Basic concept

Centre of gravity
The centre of gravity of a body is sometimes described as its balance point or that point about which a
body would balance without a tendency to rotate.

The line of gravity

The line of gravity (LOG) is a vertical line from the centre of gravity to the ground/surface the athlete
is on.

Principles of Stability

Base of Support (BOS)

The base of support means the area supported beneath the object.

The Centre of Gravity of the Human Body (COG) of the human body is an essential concept in
understanding human movement, balance, and stability.

Knowledge of the human body’s COG helps to design equipment and exercises that lessen the risk of
injury and improve overall balance and stability.

The gravitational force on a body Fg on a body effectively act at a single point, called Centre of
Gravity of the body.

Force: some influence, a “force,” was needed to keep a body moving at constant velocity. Similarly, a
body was thought to be in its “natural state” when it was at rest. For a body to
move with constant velocity, it seemingly had to be propelled in some way, by a push or a pull.
Otherwise, it would “naturally”stop moving.

The impact of forces: when two bodies collide during a very short time period, causing large impulsive
forces (impact of forces) to be exerted between the bodies. Common examples of impact are a hammer
striking a nail or a bat striking a ball. The line of impact is a line through the mass centres of the colliding
particles.

Force, Motion and Work

Force: (1) It is an external agent capable of changing a body's state of rest or motion.
(2) Newton, dyne

Newton’s First Law: If no net force acts on a body (F=0) , the body’s velocity
Cannot change; that is, the body cannot accelerate.

Newton’s Second Law: The net force on a body is equal to the product of the
body’s mass and its acceleration.

Newton’s Third Law: When two bodies interact, the forces on the bodies from each
Other are always equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

Uniform Circular Motion:

A particle is in uniform circular motion if it travels around a circle or a circular arc at constant (uniform)
speed. Although the speed does not vary, the particle is accelerating because the velocity changes in
direction.
 𝒗𝟐
a= 𝒓 (Centripetal acceleration)

𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓 (Periodic Time)
𝒗

Centripetal force:
A centripetal force accelerates a body by changing the direction of the body’s velocity without changing
the body’s speed.
𝑣2
𝐹=𝑚
𝑟

The term Centrifugal, means ‘away or out from the centre’. Centrifugal force is arising Fc, due to the body’s
tendency to maintain its state, which seems to act on the system moving in a circular path and is directed
radially away from the centre about which the system was rotating. As mentioned, it is a pseudo force and
thus does not exist in reality.

𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹𝑐 =
𝑟

Point of application of force: is the exact location at which a force is applied to a body. This point is
usually described by a set of coordinates and is represented graphically by the tip of the arrowhead. The
point of application is unique to each force.

Lever

A Lever is a simple machine consisting of one or more lever arms and a fulcrum. The purpose of a lever
is to make it easier to move a load, which is weight that needs to be moved. For a given load, the ratio of
the load (i.e., the force needed without the lever) to the force needed with the lever is called mechanical
advantage. A lever accomplishes this mechanical advantage by having a lever arm connected to the load
and a lever arm connected to the input force. This input force is called the effort.
Parts of the Lever
1. Lever Arms.
2. Fulcrum.
Lever arm

Torque Calculation

In the diagram, the angle is the angle <= 180 degrees between
the r and F vectors when they are drawn from the same origin.
The direction of the torque is given be the right hand rule,
which gives a vector out toward the reader in this case. Note
that the torque is maximum when the angle is 90 degrees.

Work

Work: The work done by a force acting on an object is equal to the magnitude of the force multiplied
by the distance moved in the direction of the force. Work has only magnitude and no direction. Hence,
work is a scalar quantity.
Definition: The product of magnitude of force and displacement in the direction of force.
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 × 𝑑
= 𝐹𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
=𝐹∙𝑑

𝒙𝟐
Work done by Variable Force: 𝑾 = ∫𝒙𝟏 𝑭𝒅𝒙

Unit of work: Joule Calorie

1 calorie= 4.186 Joule
The constant 4.186 is called mechanical equivalent of Heat
1Calourie= Amount of heat energy required to be given to 1g pure water to increase its temperature
from 14.5oC to 15.5oC

Kinetic Energy: The capacity of an object to do work, by virtue of its motion, is known as kinetic energy
of the object.
𝑊 =𝐹∙𝑑
 But
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 and 𝑣 2 − 𝑣0 2 = 2𝑎 ∙ 𝑑

𝟏 𝟏
𝑾=𝒎𝒗𝟐 − 𝒎𝒗𝟎 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
Work energy theorem: The work done by the resultant force on a body, is equal to the change in the
kinetic energy of the body.

Potential Energy: The capacity to do work or energy possessed by abody due to its position in a force
field or due to its configuration is called potential energy of the body/system.

Types of Energy
Some other types of energy are given below:
• Mechanical energy
• Mechanical wave energy
• Chemical energy
• Electric energy
• Magnetic energy
• Radiant energy
• Nuclear energy
• Ionization energy
• Elastic energy
• Gravitational energy
• Thermal energy
• Heat Energy

Unit: Newton-meter or Joule.

Power: Work done per unit time.

Unit of Power: Joule/S is also called Watt.
1 horse power= 746W

Kilowatt-hour: The work done at the rate of 1kilowatt in 1 hour.

The electric energy consumed in our homes is measured in kWh is popularly known as “Unit”.
1 Unit = 1kWh = 3.6×106 J

Collision:During collision between two objects, thetotal energy andtotal linear momentum ofthe
colliding bodies are conserved.
Elastic Collosion: Total kinetic energy before and after the collision is the same.
Inelastic Collision: Total kinetic energy is not conserved.

Friction:

Frictional forces are unavoidable in our daily lives. If we were not able to counteract them, they would
stop every moving object and bring to a halt every rotating shaft. About 20% of the gasoline used in an
automobile is needed to counteract friction in the engine and in the drive train. On the other hand, if
friction were totally absent, we could not get an utomobile to go anywhere, and we could not walk or
ride a bicycle.We could not hold a pencil, and, if we could, it would not write. Nails and screws would
be useless, woven cloth would fall apart, and knots would untie.
Friction force: A frictional force is the force on a body when the body slides or attempts to slide along
a surface. The force is always parallel to the surface and directed so as to oppose the sliding.

Static frictional force: The force is called the static frictional force when the bodies do not move.
Kinetic frictional force: The frictional force that opposes the motions called the kinetic frictional force.

Properties of Friction

Property 1.
If the body does not move, then the static frictional force fs and the component of F that is parallel to the
surface balance each other. They are equal in magnitude, and fs is directed opposite that component of F.

