DEFINATIONS FOR CIE

Unit 1 (Measurements and units)

acceleration The rate of change in velocity
deceleration The negative rate of change in velocity (OR)
The negative change in velocity per unit time.
reason why the car does not Due to the human reaction time
begin to decelerate at t = 0 Due to the delay in applying brakes
mass amount of matter in a body, ability of resisting motion
centripetal the acceleration of a body towards the centre of the circle around which
acceleration it is travelling
centripetal force the force on a body towards the centre of the circle around which it is
travelling

kilogram (kg) the unit of mass

 Unit 2 (Forces and Motion)
Scalar A quantity which has only magnitude
Vector A quantity which has both magnitude and direction
force a push or a pull on an object
resultant force the unbalanced force when two or more forces act on an object
balanced forces forces whose effects cancel out, F(net) = 0
When forces are balance, the motion reaches the terminal velocity.
weight the gravitational pull on an object
Friction (OR) drag force the process that produces the force that opposes the movement of
an object on another
gravitational field strength (or) the gravitational force acting on each kilogram of mass
acceleration due to gravity
gravity the process that produces the gravitational force between two objects
speed the distance travelled per unit time (scalar)
velocity the speed of an object in a particular direction (vector)
terminal velocity the maximum speed of an object falling through a fluid.
When net force is zero, terminal velocity is reached.
impulse Change in momentum = Force × time
(Resultant force is the rate of change in momentum.)

“In terms of forces” the changes in motion which occur for a parachutist jumps from the parachute
 Initially there is an acceleration due to the gravitational force.
 While the parachutist falls, the air resistance increases as the speed of
the parachute increases. (unbalance force = downward)
 As the air resistance increases, the downward resultant force decreases
and acceleration also decreases.
 Then the terminal velocity is reached when the gravitation force and air
resistance are equal.
 After the parachute has opened, the upward air resistance is increased and parachute’s speed decrease. (unbalance force = upward)
 As the parachute slow down, the air resistance is once again equal with the force of gravity.
 When the net force is zero, the terminal velocity is reached again.

newton (N) the unit of force

kg m s-1 (or) N s the unit of impulse
 Unit 3 (Forces and Pressure)
pressure force per unit area, PRESSURE = FORCE / AREA
manometer a device used to measure the pressure of a fluid in relation to the
atmospheric pressure
centre of mass the point at which all the mass of a body may be considered to be concentrated
(OR) For more stable object;
centre of gravity  Its centre of gravity must be over its base.
 with a wider base and a lower centre of gravity
moment the turning effect of a force, MOMENT = FORCE × DISTANCE
Principle of moment If an object is in equilibrium, the sum of the forces in one direction must equal
the sum of the forces in the opposite direction.
[clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment]
the two conditions no resultant force (on object in equilibrium)
needed for equilibrium no resultant moment (on object in equilibrium)
elastic material a material that returns to its original shape when a distorting force is removed
Load The force applied to the spring is called the load.
Hooke’s Law Extension of the spring is directly proportional to the load applied to the
spring, up to the limit of proportionality.
F=k×x (load = spring constant × extension)
Limit of proportionality The point which returns to its original length when the load is removed
Elastic limit The point beyond which material would not return to original shape when
load (force) is removed.

The temperature of the air in a sealed glass container is increased.

Explain, in terms of molecules, why the pressure of the air also increases.
As the temperature increases, the speed of air molecules increases. So, there is the bigger change in
momentum of molecules. Molecules hit the walls harder and more frequently. Pressure is the force per
unit area. So the pressure of the air molecules increases.

Explain, in terms of the momentum of particles, how a gas exerts a pressure.

The moving particles have momentum. Momentum changes when particles hit walls. The force exerted by
particles is due to rate of change of momentum. Pressure is total force of particles per unit area of wall.

Temperature of a sample of gas is increased at constant volume. Explain any change in the pressure of the gas.
Particles move faster and particles have more KE. There is a greater change of momentum. Particles
exert greater force on same area. So, pressure increases.

