J.K.K.

MUNIRAJAH COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

(Affiliated to Tamilnadu Agricultural University)
T. N Palayam , Gobi (T.k), Erode (D.T)- 638 506
I. B.Sc., (Agri.) II Semester- Mid semester Examinations-2015

HOR 111 – FUNDAMENTALS OF HORTICULTURE (1 + 1)

PART A

I. Choose the best answers

A1. Example for deciduous crops___________

a. Amla b. Mangosteen c. Pear d. sweet oranges

A2. pH range of alkaline soil___________

a. Below 7 b. above 7 c. below 6 d. above 6

A3. Protein content in curry leaves__________

a. 3.2 g/100g b. 8.4 g/100g c. 6.1.g/100g d. 10.1 g/100g

A4. Optimum temperature for flowering in banana is__________

a. 10°c to 20°c b. 5°c to 30°c c. 10°c to 40°c d. 5°c to 20°c

A5. Female in one plant and male in another plant is_______________

a. Monoecious b. Dioecious c. Dichogamy d. Protogyny

A6. Example for heterostyled flower is ______________

a. Tomato b. Cucumber c. Bhendi d. Brinjal

A7. Seradix A/B is an example for___________

a. Grafting b. Veneer grafting c. Budding d. None of the above

A8. In mango, the chemicals sprayed to induce flowering_________

a. DAP b. KNO3 c. Urea d. MOP

A9. In coconut, newly released variety in TNAU______________

a. VPM 2 b. VPM 5 c. VPM 3 d. VPM 6

A10. Commercially propagation methods in fig___________

 a. Cuttings b. Layering c. Ground layering d. Soft wood cuttings

A11. Example for long day plants__________

a. Carrot b. Tomato c. Cluster bean d. None of the above

A12. _________ is suitable soil for horticultural crops

a. Sandy b. Clay c. Organic d. Sandy loam

A13. Due to air pollutants, the physiological disorder in mango____________

a. Anthracnose b. Malformation c. Black tip d. None of the above

A14. Example for slow growing plants__________

a. Orchid b. Anthurium c. Begonia d. Cacti

A15. Gladiolus is commercially propagated through___________

a. Tuber b. Corms c. Bulbs d. Rhizome

II. Fill in the blanks

A16. Horticultural crops are gold to farmers, the developments in horticulture___________

A17. ______________ are also plants, products of which are used as food adjuncts to add ‘taste’
only.

A18. _____________ system is followed in hilly regions.

A19. Reclamation of acidic soils___________

A20. _____________ g of leafy vegetables recommended per day for human consumption.

A21. Temperature slightly above freezing point is called______________

A22. Stamens ripen before the pistil____________

A23. Fruits develops without seed formation_________________

A24. Queen of fruit crops_________________

A25. Nutraceuticals is coined by__________________

A26. Expand CIMAP_______________

A27. Pot mixture composition ratio for ornamental plants _________________

A28. NRC for orchids is located at________________

A29. Amla is rich in ___________ source.

A30. Soil depth for most of the fruit crops are ___________

III. True or False

A31. Separation of plants from pot to field is called potting (True/False).

A32. Plants produce both apomictic and sexual embryos is called obligate apomicts (True/False).

A33. Seedless bread fruit is propagated through root cuttings (True/False).

A34. Etiolation layering methods is also known as stooling layering (True/False).

A35. In Pine apple, commercially propagated through suckers (True/False).

A36. Fruits & Vegetables are protective foods (True/False).

A37. Evergreen plants have distinct rest period (True/False).

A38. Musk melon is a fruit crop (True/False).

A39. Eucalyptus is used for fencing purpose in an orchard (True/False).

A40. Philodendron is an indoor foliage plants (True/False).

IV. Match the following

A41. Climacteric fruit - a) Annona

A42. Protogyny - b) Tomato

A43. Protandry - c) Sapota

A44. Marcottage - d) Cycocel

A45. Growth retardant - e) Air layering

Common name Active principle

A46. Mango - a) Quercetin

A47. Guava - b) Tartaric acid

A48. Tamarind - c) Gallic acid

A49. Broccoli - d) Lycopene

A50. Tomato - e) Eugenol

PART – B

Answer all the questions

B1. Expand CPRI, CISH, NRCSS, CITH, IIVR, CPCRI with location?