Property 2.
The magnitude of Fs has a maximum value Fs,max that is given by
fs,max = µs FN

where µs is the coefficient of static friction and FN is the magnitude of the normal force on the body
from the surface

Property 3.
If the body begins to slide along the surface, the magnitude of the frictional force rapidly decreases to a
value fk given by
fk = µkFN,
Where µk is the coefficient of kinetic friction. Thereafter, during the sliding, a kinetic frictional force
opposes the motion.
Microscopic View:
A friction force is in essence, the vector sum of many forces acting between the surface atoms of one body
and those of another body. If two highly polished and carefully cleaned metal surfaces are brought together
in a very good vacuum, they cannot be made to slide over each other. Because the surface are so smooth,
many atoms of one surface contact many atoms of the other surface, and the surface cold-weld together
instantly, forming a single piece of metal. Usually, however, this much atom to atom contact is not possible.
Even a highly polished metal surface is far from being flat on the atomic scale. Moreover the surface of
everyday object has layers of Oxides and other contaminants that reduce cold-welding.
When two ordinary surfaces are placed together, only the high points touch each other. The actual,
microscope contact, perhaps by a factor of 104. Nonetheless, many contact points do cold-weld together.
These welds produce static friction when an applied force attempts to slide the surfaces relative to each
other.
Pulleys – Types And Applications

Pulleys – Types and Applications are simple machines that have been used for thousands of years to help
lift heavy objects. They consist of a grooved wheel and a rope or cable that passes over it, allowing the user
to change the direction of the force required lifting the object. Pulleys have several Types and
Applications in daily life and the human system. Pulleys come in different styles and designs, but they all
have the same basic principle of operation. When force is applied to one end of the rope, the pulley rotates,
transmitting force to the other. Depending on the design of the pulley system, the power can be amplified,
reduced, or redirected.
In the human body, there are anatomic Pulleys formed by tendons and retinacula that help to maintain the
proper alignment of tendons and reduce friction as they move. These anatomic Pulleys play an essential
role in the appropriate functioning of the musculoskeletal system, allowing for efficient movement and
reducing wear and tear on the muscles and joints. There are two main Types of Pulleys: fixed Pulleys and
movable Pulleys. Fixed Pulleys are attached to a stationary object and do not move. They change the
direction of the force but do not provide mechanical advantage. On the other hand,
Movable Pulleys move along with the load being lifted, providing a mechanical advantage by reducing the
force needed to lift the load.
Pulleys – Types and Applications have several Applications in the human system, including
the movement of limbs, force amplification, joint stabilization, and weightlifting. Understanding the
different Types and Applications of Pulleys is essential for understanding their role in
the human body and designing effective exercise programs and medical interventions. Pulley systems are
commonly used in various applications, such as elevators, cranes, and construction equipment. They are
also used in everyday items such as window blinds, exercise equipment, and garage doors.
Pulleys in the Human System
In the human body, Pulleys are involved in the movement of muscles and tendons. These Pulleys, also
known as tendon sheaths, help to guide and stabilize the tendons as they move through the body.
The Pulleys – Types and Applications in the human body are located in areas such as the fingers, wrists,
and ankles. In these areas, the tendons pass through several Pulleys that keep them in place and prevent
them from popping out of position.
For example, the fingers have several Pulleys along the path of the flexor tendons that allow us to bend and
straighten our fingers. These Pulleys help to prevent the tendons from bowstringing (turning outward) as
we move our fingers. If the Pulleys are damaged or inflamed, it can lead to a condition called trigger finger,
where the finger becomes stuck in a bent position.
Similarly, the ankle joint has several Pulleys that guide the tendons of the foot and ankle muscles, allowing
us to move our feet and toes. Injuries to these Pulleys can lead to conditions such as ankle impingement or
tarsal tunnel syndrome.
Overall, Pulleys play an essential role in the movement and stability of the human body, and their proper
function is necessary for regular bodily activity.
Types of Pulleys
Types of pulleys are as follow:
• Fixed Pulleys,
• Movable Pulleys
• Anatomic pulleys and
• Compound pulleys.

Three types of pulleys

Fixed Pulleys:
Fixed Pulleys are stationary and do not move along with the tendon or muscle. They act as a stable anchor
point for the tendon and help change the applied force’s direction. Fixed Pulleys are commonly found at
the beginning and end of a muscle or tendon’s path, where they help to transmit the power generated by
force to the bone.
Fixed pulley illustration

Movable Pulleys:
Movable Pulleys move along with the tendon or muscle and are attached to the bone via ligaments. They
help to amplify the force generated by the power, making it easier to move a load. Movable Pulleys are
commonly found in the middle of a muscle or tendon’s path, where they help to increase the mechanical
advantage of the muscle.
Examples of movable Pulleys in the human system include the patella or kneecap, which acts as a pulley
for the quadriceps muscle, and the Pulleys in the fingers and wrist that guide the flexor and extensor
tendons.
Both fixed and movable Pulleys are essential in the human system, as they help to transmit force from
muscles to bones, allowing us to move and perform a wide range of activities.

Science experiment with Movable pulley illustration

Anatomic Pulleys:
Anatomic Pulleys are a type of Pulleys – Types and Applications found in the human body. They are
formed by fibrous tissue called retinacula, which hold tendons in place as they pass over bony prominences
or around joints. These Pulleys help to maintain the proper alignment of tendons as they move through
their range of motion, reducing friction and preventing excessive wear and tear.
The human body has several anatomic Pulleys, such as the Pulleys in the fingers, thumb, wrist, ankle, and
foot. For example, the flexor retinaculum in the wrist forms a pulley system for the hand’s tendons, allowing
for smooth and efficient movement of the fingers. In the foot, the plantar aponeurosis creates a pulley
system for the tendons, helping to maintain the foot’s arch and providing support during walking and
running.
Anatomic Pulleys part of Pulleys – Types and Applications are essential for the proper functioning of the
musculoskeletal system and can become damaged or disrupted due to injury or overuse. This can lead to
conditions such as tendonitis or trigger finger, which can cause pain and limited mobility. Treatment for
these conditions may include rest, physical therapy, and in some cases, surgical repair of the damaged
pulley system.

Compound Pulley
A compound pulley is a combination of fixed and moveable Pulleys. It offers direction change and force
reduction, making it machine efficient. The compound pulley comprises multiple Pulleys mounted on a
standard shaft or axle, with a single rope or cable passing through them all.
The moveable pulley is attached to the load in a compound pulley system, while the fixed Pulleys are
connected to a support structure. As the limitation is lifted, the moveable pulley moves up, reducing the
force required to lift the load. The direction of the force is also changed, allowing the load to be raised in a
different order than the applied force.