Describe what happens to the acceleration between t=0 and t=0.04s. Explain why this happens.
At first, it has only weight and acceleration. There is a drag. Drag increase with increasing speed. So
resultant force decrease and acceleration becomes decreases. Eventually, drag = weight two forces are
balanced and resultant force become zero. So, acceleration is also zero. Therefore fall with constant
velocity.

{41 mj 2024}
The ball is dropped from the top of a tall building.
Describe and explain the motion of the ball as it falls. Consider the effect of air resistance in
your answer.{43 mj 2024}
At first, it has only weight, so it accelerates. There is air resistance. Air resistance increases with
increasing speed. The resultant force decreases and acceleration also decreases. Air resistance =
weight, two force are balanced and there is no acceleration. There force falls with constant velocity.

The ball is released and reaches terminal velocity at point X.

Explain the motion of the ball as it falls from rest until it reaches point X .
Use ideas of force and acceleration in your answer.
At first, the ball has weight only so it has acceleration. There is liquid resistance and liquid resistance.
Increase with increasing speed. So resultant force decreases and decreases in acceleration. Eventually
liquid resistance = weight, two force are balanced. So it falls with constant velocity.

Newton-metre (N-m) The unit of moment

pascal (Pa) the unit of pressure
 Unit 4 (Force and Energy)
Principle of energy cannot be created or destroyed.
conservation of energy energy can be transformed between energy stores.
The total energy of an isolated system is constant.
work Work is done when a mass moves in the direction of the force
WORK = FORCE × DISTANCE
energy the ability to do work
power the rate at which work is done or energy is transformed
internal energy the energy of a body has due to its temperature
kinetic energy the energy that an object has due to its (movement) motion
elastic potential energy energy stored by an object when it is stretched or squashed, also called strain
potential energy
efficiency the ratio of output useful energy (power) to the input energy (power)

Joule (J) The unit of work and energy

 Electrical Power
Advantages Disadvantages
hydroelectric  No waste products  damage to habitats for fish
power  continuously available  construction is expensive
(renewable energy) (unless severe drought)  droughts
 flood risk if dam bursts
nuclear power • Continuous supply of energy • cost for difficulty of building and decommissioning
(non-renewable • produces large amounts of energy • danger if any leak of radiation
energy) • not affected by the weather • produces hazardous (dangerous) waste
not derived from the sun • not affected by wind strength • difficulty of storage of used radioactive material
• nuclear waste must be stored for a long time
Solar Energy  No waste products Expensive in terms of amount of energy produced
(renewable energy)  No pollution Energy supply not continuously available
 Best suited to climates with low amount of cloud cover
Geothermal  No waste products  Suited only to geographical locations with
energy  Moderate start-up costs relatively thin crust or high volcanic activity
(renewable energy)  Can provide direct heating as well as
not derived from the sun steam to drive electricity generators
Wind energy  Cheap to set up  Only produce energy when it is windy
(renewable energy)  No waste products  Can be used only in certain places
 Relatively efficient at converting  Can be an eyesore
energy into electricity  Can produce noise pollution
Wave energy  No waste products  Expensive set up
(renewable energy)  continuously available  Only suitable in certain locations
 Moderately efficient
Tide energy  No waste products, Damaging to environment
(renewable energy)  does not produce pollution Expensive to set up, high cost of construction
not derived from the sun
 reliable or predictable Only suitable in certain locations, limited number of sites
 efficient, running cost low  maintenance difficult
 increased corrosion (because underwater).
Biomass  CO2 releases when it burns has only  Growing biomass crops instead of food can cause
(renewable energy) recently been taken out of the higher food prices and food shortages
atmosphere by crops

Fossil Fuels Coal, oil and natural gas are called fossil fuels.
(non-renewable energy) They formed from the remains of plants and tiny sea creatures that lived millions of years ago.

Describe how to generate electricity from hydroelectric power station.