B2. Define horticulture and explain the divisions of horticulture?

B3. Mention the agro-climatic zones in horticulture in India & Tamil Nadu with some state and
district examples?

B4. Explain inarching and epicotyl grafting techniques?

B5. Explain about apomixes and types of apomixes?

B6. Write about advantages and disadvantages of asexual propagation?

B7. Write details about the ways to break the seed dormancy?

B8. Explain the role of temperature, humidity, rainfall factors influencing the horticultural
production?

B9. Write in detailed about the reason for cross pollination?

B10. List out the uses of PGR for horticultural crops?

B11. Write the scope & importance of horticulture?

B12. Write the nutraceutical values of horticultural crops?

B13. List out the different system of planting and explain in detail about square, hexagonal,
quincunx and contour system?

B14. Write about the method of application of PGR?

B15. List out the types of layering and explain about the air layering, serpentine, simple
layering?
Answer Key

Part – A

I. Choose the best answers

A1. C) Pear

A2. B) above 7

A3. C) 6.1 g/100g

A4. C) 10°c to 40°c

A5. B) Dioecious

A6. D) Brinjal

A7. D) None of the above

A8. C) Urea

A9. B) VPM 5

A10. B) Layering

A11. A) Carrot

A12. D) Sandy loam

A13. C) Black tip

A14. D) Cacti

A15. B) Corms

II. Fill in the blanks

A16. Golden revolution

A17. Condiments

A18. Contour

A19. Lime

A20. 125 g
A21. Chilling injury

A22. Protandry

A23. Parthenocarphy

A24. Mangosteen

A25. Stephen De Felice

A26. Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

A27. 3:2:1

A28. Pakyong, Sikkim

A29. Vitamin – C

A30. 2.0 m

III. True or False

A31. False

A32. False

A33. True

A34. False

A35. False

A36. True

A37. False

A38. False

A39. False

A40. True

IV. Match the following

A41. B) Tomato

A42. C) Sapota

A43. A) Annona
A44. E) Air layering

A45. D) Cycocel

A46. C) Gallic acid

A47. E) Eugenol

A48. B) Tartaric acid

A49. A) Quercetin

A50. D) Lycopene

PART – B

Answer all the questions

B1. Expand CPRI, CISH, NRCSS, CITH, IIVR, CPCRI, CTCRI, NRCB, NRCO,IISR with
location?

CPRI – Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla

CISH – Central Institute Of Subtropical Horticulture, Lucknow

NRCSS – National Research Centre For Seed Spices, Ajmer

CITH – Central Institute Of Temperate Horticulture, Srinagar

IIVR – Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, Varanasi.

CPCRI – Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasargod.

CTCRI – Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Trivandrum.

NRCB – National Research Centre For Banana, Trichy.

NRCO - National Research Centre For Orchids, Pakyong, Sikkim.

IISR – Indian institute of Spice Research, Calicut.

B2. Define horticulture and explain the divisions of horticulture?

According to the modern world, horticulture is defined as the crop science which deals with the
production, utilization and improvement of fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants, spices and
plantation crops, medicinal and aromatic plants.

Divisions of Horticulture
1.Pomology

Pomology is the study of fruit crops and science.

Fruit crops are classified as ‘Woody Plants and herbaceous plants’

Fruits on woody plants:

1. Deciduous (temperate)
a. Pome – Apple, Pear
b. Drupe – Peach, Plum, Apricot.
2. Evergreen
a. Sub-tropical – Mangosteen, Litchi, sweet Oranges.
b. Tropical – Mango, Sapota, Guava
Fruits on herbaceous perennial plants
a. Prostrate growth – strawberry
b. Upright growth – Banana, Pineapple
2. Olericulture

Olericulture is the branch of horticulture which deals on Vegetables like leafy

vegetables, root, tuber, cole crops etc.

3. Floriculture

Floriculture is another branch of horticulture which deals on commercial Floriculture,

landscaping and cut flowers. It is the art of growing, selling, designing and arranging flowers and
folige plants.