Compound pulley system

Compound Pulleys are commonly used in cranes, where heavy loads must be lifted to great heights. Using
a compound pulley system significantly reduces the force required to lift the load, making it easier and
more efficient to lift heavy loads. Compound Pulleys are also used in weightlifting machines to provide
resistance during exercise and in sailing to adjust the tension on the sails.
Compound Pulleys which are part of Pulleys – Types and Applications are handy machine that combines
the benefits of fixed and moveable Pulleys to provide a significant mechanical advantage, making it easier
to lift heavy loads and reduce the required force.
Examples of Fixed Pulley in the Human Body
Fixed Pulleys are stationary and act as a stable anchor point for the tendon or muscle. They change the
direction of the applied force and are commonly found at the beginning and end of a muscle or tendon’s
path, where they help to transmit the force generated by the muscle to the bone.
Examples Of Fixed Pulleys In The Human Body Include:
• Trochlea: The trochlea is a fixed pulley located in the elbow joint. It helps to change the direction of
the force generated by the biceps and triceps muscles, allowing us to bend and straighten our arms.
• Acetabulum: The acetabulum is a fixed pulley located in the hip joint. It helps to transmit the force
generated by the hip muscles to the femur bone, allowing us to move our legs and hips.
• Glenoid Cavity: The glenoid cavity is a fixed pulley located in the shoulder joint. It helps to transmit
the force generated by the rotator cuff muscles to the humerus bone, allowing us to move our arms and
shoulders.
• Patella: The patella, or kneecap, is a movable pulley in the knee joint. However, it also acts as a fixed
pulley for the quadriceps muscle. It helps to change the direction of the force generated by the
quadriceps muscle, allowing us to straighten our legs.
Overall, fixed Pulleys which are part of Pulleys – Types and Applications play an essential role in
the human body by transmitting the force generated by muscles to the bones, allowing us to move and
perform a wide range of activities.
Examples of Moveable Pulley in the Human Body
Movable Pulleys move along with the tendon or muscle and are attached to the bone via ligaments. They
help to amplify the force generated by the muscle, making it easier to move a load. Movable Pulleys are
commonly found in the middle of a muscle or tendon’s path, where they help to increase the mechanical
advantage of the muscle.
Examples of Movable Pulleys
• Patella (Kneecap): The patella is a movable pulley in the knee joint. It is attached to the quadriceps
tendon and helps increase the quadriceps muscle’s mechanical advantage. This makes it easier to extend
the leg and straighten the knee.
• Flexor Retinaculum: The flexor retinaculum is a band of connective tissue in the wrist. It acts as a
movable pulley for the flexor tendons of the hand, helping to increase the mechanical advantage of these
muscles and making it easier to grip objects.
• Extensor Hood: The extensor hood is a fibrous structure at the top of the fingers. It acts as a movable
pulley for the extensor tendons of the hand, helping to increase the mechanical advantage of these
muscles and making it easier to extend the fingers.
• Calcaneal Tendon (Achilles Tendon): The calcaneal tendon, also known as the Achilles tendon, is a
movable pulley in the ankle joint. It is attached to the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles. It helps to
increase the mechanical advantage of these muscles, making it easier to push off the ground and lift the
heel during walking, running, and jumping.
Overall, movable Pulleys play an essential role in the human body by helping to amplify the force
generated by muscles, making it easier to move and perform a wide range of activities.
Examples of Anatomic Pulleys in the Human Body
There are several anatomic Pulleys in the human body, formed by fibrous tissue called retinacula, which
hold tendons in place as they pass over bony prominences or around joints. Here are some examples of
anatomic Pulleys in the human body:
• Flexor Retinaculum: The flexor retinaculum is a band of connective tissue in the wrist. It acts as an
anatomic pulley for the flexor tendons of the hand, helping to maintain their proper alignment and
reducing friction as they pass through the carpal tunnel.
• Patellar Retinaculum: A patellar retinaculum is a group of fibrous bands that attach to the patella
(kneecap) and help to stabilize the patellar tendon. They form an anatomic pulley system that allows the
patellar tendon to move smoothly as the knee is bent and straightened.
• Pulleys of the Fingers: The fingers have several anatomic Pulleys that hold the flexor tendons in place
as they pass over the bones of the hand. These Pulleys help to maintain the proper alignment of the
tendons, reducing friction and allowing for smooth movement of the fingers.
• Plantar Aponeurosis: Plantar aponeurosis is a thick band of connective tissue that runs along the
bottom of the foot, helping to maintain the arch of the foot and providing support during walking and
running. It also forms an anatomic pulley system for the foot’s tendons, helping keep their proper
alignment and reducing friction as they move.
Overall, anatomic Pulleys which are part of Pulleys – Types and Applications play an essential role in
the proper functioning of the musculoskeletal system, and disruption of these Pulleys can lead to conditions
such as tendonitis or trigger finger.
Examples of Compound Pulleys in the Human Body
There are no examples of compound Pulleys in the human body, as the musculoskeletal system does not
use multiple Pulleys mounted on a standard shaft or axle. However, the human body does use multiple
anatomic Pulleys, which can work together to create a mechanical advantage similar to a compound pulley
system.
For example, in the fingers, multiple anatomic Pulleys are formed by the retinaculum holding the tendons
close to the bone. These Pulleys work together to create a mechanical advantage, allowing the finger to
bend and straighten with less force required from the muscles.
Similarly, in the knee joint, there are anatomic Pulleys formed by the patellar tendon and the retinaculum
that helps maintain the joint’s proper alignment and reduce friction as the knee moves. These
anatomic Pulleys create a mechanical advantage, reducing the force required to bend and straighten the
knee joint.
While these anatomic Pulleys are not technically compound, they work together to create a mechanical
advantage similar to a compound pulley system, making movement in the body more efficient and
reducing the force required to move the joints.
Applications of Pulleys in the Human System
Pulleys have several essential Applications in the human body, especially the musculoskeletal system.
Here are some Applications of Pulleys in the human system:
• Movement of Limbs: The pulley systems formed by tendons and retinacula allow for
efficient movement of the limbs, reducing friction and wear and tear on the muscles and joints. The
fingers, wrist, ankle, and foot Pulleys are essential for fine motor control and precise movements.
• Force Amplification: Pulleys can also amplify the force generated by muscles. For example, the
masseter muscle uses a pulley system in the jaw to increase the force generated during chewing,
allowing for more efficient mastication.
• Joint Stabilization: Anatomic Pulleys help to stabilize joints by maintaining the proper alignment of
tendons and reducing friction as they move. For example, the patellar retinaculum in the knee stabilizes
the patellar tendon and reduces the risk of dislocation.
• Weightlifting: Pulleys are also used in weightlifting machines to provide resistance during exercise.
The Pulleys can be adjusted to vary the amount of weight lifted and target specific muscle groups.
• Proper Functioning of the Musculoskeletal System: The human body has several
anatomic Pulleys formed by tendons and retinacula that help to maintain the appropriate alignment of
tendons and reduce friction as they move. Understanding these Pulleys is crucial for maintaining the
proper functioning of the musculoskeletal system, ensuring efficient movement, and reducing wear and
tear on the muscles and joints.
• Exercise and Rehabilitation: Pulleys are used in weightlifting machines to provide resistance during
exercise. Understanding the different Types of Pulleys and their Applications is essential for
designing effective exercise programs and rehabilitation protocols.
• Medical Interventions: Understanding Pulleys is also essential in medical interventions, such as
surgeries or joint replacements. Surgeons may need to repair or reconstruct anatomic Pulleys to restore
proper joint function, and knowledge of Pulleys is essential for designing and implementing these
interventions.
• Engineering and Design: Pulleys are used in various machines and equipment, from cranes to
elevators to bicycles. Understanding the different Types and Applications of Pulleys is necessary for
designing and building efficient and effective devices.
In summary, understanding Pulleys are necessary for maintaining the proper functioning of the
musculoskeletal system, designing effective exercise programs and rehabilitation protocols, implementing
medical interventions, and engineering and designing machines and equipment.
Overall, Pulleys – Types and Applications play an essential role in the proper functioning of the
musculoskeletal system, allowing for efficient movement, force amplification, joint stabilization, and
exercise.
SUMMARY
Pulleys are simple machines with a grooved wheel and a rope or cable that passes over it. They have
several Types and Applications in the human system.
Types of Pulleys:
Fixed Pulleys: The wheel is fixed in place and only changes the direction of the force.
Moveable Pulleys: The wheel is attached to the object being moved and reduces the force required to lift
it.
Anatomic pulleys:
Compound Pulleys: A combination of fixed and moveable Pulleys offers direction change and force
reduction.
Applications of Pulleys in the Human System:
Movement of limbs, providing efficient training, and reducing friction and wear and tear on the muscles
and joints.
Force amplification, particularly in the jaw muscles, for more efficient chewing.
Joint stabilization by maintaining the proper alignment of tendons and reducing friction as they move.
Weightlifting, in which Pulleys are used in weightlifting machines to provide resistance during exercise.
In addition, there are anatomic Pulleys formed by tendons and retinacula in the human body, particularly
in the fingers, wrist, ankle, and foot, which play a vital role in the proper functioning of the musculoskeletal
system.