River and rain water fill up a lake behind a dam.
As water rushes down through a dam, it turns turbines which turn generators

Describe how to generate electricity from Tidal power station.

A dam is built across a river where it meets the sea. The lake behind the dam fills when the tide comes in and
empties when the tide goes out. The flow of water turns the generators.

Describe how thermal energy from nuclear reactors is used to generate electricity in a power station
Thermal energy is used to boil water which form steam. Steam is at high pressure. Steam drives a turbine.
Turbine connected to and drive a generator. Turbine moves a coin in a magnetic field.
 Unit 5 (Thermal effects)
Solid Particles vibrate about fixed positions, arrangement regularly.
liquid Particles vibrate, but can change positions, random arrangement.
Not in a fixed position, move past each other.
gas Particles move about freely. Particles move quickly.
Randomly arranged in container. Wide separation.
Brownian movement the random zigzag movement of particles caused by their bombardment by
other surrounding molecules
boiling the process by which vapour bubbles form in the body of a liquid when the
liquid is converted to a vapour at a fixed temperature
temperature at which liquid becomes a gas or liquid and gas exist together
evaporation the change of liquid to vapour when molecules leave the surface of the liquid
without heating (at any temperature)
Absolute zero Temperature Lowest possible Temperature; Particles has lowest kinetic energy
condensation the conversion of vapour to liquid
Conduction (electrical) the movement of electric charge through a body
conduction (thermal) the movement of internal energy through a body
conductor (electrical) a substance that allows electric current through it
conductor (thermal) a substance that allows the flow of internal energy through it
convection the process by which internal energy is transferred by a fluid forming a
convection current
convection current the rising of a body of warm fluid owing to its expansion as it is heated (or)
the falling of a body of a cool fluid owing to its contraction as it is cooled
thermal capacity the energy required to change the temperature of the whole body by 1 °C
specific heat capacity the energy required to change the temperature of unit mass of a material by 1C

Some Questions
Energy not derived from the sun Energy derived from the sun
 geothermal  Water held behind a dam
• nuclear  Wind
• tidal  Oil (fossil fuel)
 Hydroelectric waves, solar cell

in terms of forces and the motion of air molecules, the cause of the motion of the smoke particles
 air molecules bombard smoke particles
 air molecules are small (compared to smoke particles) / have small(er) mass
 air molecules are very fast moving
 air molecules move in random directions
 (collisions exert unbalanced) forces on smoke particles

Pollen grains are heavier than water molecules.

Smoke particles are heavier than the air molecules.
Air molecules are heavier than the water molecules.
 Unit 6 (Waves and Sounds)
Longitudinal wave  particles in longitudinal wave vibrate parallel to the direction of travel of the wave
 longitudinal waves have compressions and rarefactions
 [P (primary) waves]
 [Sound wave]
Transverse wave  particles in transverse wave vibrate perpendicular to the direction of travel of the wave
 transverse waves have troughs and crests
 [S (secondary) waves]
 [Light wave, electromagnetic waves]
Water wave a combination (mixture) of longitudinal wave and transverse wave
(On the surface of water transverse wave)
(As go deep inside the waterlongitudinal wave)
wavefront an imaginary line joining points on the crest of a wave
compression region where particles are closer together than normal
OR region where there is a greater pressure than normal
rarefaction region where particles are far apart than normal
OR region where there is a lower pressure than normal
amplitude the maximum displacement of an oscillating particle from its mean position,
height of crest or depth of trough
frequency the number of complete waves passing a point each second
wavelength the distance between two successive crests or two successive troughs or length
of one complete wave
periodic time time of one complete wave
pitch the position of a note on the musical scale
diffraction the bending of a wave as it goes through a narrow gap or around a small object
 Longer wavelengths produce more diffraction (   diffraction)
 The narrower the gap  the more the waves spread out (more diffraction)
  angular spread of wavefronts increases
 The wider the gap  the less the wave spread out
dispersion the splitting of white light into the colours of the spectrum by means of a prism
Audible range (or) Average person can only hear sound that has frequency range between 20 Hz and
hearing range 20 kHz
Ultrasound Sound wave with frequencies greater than 20 kHz. cannot be heard by human
Infrasound Sound wave with frequencies under 20 Hz, cannot be heard by human
Monochromatic rays electromagnetic radiation of a single wavelength and single frequency