4. Spices, Plantation, Medicinal and Aromatic crops

Spices are those plants, the products of which are made use of as food adjuncts to add
aroma and flavor (eg. Pepper, cardamom, clove, nutmeg etc.)

Condiments are those plants, the products of which are made use of as food adjuncts to
add taste only (coriander, cumin etc.)

Plantation crops – Arecanut, Tea, Coffee, Rubber etc. grown extensive scale

Medicinal plants, the plants yielding alkaloid and steroid principles which have got
preventive and curative properities (eg. Senna, periwinkle, Aswagandha).

Aromatic crops are those plants, the part of which yields aromatic essential oils on steam
distillation (eg. Palmarosa, Citronella)

B3. Mention the agro-climatic zones in horticulture in India & Tamil Nadu with some state
and district examples?

Agro-climatic zones in India

Our country can be broadly divided into seven zones for horticultural crops as indiacated below:

1. Temperate Northern Region – Himachal Pradesh, jammu & Kashmir

2. North Western Arid Region – Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana

3. North eastern sub-tropical humid region – Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur

4. North central sub-tropical region – Bihar, MP, Maharshtra

5. South central tropical region – TN, KA, AP.

6. Coastal Tropical Humid Region – entire coastal region of bay of Bengal in the east and
Arabian sea in the west region.

7. Southern hilly zone – western ghats and eastern ghats hills above 800 m MSL.

Agro-climatic zones in horticulture in Tamil Nadu

S. No. Agro - climatic zone District Crops

1 Western zone 1. Coimbatore Grapes, banana, vegetables,
jasmine, turmeric
2. Erode Banana, turmeric
3. Dindigul Fruits and flowers, onion
4. Theni Grapes and vegetables
2 Southern zone 1. Madurai Fruits and vegetables, flowers
2. Ramanathapuram Flowers, Palmyra
3. Tirunelveli Fruits
4. Sivaganga Plantation, cashew

5. Virudhunagar Chillies, mango, sapota

6. Thoothukudi Fruits, senna

7. Pudukottai Cashew, mango

8. Karur Banana, rose

3 North Eastern zone 1. Kancheepuram Fruits and vegetables
2. Thiruvalllur Fruits and vegetables
3. Vellore Fruits and vegetables

4. Thiruvannamalai Flowers and medicinal plants

5. Cuddalore Brinjal, onion, jack

6. Ariyalur Coriander
 7. Villupuram Vegetables

4 North Western zone 1. Dharmapuri Fruits

2. Salem Fruits, vegetables

3. Namakkal Fruits and vegetables

4. Perambalur Fruits

5 Delta zone 1. Thanjavur Vegetables, banana

2. Thiruvarur Vegetables, banana

3. Nagapattinam Vegetables, banana

4. Tiruchirappalli Banana, vegetables

6 High Rainfall zone 1. Kanyakumari Fruits, spices, vegetables

7 Hilly and Tribal zone 1. Nilgiris Tea, arecanut

B4. Explain about inarching, epicotyl grafting techniques?

Inarching or approach grafting

This method is extensively practiced in the propagation of mango and sapota in Tamil
Nadu. In this method the scion remains attached to the mother plant while the rootstocks grown
separately on pots are brought closer to the mother trees for grafting. At the time of inarching,
the seedlings stock should have a thickness of a lead pencil. From the stock, 22 cm above ground
level, 5 to 8cm long slice of bark and wood is removed. This cut removes about one third of the
thickness of the stem and tapers gently towards the tip and bottom. A corresponding cut is made
on the scion shoot so that two cuts fit in perfectly without leaving chink. Two cuts are placed
face to face and tied firmly with jute threads and then with twine over it. The union is covered
with a mixture of cowdung and mud in equal parts. After union 6 to 8 weeks after grafting the
top of the rootstock is removed above the graft point and the base of the scion shoot is removed
below the graft point. Removal is done in stages by giving a half cut first and an another cut after
an intervalof 10 days.