Elastic Behavior Of Solids:

.
Looking at the elasticity at the atomic level, solids are made of atoms (or molecules). They are
surrounded by other such atoms, which are held in a state of equilibrium by inter atomic forces. When
an external force is applied, these particles are displaced, resulting in the deformation of the solid. When
the application of the deforming force is stopped, inter atomic forces drive the atoms to regain their state
of equilibrium.
All materials have an elastic limit beyond which, if continuous stress is applied, they will start losing
their ability to exhibit perfect elastic behaviour and start deforming. In contrast, plastic deformation is
the non-reversible deformation of solid materials on the application of forces.
Important Points on Elastic Behaviour of Solids
• An elastic body is one that regains its original shape and size when deforming forces are removed
• A plastic body is one that succumbs to deforming forces (however small) and cannot return to its
original shape and size

Stress: External applied force/ Unit area

Unit : Newton/ m2 , Pascal

As the magnitude is so small, for many of the cases it is used as (Giga Pascal) GPa, (Mega Pascal) MPa or
(Kilo Pascal) Kpa

Strain: Change in object’s length relative to its original un- stress length.
𝛥𝐿
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝐿

Elastic Regime:
Every solid material has a range of stress for which, when that applied stress is removed,the object
returns to its original shape, and all of the work done to it is return when object stress is removed.
The range of deformation for which the object will return to its original shape is called the elastic
regime. This physical characteristic of a material is referred as its elasticity

Yield & Plastic Regime

For most materials there is a point beyond which increasing the applied stress begins to change the
microscopic structure of the material. Molecular bonds are rearrange or broken. In materials where it is
possible, pieces shift past each other. This is called yield point. Past the point of yield, when the applied
stress is released, the object does not return to its original shape. This deformation is characterized as being
plastic. The physical characteristic of a material that quantifies how easy it is to deform in this way is called
its plasticity.

What is Viscosity?
Most fluids offer some resistance to motion, and we call this resistance “viscosity.” Viscosity arises
when there is relative motion between layers of the fluid. More precisely, it measures resistance to
flow arising due to the internal friction between the fluid layers as they slip past one another when
fluid flows. Viscosity can also be thought of as a measure of a fluid’s thickness or its resistance to
objects passing through it.
A fluid with large viscosity resists motion because its strong intermolecular forces give it a lot of
internal friction, resisting the movement of layers past one another. On the contrary, a fluid with
low viscosity flows easily because its molecular makeup results in very little friction when it is in
motion. Gases also exhibit viscosity, but it is harder to notice in ordinary circumstances.
Viscosity Definition
The definition of viscosity is as follows:
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.
The SI unit of viscosity is poiseiulle (PI). Its other units are newton-second per square metre (N s
m-2) or pascal-second (Pa s.) The dimensional formula of viscosity is [ML-1T-1].
The viscosity of liquids decreases rapidly with an increase in temperature, and the viscosity of gases
increases with an increase in temperature. Thus, upon heating, liquids flow more easily, whereas
gases flow more slowly. Also, viscosity does not change as the amount of matter changes, therefore
it is an intensive property.
Why does Water flow faster than Honey?

Viscosity Formula
Viscosity is measured in terms of a ratio of shearing stress to the velocity gradient in a fluid. If a
sphere is dropped into a fluid, the viscosity can be determined using the following formula:
 2𝑔𝑎2 (∆𝜌)
𝜂=
9𝑣

Where ∆ρ is the density difference between fluid and sphere tested, a is the radius of the sphere, g is
the acceleration due to gravity and v is the velocity of the sphere.

Viscosity Types
Viscosity is the measure of fluid’s friction to its flow. There are two ways to measure the fluid’s
viscosity as follows:
• Dynamic Viscosity (Absolute Viscosity)
• Kinematic Viscosity
One way is to measure the fluid’s resistance to flow when an external force is applied. This is known
as Dynamic Viscosity. And the other way is to measure the resistive flow of a fluid under the weight
of gravity. We call this measure of fluid viscosity kinematic viscosity.
Many are confused between the two viscosity measures and consider them to be one and the same.
In reality, they have significant differences between them. For a few applications, kinematic
viscosity is more useful than absolute or dynamic viscosity.
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids
Temperature and pressure affect the viscosity of a fluid. The viscosity of liquids increases rapidly
with an increase in temperature. On increasing pressure viscosity of liquid molecules increases due
to the increase in the resistance to the flow of liquid.
If the viscosity does not change with pressure, we describe something as being a Newtonian fluid.
And, if the viscosity does change as stress or temperature changes, we describe something as being
a non-Newtonian fluid. Water is an example of Newtonian fluid and toothpaste is an example of
Non-Newtonian fluid.

Viscosity Measurement
The elementary way of measuring viscosity is to allow a sphere, such as a metal ball, to drop through
a fluid and time the fall of the metal ball. The slower the sphere falls, the greater the viscosity. But,
a more accurate measure of viscosity is given by the viscometer.
U-Tube Viscometer
U-tube viscometers are also known as glass capillary viscometers or Ostwald viscometers.
A viscometer consists of two reservoir bulbs and a capillary tube. In one arm of the U is the capillary,
a vertical section of a precise narrow bore. Above, which is a bulb, and with it is another bulb lower
down on the other arm, as shown in the image.

In use, the upper bulb draws the liquid by suction, and then the liquid is made to flow down through
the capillary into the lower bulb. Two marks (one above and one below the upper bulb) indicate a
known volume. The time taken for the liquid to pass between these marks is proportional to the
kinematic viscosity.
Most commercial units are provided with a conversion factor. The time taken by the test liquid to
flow between two points is measured. By multiplying the time measured by the factor of the
viscometer, the kinematic viscosity is obtained.
Streamline Flow
We have observed that water flowing from is a tap has a smooth texture when the flow rate is low,
but as the flow rate is increased, after reaching a certain value, voids and disturbances can be seen
in. In such a situation, if we introduce a stream of ink when the flow is smooth, the ink flows without
mixing with the other layers whereas if it is introduced in the case of turbulent flow, we can see the
mixing of the layer of ink with the other layers of water as shown in the figure below. In this section,
we will learn about the first kind, i.e., the streamline or the laminar flow.