hertz (Hz) (or) per second (s-1) the unit of frequency = 1 cycle per second
 Unit 7 (Rays and Waves)
incident ray the ray of light striking a mirror or an interface between two materials
reflected ray a ray of light leaving the surface of a mirror or interface between two materials
refracted ray a ray of light that has passed through the interface between two materials
reflection the process in which light or other radiation bounces off a mirror or other surface
refraction change of direction of a wave when it goes through an interface into a
different material where its speed is different
angle of incidence the angle between an incident ray and the normal
angle of reflection The angle between a reflected ray and the normal
angle of refraction the angle between a refracted ray and the normal
critical angle The greatest angle of incidence in the material at which refraction occur
The angle of incidence corresponding to the angle of refraction 90
total internal reflection For angles of incidence greater than the critical angle, there is no refracted ray.
(TIR) All the light is reflected. The effect is called TIR.
The necessary conditions for TIR
 From more dense medium to less dense medium
 The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle (i > ic)
Refractive index The ratio of the velocity of light in vacuum to that in a medium
radiation transfer of energy by waves
Electromagnetic spectrum a family of radiation that travels at 3 x 108 m/s in a vacuum
vacuum a region in which there is no matter
radio waves part of the electromagnetic spectrum of waves that have the longest wavelength
microwaves part of the electromagnetic spectrum that has waves of a wavelength between
those of radio waves and infrared radiation
reasons why microwaves are used for mobile phone (cell phone) signals
 (microwaves) only need short aerials / antennas
 (microwaves) penetrate some walls
infrared a type of electromagnetic radiation that has frequencies just above those of red light
visible light part of the electromagnetic spectrum that our eyes are sensitive to
ultraviolet part of the electromagnetic spectrum of waves that have frequencies just above
than those of violet light
x-rays part of the electromagnetic spectrum of waves that have very short wavelengths
and high frequency
gamma rays the part of the electromagnetic spectrum of waves that has the shortest
wavelength and highest frequency
optical centre the point in a lens where light passes through the lens without being deviated
focal length the distance between the optical centre of a lens and the principal focus
principal focus (of a lens) the point through which rays of light initially parallel to the axis of the lens pass
(OR) Focus point after refraction
plane mirror a mirror with a flat surface
prism a block of material through which light can pass
real image an image formed by a lens or mirror that the rays actually pass through and can
be received on a screen [inverted]
virtual image an image in which the rays of light do not pass through and can't be received
on a screen [upright]
Longsightedness The lens is more convex than is necessary.
The rays from distant object intersect in front of the retina after passing through
the eye lens.
 Corrected by convex (Converging) lens.
Shortsightedness The lens is cannot be enough convex for looking at closed objects.
The rays are not bent inwards enough. When they reach the retina, they have
still not met.
 Corrected by concave (Diverging) lens.
Bifocals Spectacle whose lenses have a top part for looking at distance objects and a
bottom part for close onces
advantages of using  high rates (fast) of data transmission
optical fibres to transmit  carry large amounts of data (information)
data.  secure
 little data loss
 glass is transparent to some infrared
 Unit 8 (Electricity)
current a flow of electric charge (electrons)
conventional current the flow of positive electric charge from + end to – end of the cell
alternating current a current that flows in one direction and then the opposite direction,
(a.c.) continually reversing and variable
direct current (d.c.) current that flows in one direction only with fixed value
earthed connected to the Earth by an electrical conductor so a current (electrons)
can flow to or from earth
sensitivity (of a the minimum change that an instrument can measure
measuring instrument)
Potential difference The electrical energy required to move a unit electric charge across the
(p.d) two points of an electrical components. (or)
the difference in electric potential energy per unit charge between two points
emf the total work done when unit charge moves around a complete circuit
one similarity between e.m.f. and p.d. one difference between e.m.f. and p.d.
both have the same unit volt. e.m.f. applies to the whole circuit or p.d. to one or more component
both relate to energy per unit charge energy conversion to electrical for e.m.f. or from electrical for p.d.
Ohm’s law When a conductor is kept at a constant temperature, the current flowing
through it is directly proportional to the p.d. between its ends.
Electric field a region in which an electric force acts upon an electric charge
Induction Induction is the process of charging a conductor without any contact with
the charged body
Electrification by If two uncharged objects are rubbed with one another both of them become
friction charged. This is called Electrification by friction
electrostatic charge a property of some particles that causes them to attract or repel each other,
it can be positive or negative
electrostatic force force exerted by one electrically-charged object on another
insulator (electrical) a substance that is a poor conductor of electric current
insulator (thermal) a substance that is a poor conductor of internal energy
ion an atom that has either gained or lost one or more electrons
ionisation the process of adding or removing an electron to or from an atom to form
an ion
Digital signal consists of 1(s) and 0 (s) (or) high value and low
A signal that has one of two possible states
Analog signal is continuously variable in magnitude