Epicotyl or stone grafting:

 This type of grafting has been recently standardized in fruit crops like mango and cashew
and this holds great promise for multiplying plants in large number and in lesser time. The seeds
are placed on sand bed and covered with 5.0 – 7.5 cm thick layer of leaf mould for germination.
Germinated seedlings of 8 to 15 days age are taken out and grafted indoor by beheading the
seedlings about 5.0 cm above the seed and inserting the wedge shaped scion in the vertical split
of the beheaded stock. Polythene tape of 200 gauge thickness is utilized for tying the graft.
Immediately thereafter, the grafts are planted in polythene bags filled with soil and FYM (1:1).
The grafts are watered and kept in semi-shade condition to avoid damaging effects of sun and
rain. If the age of the stock is beyond 15 days, the percentage of success is greatly reduced in
mango.

B5. Explain about apomixes and types of apomixes?

APOMIXIS

It is the occurance of an asexual reproductive process in place of normal sexual

reproductive process of reduction division and fertilization. Simply, it is an asexual seedling
developed from a seed viz., a seedling that arises from tissue of the seed other than embryo

Plants that produce only apomictic embryos are known as obligate apomicts, (Eg.
Mangosteen) those that produce both apomictic and sexual embryos are facultative apomicts eg.
Acid lime.

Type of apomixes

Recurrent apomixes

Here, embryo develops from the egg mother cell which doesn’t under go any meiosis.
So., egg has normal diploid number of chromosome. The same as in the mother plant. The
embryo subsequently develops directly from the egg nucleus without fertilization. In some
cases, the embryo develops with stimulus of pollination (eg. Allium) and in some cases, without
stimulus of pollination (eg.Malus)

Adventitious or Nucellar embryony

Here, embryo will rise from a cell or group of cells either in the nucellus or in
integuments. Here, embryo develops outside the embryo sac in addition to the regular embryos.
Eg. Citrus

Non-recurrent apomixes

Here embryo develops directly from the haploid egg cells or some other haploid cells of
the embryo sac and hence haploid plants are produced. (eg. Lilium sp.)
Vegetative apomixes

In some cases, vegetative buds or bulbils are produced in the inflorescence in place of
flowers eg. Agave and grass species

B6. Write about advantages and disadvantages of asexual propagation?

Advantages of asexual propagation

1. Progenies are true to type of the cultivars.

2. Vegetative propagation is the only rule where no seed is formed or no vialble seed is
formed (eg. Banana)
3. Rootstocks have the capacity of resisting or tolerating the adverse environmental factors
such as frost and adverse soil factors like salinity and alkalinity.
4. Ability of rootstocks to resist pest and diseases. Apple like Merton 778, 779 are resistant
to wooly aphids.
5. Vegetative propagated plants are generally dwarf in stature than the seedlings.
6. To replant an undesirable existing tree; either with reference to its quality or
susceptibility to pests and diseases or pollination requirement, is expensive and time
consuming.
7. Many plants are propagated by vegetative means because of speed and ease of
multiplication.

DISADVANTAGES

1. Longevity is not high when compared to the seedling progeny.

2. Asexual method is uneconomical and impractical in the case of vegetable crop
propagation and grains (eg.tomato, brinjal, amaranthus etc.) since cost of cultivation is
high when compared to sexual method

B7. Write details about the ways to break the seed dormancy?

1) Mechanical scarification

This is done to modify hard or impervious seed coats. Scarification is a process of

breaking or scratching or mechanically altering the seed covering to make it permeable to water
and gases.

1. Rubbing the seed on sand paper.

2. Cutting with a file
3. Cracking the seed cover with a hammer
4. Scratching in pestle and mortar.
 For large scale operation, special mechanical scarifiers are used. Here, seeds may be
tumbled in drums lined with sand paper or in concrete mixtures combined with coarse sand or
gravel. The sand and gravel should be of a different size than the seed to facilitate separation.
Eg. Leguminous seeds

2) Acid scarification

Concentrated sulphuric acid is used to modify hard or impermeable seed covering

Dry seeds are placed in glass or earther ware containers and treated with concentrated
sulphuric acid in the ratio of about one part of seed to two parts of acid. The mixture should be
stirred in intervals to produce uniform results.

The length of treatment should be carefully standardized. This may vary from 10
minutes for some sp. to as much as 6 hours for other sp.

At the end of treatment , the acid is poured off and the seeds are washed with copious
amount of water.