What is Turbulent Flow?

In the brief introduction to the meaning of turbulent flow, we understand that turbulent water or
fluid turbulence is an irregular fluctuation or mixing of two or more liquids.
Here, the fluid movement is in such a way that at every point, the speed of the liquid undergoes
continuous variations in both magnitude and direction.
So, the rough movement of the fluid at every point is the cause of these fluctuations, that’s why we
call the water turbulent water.

Effect of temperature and pressure on viscosity

The shear viscosity of the liquids that are used as lubricants increases with increasing pressure and
decreases with increasing temperature.

What is the Archimedes’ Principle?

Archimedes’ principle states that:
“The upward buoyant force that is exerted on a body immersed in a fluid, whether partially
or fully submerged, is equal to the weight of the fluid that the body displaces and acts in the
upward direction at the centre of mass of the displaced fluid”.
The value of thrust force is given by the Archimedes law which Archimedes of Syracuse of Greece
discovered. When an object is partially or fully immersed in a liquid, the apparent loss of weight is
equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by it.

Archimedes’ Principle Explanation

If you look at the figure, the weight due to gravity is opposed by the thrust provided by the fluid.
The object inside the liquid only feels the total force acting on it as the weight. Because the actual is
decreased by the liquid’s upthrust, the object feels as though its weight is reduced. The apparent
weight is thus given by:
Apparent weight= Weight of object (in the air) – Thrust force (buoyancy)
Archimedes’ principle tells us that the weight loss is equal to the weight of liquid the object
displaces.
Archimedes’ Principle Formula
In simple form, the Archimedes law states that the buoyant force on an object is equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced by the object. Mathematically written as:
Fb = ρ x g x V
Where Fb is the buoyant force, ρ is the density of the fluid, V is the submerged volume, and g is the
acceleration due to gravity.
Archimedes’ Principle Derivation
We know that the density is defined as
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑀)
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒(𝑉)
Therefore, the mass of the displaced liquid can be written as follows:

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑀) = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝜌)𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒(𝑉)
Now, the weight of the displaced liquid can be calculated as follows:
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑔 = 𝜌 × 𝑉 × 𝑔
From Archimedes’ principle, we know that the apparent loss of weight is equal to the weight of the
water displaced therefore the thrust force is given by the following equation:
𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝜌 × 𝑉 × 𝑔

Where ρ is the density of the liquid, V is the volume of liquid displaced and g is the acceleration
due to gravity. The thrust force is also called the buoyant force because it is responsible for objects
floating. Thus, this equation is also called the law of buoyancy.

law of floatation:
The weight of the liquid displaced by its immersed part is equal to the total weight of the body.
Body floats on a liquid.

What is Hydrostatic Pressure?

Hydrostatic pressure is defined as
“The pressure exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at any point of time due to the force of gravity”.
Hydrostatic pressure is proportional to the depth measured from the surface as the weight of the
fluid increases when a downward force is applied.
The fluid pressure can be caused by gravity, acceleration or forces when in a closed container.
Consider a layer of water from the top of the bottle. There is the pressure exerted by the layer of
water acting on the sides of the bottle. As we move down from the top of the bottle to the bottom,
the pressure exerted by the top layer on the bottom adds up. This phenomenon is responsible for
more pressure at the bottom of the container.

Hydrostatic Pressure Formula

Following is the formula used to calculate the hydrostatic pressure:
 p = ρgh
where,
• p is the pressure exerted by the liquid in N.m-2 or Pa
• ρ is the density of the liquid in kg.m-3, slugs.ft-3
• g is the acceleration due to gravity taken as 9.81m.s -2
• h is the height of the fluid column in m
Hydrostatic Pressure Vs Depth of Water
Following is the table explaining how the depth of water value changes with the pressure:
Depth of water Pressure
ft m Pa bar
1 0.30 2943 0.03
5 1.52 14911.2 0.15
10 3.05 29920.5 0.30
15 4.57 44831.7 0.45
Hydrostatic Pressure Derivation
Consider a column of water with the total volume V and A as the base surface area.
The weight of the water is:
W = mg
We know that the mass of water is just the density of water multiplied by the volume X. Therefore,
W = ρVg
Volume is the product of surface area and height. Therefore,
V = Ah
W =ρAhg

Using the formula of pressure:

𝜌𝐴ℎ𝑔
𝑝=
𝐴

p = ρhg

What is Pascal’s Law?

According to Pascal’s Law,

“The external static pressure applied on a confined liquid is distributed or transmitted evenly
throughout the liquid in all directions”.
The static pressure acts at right angles to any surface in contact with the fluid. Pascal also found that
the pressure at a point for a static fluid would be the same across all planes passing through that
point in that fluid. Pascal’s law is also known as Pascal’s principle or principle of transmission
of fluid pressure. In 1653, Pascal law was stated by French mathematician Blaise Pascal.
 Pascal Law Formula
Following is the formula of Pascal law:
F = PA
Where F is the force applied, P is the pressure transmitted, and A is the cross-sectional area.
Applications of Pascal’s Law
• Hydraulic Lift: The image you saw at the beginning of this article is a simple line diagram of a
hydraulic lift. This is the principle of the working of hydraulic lift. It works based on the principle
of equal pressure transmission throughout a fluid (Pascal’s Law).
• The construction is such that a narrow cylinder (in this case A) is connected to a wider cylinder
(in this case B). They are fitted with airtight pistons on either end. The inside of the cylinders is
filled with fluid that cannot be compressed.
• Pressure applied at piston A is transmitted equally to piston B without diminishing the use of the
fluid that cannot be compressed. Thus, piston B effectively serves as a platform to lift heavy
objects like big machines or vehicles. A few more applications include a hydraulic jack and
hydraulic press, and forced amplification is used in the braking system of most cars

What is Surface Tension?

According to the definition of surface tension, it is the phenomenon that occurs when the surface of
a liquid is in contact with another phase (it can be a liquid as well). Liquids tend to acquire the least
surface area possible. The surface of the liquid behaves like an elastic sheet.
“Surface tension is the tension of the surface film of a liquid caused by the attraction of the
particles in the surface layer by the bulk of the liquid, which tends to minimise surface area”.
Surface tension not only depends upon the forces of attraction between the particles within the given
liquid but also on the forces of attraction of solid, liquid or gas in contact with it. The energy
responsible for the phenomenon of surface tension may be thought of as approximately equivalent
to the work or energy required to remove the surface layer of molecules in a unit area.
Surface tension is typically measured in dynes/cm, the force in dynes is required to break a film of
length 1 cm.
Given below in a table is the surface tension of various liquids:
Liquid Surface Tension (N/m)
Hydrogen 2.4
Helium 0.16
Water 0.072
Ethanol 22.0
Sodium Chloride 114

Surface tension definition lets us know that the surface tension mainly depends upon the forces of
attraction between the particles within the given liquid and also upon the gas, solid, or liquid in
contact with it.
If there is a small leaf or a paper clip placed on the surface of a glass of water, what causes it
to float over it

What Causes Surface Tension?