ohm (Ω) the unit of electrical resistance

ampere (A) the unit of electric current
volt (V) the unit of e.m.f, voltage and potential difference
watt (W) the unit of power; 1 watt is 1 joule per second
coulomb (C) the unit of electric charge
The unit kWh means energy transferred in one hour at a rate of transfer of 1 kW
Electronic Devices Unit 8 (Electricity)
Ammeter a device for measuring current
(connected in series)
Voltmeter a device for measuring potential difference (or) Voltage
(connected in parallel)
battery two or more cells connected in either series or parallel
diode an electronic component that allows current to flow in one direction only,
used to change an a.c. to d.c.
Transistor An electrical component with three terminals,
Three terminals are collector (C), emitter (E) & base (B)
fuse a device containing a wire that melts when an excessive current flows
through it, thus breaking the circuit and protect the electrical appliance
light dependent a device whose resistance changes when light shines on it, as light
resistor (LDR) intensity increases, (R) decreases
light emitting diode a diode that gives out light when there is a current in it in one direction
(LED) (forward bias)
thermistor a device whose resistance changes when its temperature changes, as (T)
increases (R) decreases
thermocouple a device made up of two wires made from different materials that generates
an e.m.f when the junctions linking the wires are at different temperatures
relay an electromagnetic switch used to operate high power circuit with low
power circuit
Purpose of relay To allow the current in the relay coil to control a large current in the motor
resistance the opposition of a material to the passage of current
resistance = potential difference/current
Resistor To control the amount of current flowing around a circuit
variable resistor a resistor whose resistance may be changed
transformer a device that changes the voltage of an alternating current to a higher or
lower value
step-up transformer a device that changes a small potential difference into a larger one
step-down transformer a device that changes large potential difference into a smaller one
primary coil the coil in a transformer across which a potential is applied
secondary coil the coil in a transformer across which an e.m.f is induced
transformer rules Vp/Vs =Np/Ns , Iin Vin = Iout Vout , (100% effeciency)
potential divider a device used to give a variable potential difference
 divides the e.m.f. (or) voltage (or) p.d of a power source in a circuit
 shares the e.m.f between two resistors connected in series to power source
 shares e.m.f. in proportion to the resistances of the resistors
 Some Questions for Electricity

the principle of operation of a (simple iron-cored) transformer

• Primary voltage causes an alternating current in primary coil.
• alternating current in primary coil generates changing magnetic field.
• iron core transfers magnetic field to secondary coil
• secondary coil is in changing magnetic field and e.m.f induced in secondary coil.
(why a transformer would not work with a d.c. supply voltage)
no change of flux with constant supply voltage or d.c voltage