3) Soaking seeds in water

It is done to modify hard seed coat, remove inhibitors, soften seed coat and reduce the
time of germination. This will overcome seed coat dormancy and stimulate germination. The
seeds can be soaked either in cold or hot water depending on the species. Seeds of winged bean
are very hard and normally soaked in cold water for 48 hours so as to hasten the germination.

In hot water treatment, temperature of water will range from 77 oc to 100oc. After treating
for one or two minutes, the heat is immediately removed, and the seeds are allowed to soak in
gradullay cooling water for 12 to 24 hours. Following this, unswollen seeds can be separated
from the swollen ones.

4. Stratification : (Moist chilling)

Here, seeds are exposed to low temperature. It permits physiological changes to occur in
the embry. Temperature range is from 0oc to 10oc. So dry seeds should be soaked in water for
12 to 24 hours, drained, mixed with moisture retaining medium and then stored for the required
period of time. The usual storage temperature is 2oc to 7oc. For most of the seeds, low
temperature stratification ranged from 1 to 4 months. After it underwent the stipulated period,
seeds are sown without drying.

5. Chemical stimulants

It will promote germination in some kind of dormant seed. Seeds are treated with GA by
soaking for 24 hour in water solution at concentration from 100 to 12000 ppm. This will
improve seed germination.
B8. Explain the role of temperature, humidity, light, rainfall factors influencing the
horticultural production?

Rainfall

The total rainfall and the distribution of rainfall are the key elements to influence the
productivity of the horticultural crops. Continuous heavy rain for a period of 2-3 days during the
peak flowering phase washes off pollen, hinder insect pollination, injure pollen and dilute the
stigmatic fluid. Summer showers during February – April is essential for panicle initiation in
cardamom; otherwise it will affect the yield. Rains may occur during
01. Summer Summer showers Coffee blossom
02. Season South West Sowing commencement
03. Cyclonic rains North East Rainfed crops

Humidity
Humidity affects the growth and development of horticultural crops. Based on the
tolerance to relative humidity of the atmosphere, the horticultural crops can be classified as
humid, semi-arid and arid zone fruits. If a humid zone fruit crop is grown in an arid zone, its
growth and development is significant affected. High humidity during flowering and fruiting
promotes the incidence of pests and diseases especially in mango, grapes, potato and ea etc.
propagation of many horticultural crops through cuttings, layers and grafting are more successful
if performed during the period in which the atmospheric humidity is relatively more than the dry
months.
Temperature
Every plant requires particular temperature range at which all fundamental processes like
photosynthesis, respiration, water absorption and transpiration, cell differentiation proceed
highest marketable yield. This optimum temperature range varies with crops and based on the
optimum temperature requirement, horticultural plants classified into tropical, sub-tropical and
tropical.
Temperature requirement may vary with the stage of crop (eg. Tomato at early stages
prefer higher night temperature ranges 18 to 27 °C while the optimum night temperature
during fruit set ranges from 13 to 17°C. the optimum temperature for flowering in banana is 10
to 40°C.
Extremes in temperature often cause certain injury in plants. Temperature below freezing
point of water resulting in death is called winter kill. Temperature slightly above freezing point is
called chilling injury. Plants that are resistant to cold injury are known as hardy plants.
B9. Write in detailed about the reason for cross pollination?

 Due to dioecious nature. Eg: Papaya date palm

o Female in one plant and male in another plant -Nutmeg plant
 Due to dichogamy nature
o Maturity of sex organs in different time
o Protogyny - Female matures first eg. Sapota
o Protandry - Male1 matures first eg. Annona
 Due to peculiar flower structure
o Brinjal – Heterostyle
 Vanilla
 Due to self in compatibility / self sterility er. Apple, Buck wheat
 Due to behavior of bisexual flowers as functional unisexual eg. Avacado
o Diurnally synchronized dichogamy
o A plant B plant
o ♀ Ready by 7 A.M. ♂ Ready by 7 A.M
o ♂ Ready by 5 P.M. ♀ Ready by 5 P.M.
o Pollination is through wind, insect.

B10. List out the uses of PGR for horticultural crops?

