectively called nucleons). As most people learn in their science education, like
charges repel (+ +, or - -), and unlike charges attract (+ -).

If you consider that the nucleus of all atoms except hydrogen contain more than one proton, and each
proton carries a positive charge, then why would the nuclei of these atoms stay together? The protons
must feel a repulsive force from the other neighboring protons. This is where the strong nuclear force
comes in. The strong nuclear force is created between nucleons by the exchange of particles called
mesons. This exchange can be likened to constantly hitting a ping-pong ball or a tennis ball back and
forth

As long as this meson exchange can happen, the strong force is able to hold the participating nucleons
together. The nucleons must be extremely close together in order for this exchange to happen. The
distance required is about the diameter of a proton or a neutron. If a proton or neutron can get closer
than this distance to another nucleon, the exchange of mesons can occur, and the particles will stick to
each other. If they can't get that close, the strong force is too weak to make them stick together, and
other competing forces (usually the electromagnetic force) can influence the particles to move apart.
This is represented in the following graphic. The dotted line surrounding the nucleon being approached
represents any electrostatic repulsion that might be present due to the charges of the
nucleons/particles that are involved. A particle must be able to cross this barrier in order for the strong
force to "glue" the particles together.

The weak nuclear force: While the other forces hold things together, the weak force plays a greater role
in things falling apart or decaying. The weak force is stronger than gravity, but it is only effective at very
short distances. It acts on the subatomic level and plays a crucial role in powering stars and creating
elements. It is also responsible for much of the natural radiation present in the universe
Force of friction; Frictional Force is the opposing force when two surfaces come in contact with each
other to move either in the same direction or in opposite directions. As friction is a force that opposes or
resisted the motion of an object that comes in contact and slide against each other. Hence, the frictional
force is a Contact Force. Friction is a force that always opposes motion. The frictional forces are majorly
affected by the texture of the surface of the objects that came in contact with each other and the
amount of force exerted on them

Work Power Energy, Law of conservation of energy

Power is defined as the rate at which work is done and the SI unit of power is watt. Work is the energy
needed to apply a force to move an object a particular distance, the SI unit for work is joule J.

Energy can be defined as the ability to do work and is measured in SI unit joule J. Kinetic energy is
energy of motion, an object of m mass and speed v has translational kinetic energy.

The work-energy principle states that the net work done on an object (by the net force) equals the
change in kinetic energy of that object.

Potential energy; An object can store energy as the result of its position. For example, the heavy ball of a
demolition machine stores energy when it is held at an elevated position. This stored energy of position
is referred to as potential energy. Similarly, a drawn bow is able to store energy as the result of its
position. When assuming its usual position (i.e., when not drawn), there is no energy stored in the bow.
Yet when its position is altered from its usual equilibrium position, the bow is able to store energy by
virtue of its position. This stored energy of position is referred to as potential energy. Potential energy is
the stored energy of position possessed by an object.

The law of conservation of energy states that energy can be transformed from one type to another, but
the total energy remains constant.

Translational motion; In pure translational motion all parts of the body have the same velocity and
acceleration

Rotational motion; In pure rotational motion, such as the rotation as the bar around a pivot, the rate of
change in the angle 0 is the same for all parts of the body. But the acceleration and velocity along the
body depends on the distance from the center of the rotation.

Conditions for mechanical equilibrium. Type of stability

Mechanical equilibrium is a state where the sum of all forces acting on an object of interest is zero. For
this to happen all the forces are required to be balanced, the two following conditions must be satisfied
1. The net external force must be zero
2. The net external force of the torque must be at zero

• The first condition is a statement of translational equilibrium: The sum of all forces acting on the
object must be zero, so the object has no translational acceleration,
• The second condition is a statement of rotational equilibrium: The sum of all torques on the object
must be zero, so the object has no angular acceleration, S
• For an object to be in equilibrium, it must move through space at a constant speed and rotate at a
constant angular speed

Stability is an object in static equilibrium no rotational and translational acceleration. Stable, unstable
neutral.
• An object in static equilibrium, if left undisturbed-no translational or rotational acceleration since the
sum of all the forces and the sum of all the torques acting on it are zero. • However, if the object is
displaced slightly, three outcomes are possible: (1) the object returns to its original position, in which
case it is said to be in stable equilibrium; (2) the object moves even farther from its original position, and
it is said to be in unstable equilibrium; or (3) the object remains in its new position, and it is said to be in
neutral equilibrium.