Intermolecular forces such as Van der Waals force, draw the liquid particles together. Along the
surface, the particles are pulled toward the rest of the liquid. Surface tension is defined as,
 The ratio of the surface force F to the length L along which the force acts.
Mathematically, surface tension can be expressed as follows:
T=F/L
Where,
• F is the force per unit length
• L is the length in which force act
• T is the surface tension of the liquid
What is the Unit of Surface Tension?
The SI unit of Surface Tension is Newton per Meter or N/m. Check other units in the table
provided below.
SI Unit N/m
CGS Unit dyn/cm
Dimension of Surface Tension
As we know, surface tension is given by the formula,
Surface tension = F/L
We know that F = ma, substituting the value in the equation, we get
=ma/L
Equating the fundamental quantities into the equation, we get
=MLT-2L-1
Solving further, we get
=MT-2
Hence, the dimensional formula of surface tension is MT-2.

Examples of Surface Tension

Water striders, which are small insects, can walk on water as their weight is considerably less to
penetrate the water surface. Like this, there are various examples of surface tension which are found
in nature. Some cases are provided below:
• Insects walking on water
• Floating a needle on the surface of the water.
• Rainproof tent materials where the surface tension of water will bridge the pores in the tent
material
• Clinical test for jaundice
• Surface tension disinfectants (disinfectants are solutions of low surface tension).
• Cleaning of clothes by soaps and detergents which lowers the surface tension of the water
• Washing with cold water
• Round bubbles where the surface tension of water provides the wall tension for the formation of
water bubbles.
• This phenomenon is also responsible for the shape of liquid droplets.

What are the Forces on a Liquid Drop?

You might have observed in your daily life and wondered that the free surface of water or any liquid
becomes curved when it is in contact with a solid. This happens because of a phenomenon called
surface tension. It occurs because of attraction between the molecules of the liquid. Generally, these
attractive forces tend to cancel out each other between molecules. But, for the molecules on the
surface, these forces don’t cancel out which results in surface tension.

Surface tension exists for every surface of a liquid and this force gives rise to an energy called
surface energy. So, every liquid surface possesses some surface energy of its own. Here dominates
a well-established fact that every system in nature tends to be in the lowest energy state. So a liquid
surface tends to have the least surface energy which directly means the least surface area. So, the
liquid drops are spherical. These spherical liquid drops have surface tension. This very surface
tension generates an excess pressure inside the drop. In this article, we shall be discussing this excess
pressure inside a liquid drop and bubble

Excess Pressure inside a Liquid Drop

When there is a curved surface of a liquid, every molecule on the surface will experience a force
that is along the tangent to that surface. When these force vectors are added, the horizontal
components cancel out each other and the vertical components add up. So, the resultant force is
normal to the surface. The pressure on the concave side of the curve will be greater than the pressure
on the convex side because the pressure on the concave side must balance out the pressure on the
convex side and the net inward force generated due to surface tension as well.

Excess Pressure inside a Liquid Drop Derivation

Pressure on a Liquid Drop

Let us derive an expression for excess pressure inside a liquid drop. A spherical drop is shown in
the figure above. Let P be pressure inside the drop and P0 be the outside pressure. Considering that
the drop is spherical in shape, the inside pressure P will be greater than the outside pressure P0. So,
the excess pressure inside the liquid drop will be P - P0 .

Due to that pressure, let us assume the radius of drop increases from 𝑟 𝑟 + ∆𝑟. Note that Δr <<< r
so, the pressure inside the drop almost remains the same.

Initial surface area of the drop 𝐴1 = 4𝜋𝑟 2

Final surface area of the drop𝐴2 = 4𝜋(𝑟 + ∆𝑟)2

Expanding, 𝐴2 = 4𝜋(𝑟 2 + 2𝑟∆𝑟 + ∆𝑟 2 )

We can neglect ∆𝑟 2 as it is very small as compared to the rest.

So, Now, 𝐴2 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 + 8𝜋𝑟∆𝑟

Work done in increasing the surface area is the energy that will be converted to surface energy.
So, 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑇𝑑𝐴 = 𝑇(8𝜋𝑟∆𝑟) … (1)

We know that work done also equals to the product of force F which caused an increase in surface
area with the displacement ∆𝑟 of the surface
So, 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹∆𝑟 … (2)

The excess force is given by, (excess pressure X surface area)

 So, 𝐹 = (𝑃′ − 𝑃0 )4𝜋𝑟 2 … (3)

Equating (1) and (2),

𝑇(8𝜋𝑟∆𝑟) = 𝐹𝛥𝑟

𝑇(8𝜋𝑟∆𝑟) = (𝑃′ − 𝑃0 )4𝜋𝑟 2 ∆𝑟

2𝑇
𝑃′ − 𝑃0 =
𝑅

This is the expression for excess pressure inside a liquid drop. We can use the above expression to
find the excess pressure inside a liquid drop

Excess Pressure inside a Soap Bubble

Unlike a liquid drop, a soap bubble has two surfaces with one being on the outside of the bubble
and one inside the bubble. The reason behind the consideration of two surfaces in a soap bubble is
that, unlike a liquid drop, there is air trapped inside the bubble, creating surface tension on two
surfaces. As there are two surfaces, the excess pressure will also be doubled as the surface area is
2𝑇
doubled. So, for a soap bubble, excess pressure 𝑃 − 𝑃0 = 2𝑋( 𝑅 )

Wave: The motion of the disturbance in the Medium ( or in free space0 is called wave .

Amplitude of a wave: amplitude of oscillation of Particles of the medium is called the amplitude of a
wave.

Wavelength: the linear distance between any two points having phase difference of 180 o is called the
wavelength of the wave.

Frequency of wave: Number of oscillation of the particles of the wave per unit time.

Mechanical wave: The waves which require elastic medium for their transmission are called mechanical
waves.
Transverse waves: Waves in which the oscillations of the particles of waves are in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
Longitudinal Waves: Waves in which the oscillations of the particles of waves are in a direction along
the direction of wave propagation.
Principle of Superposition: When particle of medium comes under the influence of two or more waves
simultaneously, its net displacement is the vector sum of displacement that could occur under the
influence of individual waves.
Stationary Waves: When two waves having same amplitude and frequency and travelling in mutual
opposite directions are supposed the resultant wave formed loses the proparty of propagation, such a
wave is called a stationary wave.
Beat: The phenomenon of the loudness of sound becoming maximum periodically due to superposition
of two sound waves of equal amplitude and slightly different frequencies is called the beats
Number of beats produced in unit time = f1 - f2
Doppler Effect: Whenever there is a relative motion between a source of sound and a listener with
respect to the medium in which the waves are propagating the frequency of sound experienced by the
listener is different from that which is emitted by the source. This phenomenon is called Doppler effect
𝒗±𝒗
Frequency listened by the listener 𝒇𝑳 = 𝒗 ± 𝒗𝑳 𝒇𝑺
𝑺
Where 𝑣 = velocity of sound, 𝑣𝐿 = velocity of a listener,
 𝑣𝑆 = velocity of a source, 𝑓𝑆 = frequency of sound emitted by the source.