Explain why the transformer would not work if the two halves of the core were separated by about 30 cm.
no transfer of magnetic field from primary to secondary

Advantages of using digital signals rather than analogue signals

 faster data transmission rate OR data can be compressed
 data transmitted over longer distances (as signal can be regenerated)
 noise easily removed (from data) OR signal can be regenerated

I-V Graph for

Filament lamp,
Semiconductor diode,
Metal conductor
 Unit 9 (Magnets and currents)
electromagnet a magnet formed by passing an electric current through a coil of wire
electromagnetic induction the process by which an emf is generated when a conductor cuts a
magnetic field
magnetic field the region in which a magnetic force act
Direction of magnetic field In the direction of the force on the N pole
magnetic induction the process in which iron or steel becomes a temporary magnet when
in a magnetic field
motor effect the process in which a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field
experiences a force
north seeking pole the end of a magnet that points north when
(anticlockwise) the magnet is freely suspended
(N-pole  Leave)
South seeking pole the end of a magnet that points south when the magnet is freely
(Clockwise) suspended (S-pole  Enter)
solenoid a long spiral coil
Magnetic material Iron, nickel, cobalt (There are called ferromagnetics)
Non-magnetic material Brass, copper, zinc, tin, aluminium
Lenz’s law An induced current always flows in a direction such the it
opposes the change which produced it.
induced current direction If the magnet is moved into the coil,
the coil repels the magnet.
If the magnet is pulled out of the coil,
the coil attracts the magnet.
Right Hand Rule Imagine gripping the wire with my right hand.
(current & magnetic field My thumb points in the conventional current direction.
line direction in wire) My fingers then point in the direction of the field lines
Right Hand grip Rule Imagine gripping the coil with your right hand.
(current & pole relation in Your fingers point in the conventional current direction.
solenoid) your thumb then points towards the N pole of the coil.
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule If you hold the thumb and first two fingers of your left hand at
right angles, the thuMb gives the direction of the force (Motion),
the First finger gives the direction of the magnetic Field and the
seCond finger give the Current.
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule applies  when a current cause motion [P-213]
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule applies  when a motion cause current (Induced)
(Induced current direction)

the purpose (effects) of the  to reverse the current direction in loop [every half turn (180)]
split-ring commutator in an
electric motor
 to ensure that the turning effect on the motor stays in the same
direction at all times [rotation continues in same direction]
 Unit 10 (Atoms and radioactivity)
alpha particle a fast moving helium nucleus that is emitted from the nucleus of an
(Use; Smoke alarm) atom in radioactive decay; consists of two protons and two neutrons
beta particle a very fast moving electron emitted from the nucleus of an atom during
(Use; thickness monitoring) radioactive decay
Gamma radiation Electromagnetic waves with very short wavelengths.
Have no mass and no charge.
Penetrating Power penetrating <  penetrating <  penetrating
For  = stopped by a thick sheet of paper or by a few ‘cm’ of air
For  = stopped by a few millimetres of aluminium or other metal
For  = never completely stopped, though lead and thick concrete will
reduce intensity
Ionizing Power ionizing >  ionizing >  ionizing
atom the smallest part of an element that still has the properties of that element
background radiation radiation caused by radioactive isotopes in the surroundings with no
source in front of detector
background radiation Radon gas; food & drink; cosmic rays from space; ground & buildings
sources
fossil fuel a fuel such as coal, oil or gas, formed over millions of years from the
remains of living things
Geiger-Müller (GM) tube a device for measuring the radiation from a radioactive source
half-life the time taken for half the atoms in a sample of a radioactive isotope
to decay
isotopes nuclides that have the same number of protons, but different numbers
of neutrons
neutron a subatomic particle with no electric charge and a relative mass of 1
proton a subatomic particle with a positive charge and a relative mass of 1
proton number the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
nucleon number or the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in the nucleus of an
mass number atom
nucleus (of an atom) the tiny core of an atom that contains most of the mass of the atom,
made up of protons and neutrons
nuclide an atom of specified proton number and nucleon number
plum pudding model the picture of an atom as a sphere of positive charge with electrons
embedded in it
radioactivity the spontaneous random decay of unstable nuclides
Safety Precautions for  Limit time of exposure,
radioactive sources  Store sources in lead boxes; uses of shielding
 Keep distance from sources;
 Avoid contact, use tongs, wear gloves