In general, an object whose center of gravity (CG) is below its point of support will be in stable
equilibrium. If the CG is above the base of support, we have a more complicated situation.
In this sense, humans are less stable than four-legged mammals, which have a larger base of support
because of their four legs, and most also have a lower center of gravity. • When walking and performing
other kinds of movement, a person continually shifts the body so that its CG is over the feet, although in
the normal adult this requires no conscious thought.

Deformations (force effects, types)

Deformation is the change of shape of an object due to an applied force acting on it.

• Elastic deformations are objects that can change their shape due to stretching, twisting,
compression and bending. But once released from the force applied to them, the object returns
to its original shape. An example of this is a rubber band. If you stretch it and then release it, it
goes back to its original shape. Therefore, rubber bands deform elastically.
When an object is deformed but cannot return back to its original shape, then we call it inelastic
deformation. An aluminium drink can should be an example of this that most of you are familiar
with. If you squeeze the can with enough force it will compress and crumple, when you release
your grip on the can it will remain in its new shape. The ratio of stress to strain is known as
elastic modulus. Elastic modulus defines the amount of force required per unit deformation.

Sound (characteristic, mechanism of propagation, physical quantities)

The characteristics of a soundwave are the speed, frequency and its wavelength. Mechanical
soundwave.
The frequency is the same as that of the source and is the number of waves that pass a point per unit
time
• The speed of sound varies greatly in different media. The speed of sound in a medium is determined
by a combination of the medium’s rigidity (or compressibility in gases) and its density.
• The speed of sound in air is low, because air is compressible. Because liquids and solids are relatively
rigid and very difficult to compress, the speed of sound in such media is generally greater than in gases.
• The speed of sound is affected by temperature in a given medium.
Sound needs a medium for propagation, it requires a medium to travel to from one place to another.
Sound is produced by vibration, when an object is vibrating it sets the particles of the medium around
into vibration. In the process, the nearest particles to the source gets displaced from their equilibrium
position. They start to collide with the particles adjacent to them and the adjacent particles then also
gets displaced, and this process continues in the medium until the sound reaches our ear. The
disturbance created floating through the medium is the way sound travels through it. The particles do
not travel to the ear, but the disturbance produced by a source which is travelling through the medium.
The particles are mainly oscillating from their main positions. This disturbance created by the vibrating
object in the medium is what we call a soundwave.

Sound intensity levels are quoted in decibels (dB) much more often than sound intensities in watts per
meter squared.

Hearing mechanism. Contribution of each part of ear’s system in process of hearing

Perception of sound

The pitch (how high the tone is), the quality and the loudness.

Hearing mechanism;

The sensation of hearing is produced by the response of the nerves in the ear to pressure variations in
the sound wave; The conversion of sound waves into nerve impulses occurs in the cochlea. The nerves in
the ear are not the only ones that respond to pressure, as most of the skin contains nerves that are
pressure-sensitive. However, the ear is much more sensitive to pressure variation then any other part of
the body.
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The ear can be divided into three parts, the outer, middle and the inner ear. The pinna is responsible for
collecting the soundwave and channel it through the auditory canal and eventually meet the eardrum.
The eardrum is a transparent membrane which is sensitive to the vibrations of the air. The middle ear
consists of the smallest bones of the human body, Co the ossicles. The vibration of the membrane exerts a
force on three bones collectively called the ossicles (malleus, incus and stapes), which are connected to
one another. These three bones act as a lever system and by decreasing the lever arm (displacement) as
we go from bone to bone, they amplify the force even more, up to 40 times. The vibrations is
transported further from the ossicles to the inner ear, their main job is to increase or amplify the
pressure of the soundwaves when it reached the inner ear. The inner ear consists of a liquid, The
sensory cells that convert sound to nerve impulses are located in the liquid filled inner ear, the cochlea.
The cochlea is a spiral cavity shaped like a snail shell. The wide end of the cochlea, which contains the
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Inside the cochlea there are three parallel ducts; All three ducts are filled with a fluid. The vestibular and
tympanic canals are joined at the apex of the cochlea by a narrow opening called the helicotrema. The
cochlear duct is isolated from the two canals by membranes. One of these membranes, called the
basilar membrane, supports the auditory nerves. The vibrations of the oval window set up a sound wave
in the fluid filling the vestibular canal. The sound wave, which travels along the vestibular canal and
through the helicotrema into the tympanic canal, produces vibrations in the basilar membrane which
stimulate the auditory nerves to transmit electrical pulses to the brain. The excess energy in the sound
wave is dissipated by the motion of the round window at the end of the tympanic canal