 Propagation of plants
 Control of flowering
 Fruit setting
 Induction of parthenocarpy
 Control of pre harvest fruit drop
 Blossom thinning
 Fruit ripening
 Weed control
 Modification of sex expression
 Control of dormancy
 Production of latex flow in rubber plants
 Arresting the plant growth
 Increasing the fruit size and quality
B11. Write the scope & importance of horticulture?

 Horticultural crops highly contributes to national income

 Fresh fruits, vegetables, their processed products, spices and plantation crops, cut flowers
and live plants are exported.
 Development in horticulture is often called as Golden Revolution

 Horticulture produces are utilized in the fresh state and are highly perishable. In contrast,
agricultural field crops are often utilized in the dried state of are usually high in dry
matter content.
 Horticultural crops generally require intensive cultivation warranting a large input,
capital, labour and technology per unit area of land.
 Cultural operations such as propagation, fertilization, training pruning, harvesting and
marketing are skilled operations and are specific to each and every horticulture crops.
 Horticulture crops are rich in sources of vitamins and minerals where as agricultural
crops are generally rich in carbohydrates or protein.
 Aesthetic sense is an exclusive phenomenon for horticulture science.
 Horticulture crops occupy only 7.0% of the total cropped area. But its contribution to
natural income is 18-20% of total value of agricultural produce.
 The export of agricultural crops contributes 25% of our export out of this, horticulture
crops alone contributes 56% of total earnings from agricultural sector.
 Horticulture crops fetch 20-30 times more foreign exchange/unit are than creates due to
higher yields of price.
 Fruits and Vegetables are regarded as ‘protected foods’ since they supply minerals such
as calcium, iron and phosphorus. Vitamins like A,B,C. Fruits and Vegetables are good
laxatives.
 The nutrition expert group presents a daily a minimum of 2400-3900 calories of energy,
55g protein, 0.4-0.5 g calcium, 20g of Iron, 3000 mg of B carotene (Vit A) 1.2-2.0 mg
thiamine, 1-2.2 mg riboflavin, 16-26 mg nicotinic acid, 50mg ascorbic acid.
 To obtain this, dieticians recommended 300g of vegetables i-e. 125 g of leafy vegetables,
100g of roots and tubers, 75 g of other vegetables, 90 g of fruits.
 Many horticultural produces and their by – products are the important raw materials for
many industries, thus providing more employment opportunities.
 Social importance
Worshiping God, hair adorning, symbol of affection, hotel and business establishment,
keeping the cut flowers in vases is very common.

 Horticultural Therapy
Flower therapy - U.S.A unhappy people given ornamental gardening, flower decorations,
to be with particular colour

Aromatherapy

 Essential oil- anti bacterial, anti – viral and anti – fungal agents
Orchard tourism – New concept
B12. Write the nutraceutical values of horticultural crops?

Crop Property Disease

Cabbage Glucosinolates Prevents cancer

&Indoles(Vit.U)

Citrus fruits Flavanoids (Vitamin P) Prevents cataracts

Greens and soy bean Terpenes - antiaxoditants Protecting lipids, blood and other
body fluids

Tomato, Parsley, oranges, Carotenoids, Precursor to Vit. Anti oxidants, eleminates toxins
spinach, Grape fruit, red A from body, prevents cancer,
palm oil improves vision

Citrus peel Limonoids Protection of lung tissues

Green and yellow Phytosterol Block the uptake of cholesterol

vegetables

Grapes, Berries, Brinjal Phenols Protects platelets from clumping

Beans and legumes Isofalvones Block enzymes that prevents

tumor

Cabbage, turnip, Thiols Sulphur compound reduces

cruciferous vegetables microbial growth

Onion and Garlic Di – allyl – di propyl di sulfide Anti carcinogenic properties,

cardio vascular protection.

Capsicum Indoles Detoxification of enzymes

present in gasterointestinal tracs

Oil plam Tocopherol Inhibit breast cancer cell growth,

Moringa Ptregospermin, Benzyl Antimicrobial activity

isocyanate

B13. List out the different system of planting and explain in detail about square, hexagonal,
quincunx and contour system?
Square system: The trees are planted on each corner of square whatever may be the planting
distance. The central place between 4 trees may be used to grow short-lived trees or intercrops
may be cultivated.