becquerel (Bq) the unit of activity = 1 decay per second

 Unit 10 (Atoms and radioactivity) Decay Reactions
Alpha Decay = + + energy
Beta Decay (- decay) = + + energy;
= + +
A neutron changes into a proton, an electron and an antineutrino.
Atomic number 1 more than before
Beta Decay (+ decay) = + + energy
A proton changes into a neutron, a positron and a neutrino.
Atomic number 1 less than before
Neutron Decay = +
= +
Radiocarbon dating + = +
Process of nuclear fission Neutron absorbed by uranium-235 nucleus, causing it to split into
two lighter products and then releasing energy and further neutrons.
Nuclear Fission  The splitting of nuclei which involved heavy nuclei
 releasing energy
 Resulting in a loss of mass
Nuclear Fusion  The joining of nuclei which involved light nuclei
(Two small nuclei join together to produce a large nucleus)
 releasing energy
 Resulting in a loss of mass
Fission Reaction + = + +2
= + +3 +  radiation
Fusion Reaction + = + ; = hydrogen
+ = ; = deuterium
+ = + ++ ; = tritium
+ = +

In a nuclear reactor
Fuels Uranium-235
Moderator (Graphite or water) To slow dawn the neutrons
Control rods  Absorb the neutrons
(made of boron and cadmium)  Controlled by raising or lowering control rods
Shielding Prevents radiation escaping the reactor core by absorbing neutrons
Describe how thermal energy from nuclear reactors is used to generate electricity in a power station
Thermal energy is used to boil water which form steam. Steam is at high pressure. Steam drives
a turbine. Turbine connected to and drive a generator. Turbine moves a coin in a magnetic field.
 Unit 10 (Atoms and radioactivity) Some Questions

why isotopes with very short half-lives are especially hazardous

high dose (of radiation) in short time

Explain why the radioactive isotope must not have a very short half-life
Doesn’t allow time for detection before the activity has dropped to too low a level
Doesn’t allow for sufficient built up at the leak to detect difference in rate

Explain why the radioactive isotope must not have a very long half-life
Contaminate water supply

Describe how the americium-241 ionises air.

Alpha particles emitted from americium. They move to hit molecules in the air between the
metal plates and removing electrons out of the molecules

Suggest and explain two reasons why smoke detectors use an isotope that emits α-particles rather
than an isotope that emits γ-radiation.
• alpha particles are not penetrating.
• range of alpha particles is short AND alpha particles stopped by smoke particles
• alpha particles are more highly ionising than gamma AND ionise air more easily.
• alpha less harmful to humans.

In a nuclear fusion reactor, a nucleus of hydrogen-2 fuses with a nucleus of hydrogen-3 at an