Perception of sound; Loudness, quality and pitch are some terms we use to describe the sounds we
hear.
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The ear can respond to an enormous range of intensities. At 3000 Hertz the lowest intensity that the rad mudger
human ear can detect is 10-¹⁶ w/cm² and the loudest tolerable sound has an intensity of about 10-⁴
w/cm². The two extremities of intensity range are called the threshold of hearing and the threshold of of by panic
pain. Sound intensities above the threshold of pain may cause permanent damage to the caval

The human ear is capable of detecting sound at frequencies between about20 and 20,000 Hz. Within
this frequency range, however, the response of the ear is not uniform. The ear is most sensitive to
frequencies between 200 and4000 Hz, and its response decreases toward both higher and lower
frequencies. There are wide variations in the frequency response of individuals. Some people cannot
hear sounds above 8000 Hz, whereas a few people can hear sounds above 20,000 Hz. Furthermore, the
hearing of most people deteriorates with age.

Sonoram/ Ultrasound; Clinical use of sound P. 177

The human ear can hear frequencies from around 20 hertz to 20 000 hertz, any frequency above this
range is called ultrasound/ultrasonic.

With special electronically driven crystals, it is possible to produce mechanical waves at very high
frequencies, up to millions of cycles per second. These waves, which are simply the extension of sound
to high frequencies, are called ultrasonic waves. Because of their short wavelength, ultrasonic waves can
be focused onto small areas and can be imaged much as visible light. Ultrasonic waves penetrate tissue
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possible to form visible images of ultrasonic reflections and absorptions. Therefore, structures within
living organisms can be examined with ultrasound, as with X-rays. Ultrasonic examinations are safer
than X-rays and often can provide as much information. In some cases, such as in the examination of a
fetus and the heart, ultrasonic methods can show motion, which is very useful in such displays. The
frequency of sound detected by an observer depends on the relative motion between the source and
the observer. This phenomenon is called the Doppler effect.

Resting membrane potential, Action potential and Membrane potential

Neurons (nerve cells) send messages electrochemically. This means that chemicals cause an electrical
signal. Chemicals in the body are "electrically-charged" -- when they have an electrical charge, they are
called ions. The important ions in the nervous system are sodium and potassium (both have 1 positive
charge, +), calcium (has 2 positive charges, ++) and chloride (has a negative charge, -). There are also
some negatively charged protein molecules. It is also important to remember that nerve cells are
surrounded by a membrane that allows some ions to pass through and blocks the passage of other ions.
This type of membrane is called semi-permeable.

Resting membrane potential; A neuron is at rest when it is not sending an electrical signal. During this
time, the inside of the neuron is negative relative to the outside. Although the concentrations of the
different ions attempt to balance out on both sides of the membrane, they cannot because the cell
membrane allows only some ions to pass through channels (ion channels). At rest, potassium ions (K+)
can cross through the membrane easily. Also at rest, chloride ions (Cl-) and sodium ions (Na+) have a
more difficult time crossing. The negatively charged protein molecules (A-) inside the neuron cannot
cross the membrane. In addition to these selective ion channels, there is a pump that uses energy to
move three sodium ions out of the neuron for every two potassium ions it puts in. Finally, when all these
forces balance out, and the difference in the voltage between the inside and outside of the neuron is
measured, you have the resting potential. The resting membrane potential of a neuron is about -70 mV
(mV=millivolt) - this means that the inside of the neuron is 70 mV less than the outside. At rest, there
are relatively more sodium ions outside the neuron and more potassium ions inside that neuron.

An Action potential occurs when a neuron sends information down an axon (an impulse). The action
potential is an explosion of electrical activity that is created by a depolarizing current. This means that
some event (a stimulus) causes the resting potential to move toward 0 mV. When the depolarization
reaches about -55 mV a neuron will fire an action potential. This is the threshold. If the neuron does not
reach this critical threshold level, then no action potential will fire. Also, when the threshold level is
reached, an action potential of a fixed sized will always fire...for any given neuron, the size of the action
potential is always the same. There are no big or small action potentials in one nerve cell - all action
potentials are the same size. Therefore, the neuron either does not reach the threshold or a full action
potential is fired - this is the "ALL OR NONE" principle.

Action potentials are caused when different ions cross the neuron membrane. A stimulus first causes
sodium channels to open. Because there are many more sodium ions on the outside, and the inside of
the neuron is negative relative to the outside, sodium ions rush into the neuron. Remember, sodium has
a positive charge, so the neuron becomes more positive and becomes depolarized. It takes longer for
potassium channels to open. When they do open, potassium rushes out of the cell, reversing the
depolarization. Also at about this time, sodium channels start to close. This causes the action potential
to go back toward -70 mV (a repolarization). The action potential actually goes past -70 mV (a
hyperpolarization) because the potassium channels stay open a bit too long. Gradually, the ion
concentrations go back to resting levels and the cell returns to -70 mV.