Classification of Longitudinal waves:

(1) Infra Sound: Sound frequency below 20Hz..
(2) Audible sound: Sound frequency between 20Hz to 20KHZ.
(3) Ultra Sound: Sound frequency above 20KHZ.

Ultra Sound

Magnetostriction effect: When a ferromagnetic rod like iron or nickel is placed in a magnetic field
parallel to its length, the rod experiences a small change in its length. This is called magnetostricion
effect.
Piezoelectric Effect: If mechanical pressure is applied to one pair of opposite faces of certain crystals
like quartz, equal and opposite electrical charges appear across its other faces. This is called as
piezoelectric effect.
Inverse Piezoelectric Effect: If an electric field is applied to one pair of faces, the corresponding
changes in the dimensions of the other pair of faces of the crystal are produced. This is known as Inverse
Piezoelectric effect or electrostriction.

Ultrasound production 𝑷 𝒀
Frequency of Oscillation 𝒇 = 𝟐𝒕 √𝝆

Where Y= is Young Modulus of crystal.

𝜌 = is density of the crystal
t = Thickness of piezoelectric crystal

Quartz crystals are made of Silicon and Oxygen atoms in a repeating pattern.

Proparties of Ultrasound:
• Ultrasonic waves cannot move in a vacuum.
• Ultrasonic waves constitute high-frequency, short-wavelength sound waves.
• These waves travel at the same velocity as sound in a particular medium.
• Throughout homogenous media, their velocity remains constant.
• They produce intense heat when they are passed through objects.
Ultrasound for Physiotherapy:
Ultrasound therapy also helps in increasing the blood flow to enhance the healing process not only
of muscles but also joints and ligaments. Ultrasound physiotherapy treatment is also used to soften
scar tissue and can do wonders in management of the Knee Osteoarthritis (OA).

𝑴𝟏 𝑴𝟐
Universal law of Gravity: 𝒇 = 𝑮 G= 6.67 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝑵. 𝒎𝟐 /𝑲𝒈𝟐
𝒓𝟐
 𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝒄𝟐
Coulomb’s Law: 𝑭 = 𝟒𝝅€𝟎 €𝟎 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝑵.𝒎𝟐
𝒓𝟐

𝝁𝟎 𝒊𝒅𝒍𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
Biot–Savart law 𝒅𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟔𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝑻. 𝒎/𝑨
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐

Ampere’s law ∮ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒍 = 𝝁𝟎 . 𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅

𝒅𝝋𝑩
Faraday’s Law of Induction 𝒆𝒎𝒇 = − 𝝋𝑩 is magnetic flux
𝒅𝒕

Lenz’s Law: An induced current has a direction such that the magnetic field due to the current opposes
the change in the magnetic flux that induces the current. The induced emf has the same direction as the
induced current.

Lorentz force: 𝐹 = 𝑞(𝐸 + 𝑣 × 𝐵)

Capacitor: A passive electronic component that stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field.

Faraday law: Changing Magnetic field induces Electric field.

Symmetrically
Maxwell proposed
Changing Electric field induces Magnetic field.

∮ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒍 = 𝝁𝟎 (𝒊 + 𝒊𝑫 )

Where 𝑖𝐷 is displacement current

𝟏 𝑄
𝒊𝑫 =
€𝟎 𝐴

When capacitor is getting charged

𝒅𝑬 𝟏 𝑑𝑄 1
= = 𝑖
𝒅𝒕 €𝟎𝑨 𝑑𝑡 €𝟎𝑨

𝒅𝑬
€𝟎 = 𝒊𝑫
𝒅𝒕

∮ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒍 = 𝝁𝟎 (𝒊 + 𝒊𝑫 )
Changing Magnetic Field produce electric field and Changing Electric field produce magnetic field.

LASER
LASER (Light Amplification of Stimulated Emission of Radiation)
Requisite Background:
• Atomic Energy levels. • Half life of Exited state.
• Ground state. • Spontaneous Emission
• Exited State. • Stimulated Emission

.
 •

Properties
1. Monochromatic 2. No Divergence. 3. Coherence.

Requirements for production of LASER:

1. Metastable state.
2. Population Inversion.
3. Optical Pumping.
4. Stimulated Emission.

Use of LASER for Physiotherapy treatment.

Laser therapy offers the option for anti-inflammation, anti-pain, accelerated tissue repair, cell
growth, improved vascular activity, and increased metabolic activity. Over 4,000 clinical studies
across the globe have studied the effectiveness of laser therapy and found it to be safe, effective,
and versatile.

Semiconductor Physics:

Energy Bands Description

In gaseous substances, the arrangement of molecules is spread apart and are not so close to each
other. In liquids, the molecules are closer to each other. But, in solids, the molecules are closely
arranged together, due to this atoms of molecules tend to move into the orbitals of neighbouring
atoms. Hence, the electron orbitals overlap when atoms come together.
In solids, several bands of energy levels are formed due to the intermixing of atoms in solids. We
call these set of energy levels as energy bands.

Formation of Energy Bands

In an isolated atom, the electrons in each orbit possess definite energy. But, in the case of solids, the
energy level of the outermost orbit electrons is affected by the neighbouring atoms.
When two isolated charges are brought close to each other, the electrons in the outermost orbit
experience an attractive force from the nearest or neighbouring atomic nucleus. Due to this reason,
the energies of the electrons will not be at the same level, the energy levels of electrons are changed
to a value which is higher or lower than that of the original energy level of the electron.
The electrons in the same orbit exhibit different energy levels. The grouping of these different
energy levels is known as the energy band.
However, the energy of the inner orbit electrons is not much affected by the presence of
neighbouring atoms.

Classification of Energy Bands:

Valence Band
The electrons in the outermost shell are known as valence electrons. These valence electrons contain
a series of energy levels and form an energy band known as the valence band. The valence band has
the highest occupied energy.
Conduction Band
The valence electrons are not tightly held to the nucleus due to which a few of these valence
electrons leave the outermost orbit even at room temperature and become free electrons. The free
electrons conduct current in conductors and are therefore known as conduction electrons. The
conduction band is one that contains conduction electrons and has the lowest occupied energy levels.
Forbidden Energy Gap
The gap between the valence band and the conduction band is referred to as the forbidden gap. As
the name suggests, the forbidden gap doesn’t have any energy and no electrons stay in this band. If
the forbidden energy gap is greater, then the valence band electrons are tightly bound or firmly
attached to the nucleus. We require some amount of external energy that is equal to the forbidden
energy gap.
The figure below shows the conduction band, valence band and the forbidden energy gap.

Conductors:
Gold, Aluminium, Silver, Copper, all these metals allow an electric current to flow through them.
There is no forbidden gap between the valence band and conduction band which results in the
overlapping of both the bands. The number of free electrons available at room temperature is large.
Insulators:
Glass and wood are examples of the insulator. These substances do not allow electricity to pass
through them. They have high resistivity and very low conductivity.
The energy gap in the insulator is very high up to 7eV. The material cannot conduct because the
movement of the electrons from the valence band to the conduction band is not possible.
Semiconductors:
Germanium and Silicon are the most preferable material whose electrical properties lie in between .
The energy band diagram of semiconductors is shown where the conduction band is empty and the
valence band is completely filled but the forbidden gap between the two bands is very small that is
about 1eV. For Germanium, the forbidden gap is 0.72eV and for Silicon, it is 1.1eV. Thus,
semiconductor requires small conductivity.