extremely high temperature. Explain why an extremely high temperature is needed when forcing
these two nuclei together.
High temperature produces high speed and high kinetic energy and high momentum.
(which is the ability to do large quantity of work)
The helium nuclei which formed by fusion of hydrogen -2 and hydrogen -3 are positively charged
and they repel each other. (Force is needed to come close together)
 Unit 11 (The earth in Space)
The inner planets Mercury, venus, Earth, Mars
The outer planets Jupiter Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, (pluto)
Other types of natural Comets, asteroid, minor planets (or) dwarf planets
object that orbit the sun
Orbit of planets Elliptical (is not circular)
The orbital speed v=
Period, T For Earth, 365(.25) days
For moon, 1 month (30 days)
!
The Hubble constant H0 = ", (H0 = 2.3 ×10-18 s-1)
(rate of separation of v = the speed at which a galaxy is moving away from earth
galaxies) d = distance of the galaxy from earth
Age of the universe 1/H0 , 13.8 billion years, 4.35 ×1017 s
supernova Gigantic nuclear explosion of massive star (a red giant)
Redshift Increased wavelength of light from very distance object
Cause of Redshift Objects moving away from Earth at very high speed
Light years The distance travelled by light in one year
1 light year = 9.5 × 1012 km (OR) 9.5 × 1015 m
The diameter of the Milky 100, 000 light years
Way Galaxy
Two pieces of evidence to  Redshift
support the Big Bang theory
 CMBR (Cosmic microwave background radiation)
Increasing order in size
Moon  Earth (planets)  Sun (Star) galaxy  solar system  universe
Increasing distance from earth
Mercury  Venus  Earth  Mars  Jupiter  Saturn  Uranus  Neptune  Pluto
(hottest) (largest) (2nd largest) (coldest)
(inner planets  small & dense, mainly rock and iron)  (outer planets  large, mainly gas, no solid surface, have a solid core)
 Unit 11 (The earth in Space) [Some Questions]
Explain why CMBR is now in the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Universe has expanded.
Radiation has been redshift (to the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum)
State how the distance of a far galaxy can be determined other than by using H0 = v/d.
Brightness of a supernova
Describe how a protostar forms inside a nebula.
Initially clouds of dust and gas come together due to the gravitational attraction. As a result, the
internal temperature is increased.
Describe and explain what happens as an interstellar cloud of gas forms a protostar.
Deep inside it, the gas become hotter and more compressed. Eventually, the temperature and
pressure were high enough to trigger nuclear fusion with hydrogen as its fuel.
Describe and explain what happens as a protostar becomes a stable star.
[the condition required for a protostar to become a stable star]
 Protostars are formed from interstellar clouds of gas and dust.
 A protostar becomes a stable star when Force of gravitational attraction (inward force) is balance by
force due to the high temperature in the centre of the star. (fusion reactions = outward force).
Describe in stages what will happens to the Sun when its core runs out of hydrogen.
Core will collapse, outer layer will expand and cool. The Sun becomes a red giant which then
form a planetary nebula with extremely dense core called a white dwarf star at its centre.
when its core runs out of helium; [P-260]
This tiny star (a white dwarf) will use helium as its nuclear fuel, converting it into carbon by
fusion. When the helium runs out, the star will cool and fade for ever.
From P-264, 265; Fill in the blanks.
The Sun is at the centre of the solar system which is part of a galaxy called the Milky Way. This
is all part of a much larger system called the Universe which scientists think began with the Big
Bang. When a supermassive star eventually collapses, a black hole is formed at its centre.
The solar system formed in a huge cloud of gas and dust called a nebula. This contained remnants
from the explosion (called a supernova) of a much older star. In the cloud, gravity started to pull
material together into clumps. At the centre, the biggest clump (called a protostar) got hotter and
hotter until fusion started and it became a star. Around it a huge, rotating accretion disc formed.
In this, material was starting to clumped together to form the planets.
The life cycle of stars with a mass similar to that of our Sun
Nebula (Interstellar clouds of dust and gas)  protostar  stable star (main sequence)  red
giant  planetary nebula & white dwarf  black dwarf
The life cycle of stars with masses much greater than the Sun
Nebula (Interstellar clouds of dust and gas)  protostar  stable star (main sequence)  large
red supergiant  supernova  neutron star  black hole
Difference Between Fleming’s Left-Hand and Right-Hand Rule

Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule

It is used for electric motors It is used for electric generators

The purpose of this rule is used for The purpose of this rule is used for
finding the direction of the magnetic finding the direction of the induced
force acting in an electric motor. current in an electric generator.

The middle finger represents the The middle finger represents the
direction of the current direction of the induced current