Membrane potential; is the difference in electrical charge between the inside and the outside of the
neuron (nerve cell).

Diffusion and Osmosis

Diffusion; is defined as the movement of individual molecules of a substance through a

semipermeable barrier from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. If a
drop of colored solution is introduced into a still liquid, we observe that the color spreads gradually
throughout the volume of the liquid. The molecules of color spread from the region of high
concentration (of the initially introduced drop) to regions of lower concentration. This process is called
diffusion (free diffusion). The rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to the size of the molecules. This
means that the smaller the size of the molecule, the higher the rate of diffusion is. Diffusion is the
main mechanism for the delivery of oxygen and nutrients into cells and for the elimination of waste
products from cells. On a largescale, diffusive motion is relatively slow (it may take hours for the colored
solution in our example to diffuse over a distance of a few centimeters), but on the small scale of tissue
cells, diffusive motion is fast enough to provide for the life function of cells. Diffusion is the direct
consequence of the random thermal motion of molecules. What has been discussed above has mostly
been Free diffusion and works provided that there are no barriers in the way. However, diffusion
through the cell membrane is different, as the membrane is semipermeable (carbon dioxide and oxygen
can diffuse directly over the membrane). So large molecules that are unable to pass through the pores
of the membrane, must be facilitated through the membrane via protein channels.

Osmosis; Is defined as the spontaneous passage or diffusion of water or other solvents through a
semipermeable membrane. Many membranes, for example, are permeable to water but do not pass
molecules dissolved in water. As a result water can enter the cell, but the components of the cell cannot
pass out of the cell. Such a one-way passage of water is called osmosis.

Blood flow, motion of fluids and viscosity of blood

Blood flow; • Blood flow means the quantity of blood that passes a given point in the circulation in a
given period of time.
• Ordinarily, blood flow is expressed in milliliters per minute or liters per minute, but it can be expressed
in milliliters per second or in any other units of flow and time.
• The overall blood flow in the total circulation of an adult person at rest is about 5000 ml/min. This is
called the cardiac output because it is the amount of blood pumped into the aorta by the heart each
minute.

The circulation is divided into the systemic circulation and the pulmonary circulation. Because the
systemic circulation supplies blood flow to all the tissues of the body except the lungs, it is also called
the greater circulation or peripheral circulation 1. Blood reaches the system from the left heart through
the aorta and returns to the heart through the venae cavae. In the circulatory system the gravitational
force plays a minor part in the production of the hydromotive force. 2. The blood stretches the elastic
blood vessels. As a result of the stretching the elastic vessels exert a force on the blood in the vessels.
Since the blood vessels have greater elasticity at one end of the tube system than at the other, there is a
pressure difference between the two ends. This pressure difference causes the blood flow. 3. When the
fluid is flowing in the tube system the pressure difference between the two ends decreases. The heart,
however, replaces this blood by its pump action.

Motion of fluids; Laminar and turbulent flow.

Laminar flow: Slow flow as it is found mostly in the human body is laminar. Turbulent flow is faster and
is found only in a few places in the body. In the case of laminar flow, the fluid moves in concentric
cylindrical layers that slide over each other. In a certain layer all the molecules of particles move with
the same speed, but the speed decreases in the layers further and further from the center.

Turbulent flow; In the case of turbulent flow, the flow is irregular and cross currents are produced
causing the molecules to collide with each other and with the walls of the tube. If the cross currents
become too violent, the flow will produce a murmur (abnormal sound). is Reynolds’ number and is the
measure of the tendency for turbulence to occur

Viscosity; Is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. A fluid with low viscosity flows easily because its
molecular makeup results in very little friction when it is in motion.
Friction that develops between adjacent layers as they slide over each other in laminar flow is called
viscosity, which is a quality of the fluid itself. In the case of a thick fluid, the layers slide over each other
with difficulty, and the viscosity is high. In thin fluids the opposite pertains. The viscosity of a fluid is
often compared with that of water at 20°C in which case one talks of relative viscosity. The greater the
viscosity, the less the flow in a vessel if all other factors are constant.

Forces of attraction between the molecules of a solid and a fluid are called adhesive forces. When a fluid
is flowing in a tube, the forces of adhesion between the tube and the outside fluid layer are so great that
this layer remains stationary. This means that the flow is retarded by the adhesive force. This is the
reason why the cross sectional area of the tube through which the fluid flows has influence on the
magnitude of the resistance.

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