Types of Semiconductors
Semiconductors can be classified as follows:
• Intrinsic Semiconductor
• Extrinsic Semiconductor
•
Classification of Semiconductors

Intrinsic Semiconductor
An intrinsic type of semiconductor material is made to be very pure chemically. It is made up of
only a single type of element.

Conduction Mechanism in Case of Intrinsic Semiconductors (a) In the absence of an electric

field (b) In the presence of an electric field
Germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si) are the most common types of intrinsic semiconductor elements.
They have four valence electrons (tetravalent). They are bound to the atom by a covalent bond at
absolute zero temperature.
When the temperature rises due to collisions, few electrons are unbounded and become free to move
through the lattice, thus creating an absence in its original position (hole). These free electrons and
holes contribute to the conduction of electricity in the semiconductor. The negative and positive
charge carriers are equal in number.
The thermal energy is capable of ionising a few atoms in the lattice, and hence, their conductivity
is less.
The Lattice of Pure Silicon Semiconductor at Different Temperatures
• At absolute zero Kelvin temperature: At this temperature, the covalent bonds are very strong,
there are no free electrons, and the semiconductor behaves as a perfect insulator.
• Above absolute temperature: With an increase in temperature, a few valence electrons jump
into the conduction band, and hence, it behaves like a poor conductor.

Energy Band Diagram of Intrinsic Semiconductor

The energy band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor is shown below.
 (a) Intrinsic Semiconductor at T = 0 Kelvin, behaves like an insulator (b) At t>0, four
thermally generated electron pairs
In intrinsic semiconductors, current flows due to the motion of free electrons, as well as holes. The
total current is the sum of the electron current Ie due to thermally generated electrons and the hole
current Ih.
Total Current (I) = Ie + Ih
For an intrinsic semiconductor, at finite temperature, the probability of electrons existing in a
conduction band decreases exponentially with an increasing band gap (Eg).
n = n0e-Eg/2.Kb.T
Where,
• Eg = Energy band gap
• Kb = Boltzmann’s constants
Extrinsic Semiconductor
The conductivity of semiconductors can be greatly improved by introducing a small number of
suitable replacement atoms called IMPURITIES. The process of adding impurity atoms to the pure
semiconductor is called DOPING. Usually, only 1 atom in 10 7 is replaced by a dopant atom in the
doped semiconductor. An extrinsic semiconductor can be further classified into types:
• N-type Semiconductor
• P-type Semiconductor

Classification of Extrinsic Semiconductor

N-Type Semiconductor
• Mainly due to electrons
• Entirely neutral
• I = Ih and nh >> ne
• Majority – Electrons and Minority – Holes
When a pure semiconductor (silicon or germanium) is doped by pentavalent impurity (P, As, Sb,
Bi), then four electrons out of five valence electrons bond with the four electrons of Ge or Si.
The fifth electron of the dopant is set free. Thus, the impurity atom donates a free electron for
conduction in the lattice and is called a “Donar“.
Since the number of free electrons increases with the addition of an impurity, the negative charge
carriers increase. Hence, it is called an n-type semiconductor.
Crystal as a whole is neutral, but the donor atom becomes an immobile positive ion. As conduction
is due to a large number of free electrons, the electrons in the n-type semiconductor are the
MAJORITY CARRIERS, and holes are the MINORITY CARRIERS.
 P-Type Semiconductor
• Mainly due to holes
• Entirely neutral
• I = Ih and nh >> ne
• Majority – Holes and Minority – Electrons
When a pure semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity (B, Al, In, Ga), then the three valence
electrons of the impurity bond with three of the four valence electrons of the semiconductor.
This leaves an absence of electron (hole) in the impurity. These impurity atoms which are ready to
accept bonded electrons are called “Acceptors“.
With an increase in the number of impurities, holes (the positive charge carriers) are increased.
Hence, it is called a p-type semiconductor.
Crystal, as a whole, is neutral, but the acceptors become an immobile negative ion. As conduction
is due to a large number of holes, the holes in the p-type semiconductor are MAJORITY
CARRIERS, and electrons are MINORITY CARRIERS.
Difference between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor
Pure semiconductor Impure semiconductor
The density of electrons is The density of electrons is not
equal to the density of holes equal to the density of holes

Electrical conductivity is Electrical conductivity is high

low
Dependence on temperature Dependence on temperature, as
only well as on the amount of
impurity
No impurities Trivalent impurity and
pentavalent impurity

Applications of Semiconductors
Let us now understand the uses of semiconductors in daily life. Semiconductors are used in almost
all electronic devices. Without them, our life would be much different.
Their reliability, compactness, low cost and controlled conduction of electricity make them ideal to
be used for various purposes in a wide range of components and devices. Transistors, photosensors,
microcontrollers, integrated chips and much more are made up of semiconductors.

What is a Semiconductor Diode

A semiconductor diode is a p-n junction diode. It is a two-terminal device that conducts current only
in one direction.
The figure below represents the symbol for the p-n junction diode, which symbolises the direction
of the current. By applying an external voltage V we can vary the potential barrier.

Semiconductor Diode Symbol

A p-n junction is denoted by the symbol shown in the figure above. Here, the direction of the arrow
indicates the permissible direction of the current.
P-N Junction Diode Under Forward Bias
When we apply the external voltage across the semiconductor diode in such a way that the p-side is
connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the n-side is connected to the negative terminal,
then the semiconductor diode is said to be forward-biased. In this case, the built-in potential of the
diode and thus the width of the depletion region decreases, and the height of the barrier gets reduced.
The overall barrier voltage, in this case, comes out to be V 0-V, which is the difference between the
built-in potential and the applied potential. As we supply a small amount of voltage, the reduction
in the barrier voltage from the above-given formula is very less and thus only a small number of
current carriers cross the junction in this case. Whereas, if the potential is increased by a significant
value, the reduction in the barrier height will be more, thus allowing the passage of more number of
carriers.
P-N Junction Diode Under Reverse Bias

When we apply the external voltage across the semiconductor diode in such a way that the positive
terminal of the battery is connected to its n-side and the negative terminal of the battery is connected
to the p-side of the , then it is said to be in the condition of reverse bias. When an external voltage
is applied across the diode, as the direction of the external voltage is the same as that of the barrier
potential, the total voltage barrier sums up to be (V0+V). Also, the width of the depletion region
increases. As a result of this, the motion of carriers from one side of the junction to another decreases
significantly.
Semiconductor Diode Characteristics
The V-I characteristics curve of a semiconductor diode is given below. This characteristic curve is
a typical explanation for the V-I characteristic of a semiconductor diode. Current in the
semiconductor diode starts to conduct when the current exceeds the threshold of the forward voltage,
which is mentioned by the manufacturer.

Types of Semiconductor Diode

Following are the types of semiconductor diodes:
• LED
• Zener diode
• Rectifier diode
• Tunnel diode
• Variable capacitance diode
• Photodiode
• Switching diode