Hexagonal system: The trees are planted in each corner of an equilateral triangle. In this way six
trees form a hexagon with seventh tree in the centre. So it is also called as ‘septule’. It provides
equal spacing but layout is difficult. The perpendicular distance between any two adjacent rows
is equal to the product of 0.866 X the distance between any two trees. This system
accommodates 15% more trees than square system.

Quincunx or diagonal system: This is the square method but with one more plant in the centre
of the square. This will not provide equal spacing but accommodate double the number of plants.
The central tree is called 'filler' tree and may be short-lived. This system can be followed when
the distance between the permanent trees is more than 10 m.

Contour system: It is followed in hills. The plants are planted along the contour across the
slope. This system minimizes land erosion and conserves soil moisture.

B14. Write about the method of application of PGR?

Growth regulators are generally applied at very low concentrations (ppm - parts per
million). One milligram in one litre of water gives 1 ppm solution. The growth regulators may be
applied in powder form or paste (lanolin paste) or spray solution. Good water should be used for
dissolving chemicals. If the growth regulator is insoluble in cold water, hot water or alcohol can
be used to dissolve the chemicals.

It is essential to prepare the solution of correct concentration for particular crop to get the
expected results. Higher or lower concentration of chemical may sometimes give negative effect.

It is a general rule that spraying of growth regulators should be taken up in early morning
or late evening hours for better utilization of the chemical. High volume hand operated sprayers
are recommended for spraying.

a. Talc method
b. Quick dip method
a. Talc method: Some of the plant regulators are in powder form. The cuttings may be
moistened with water at their lower ends and then dipped in the powder and planted afterwards,
lower end going beneath the soil. eg. Seradix A and B can be used in the form of powder.
b. Quick dip and prolonged soaking method: Some of the chemicals are used in the form of
solutions. They are dissolved in alcohol and then in water. The lower end of the cuttings may be
soaked in this solution. The concentration of the solution varies from 10 to 2000 ppm. If the
concentration of the solution is 10 - 50 ppm the cuttings may be soaked for 18 to 24 hours.
(Prolonged soaking method) If it is 500 to 2000 ppm, the cuttings are soaked for a minute or less.
This is called quick dip method. The concentration differs according to the type of cuttings.

B15. List out the types of layering and explain about the air layering, serpentine, simple
layering?

Air layering

Simple (i) ground layering

Compound/ serpentine

Trench/etiolation

Tip layering

Mound / stooling

Air layering
In air layering roots are formed on aerial part of the plant where the stem has been girdled
or slit at on upward angle and covered with rooting medium. The rooting medium may be
sphagnum mass or vermiculite. Air layering should be done in humid months because, root
initiation will be high under high humid conditions.

Ground Layering
In this method, the rooting of layers takes place in the ground media or in pots containing
rooting media. There are different types in ground layering like simple layering, compound or
serpentine layering, trench layering or etiolation method, tip layering and mound layering or
stooling.

(1) Simple layering

Branches that have formed roots in one area are called simple layers. This is done by
bending the shoot and burying a part of it in the soil by leaving the tip in the air. The branch
selected should be healthy and of pencil thickness from a lower branch near the ground, for easy
bending. The common practice is to injure the portion to be covered by notching, girdling,
cutting or twisting.
 This practice destroys the phloem tissue partially or completely and retards the downward
movement of food material and hormones produced by the leaves. The injury is given at 15-
30cm back from the tip. The bent injured part of the shoot is inserted into the soil. The layered
branches are held firmly in position by pegs or large stones.

Sometimes a single tongue like cut is made in the shoots on the underside towards the
growing point. At the cut portion, a pebble is placed to avoid fusion of tissues. Then it is covered
with soil. After 2 months in the cut portion roots will develop. Then they are detached from the
mother plant, potted and kept under cool humid conditions for curing.

It should be done in early spring for temperate species before growth has started. For
tropical crops, an actively growing period is selected. Eg. Jasmine, rose, guava, bougainvillea
and duranta.

(2) Compound or serpentine layering

Similar to simple layering, the branches is alternatively covered with soil and then
exposed along its length so that the roots are formed at the nodes that are covered with soil, new
shoots develop at exposed area. After the root formation the layers are detached from mother
plant and potted.