GENE TO PROTEIN

SYNTHESIS
PREPARED BY:
DIANE GUILARAN
SPECIAL SCIENCE TEACHER I
 transCription
transLation

REMEMBER THIS?
 DNA unwinds mRNA copy is made of
one of the DNA strands. mRNA copy moves
out of nucleus into
cytoplasm.
A second tRNA
bonds with the
next three bases A tRNA bonds
of the mRNA, the complementa
amino acid joins rily with the mRNA copy attaches
onto the amino mRNA via its to the small subunit
acid of the first anticodon. of the ribosomes in
tRNA via a peptide cytoplasm. 6 of the tRNA molecules
bond. bases in the mRNA are activated as
are exposed in the their
ribosome. complementary
amino acids are
The ribosome attached to them.
moves along.
The first tRNA
leaves the Eventually a stop codon is reached
ribosome. on the mRNA. The newly
A third tRNA
brings a third synthesised polypeptide leaves the
amino acid ribosome.
DNA REPLICATION OR
DNA SYNTHESIS
DNA replication
■DNA strands separate and
serve as templates for the
production of new DNA
molecules.
The following are features of
replication:
i. Semiconservative- the resulting DNA
consists of one old and one new strand
ii. Base pairing is maintained; Adenine pairs
with Thymine, Guanine pairs with Cytosine
iii. New DNA molecules are produced in the
5’ to 3’ direction
The following are features of
replication:
iv. Semidiscontinuous. The leading strand is
synthesized in a continuous manner (5’ to
3’) while the lagging strand is produced
discontinuously in short stretches called
Okazaki fragments.
 DNA Replication
■ Replication of a
chromosome begins at
particular sites called
origins of replication
■ Proteins initiate DNA
replication recognize the
sequence and will separate
the DNA strand that will
open up a “replication
bubble”
 DNA Replication
■ Replication of DNA occurs in
both direction until the
entire molecule is copied.
■ In contrast in bacterial
chromosome , eukaryotic
chromosome may have
hundred or even few
thousands of replication
origins
 DNA Replication
■ At each end of a
replication bubble is a
replication fork, a Y-
shaped region where
the parental strands of
DNA are being unwound
 DNA Replication
■ Helicases are enzymes
that separates the two
parental strands and
making them available
as template strands.
 DNA Replication
■ Single-strand binding
proteins bind to the
unpaired DNA strands,
keeping them from re-
pairing.
■ The untwisting of the
double helix causes
tighter twisting and
strain ahead of the
replication fork.
 DNA Replication
■ Topoisomerase helps
relieve this strain by
breaking, swiveling,
and rejoining DNA
strands
DNA Replication

■The unwound sections of parental

DNA strands are now available to
serve as templates for the synthesis
of new complementary DNA strands.
DNA Replication: PLOT TWIST

■ However, the enzymes that synthesize

DNA cannot initiate the synthesis of a
polynucleotide; they can only add DNA
nucleotides to the end of an already
existing chain that is base-paired with
the template strand.
DNA Replication

■The initial nucleotide chain that is

produced during DNA synthesis is a
short stretch of RNA, NOT DNA.
DNA Replication

■This RNA chain is called a

primer and is synthesized
by the enzyme primase
Primer…
■starts a complementary RNA chain
from a single RNA nucleotide, adding
more RNA nucleotides one at a time,
using the parental DNA strand as a
template.
Primer…
■The completed primer, generally 5–10
nucleotides long, is thus base-paired
to the template strand.
■The new DNA strand will start from
the 3′ end of the RNA primer.
Synthesizing a New DNA Strand
■ Enzymes called DNA polymerases
catalyze the elongation of new DNA
at a replication fork
■ Most DNA polymerases require a
primer and a DNA template strand
■ The rate of elongation is about 500
nucleotides per second in bacteria
and 50 per second in human cells
■ Each nucleotide that is added to a
growing DNA strand is a nucleoside
triphosphate
■ dATP supplies adenine to DNA and is
similar to the ATP of energy metabolism
■ The difference is in their sugars: dATP
has deoxyribose while ATP has ribose
■ As each monomer of dATP joins the DNA
strand, it loses two phosphate groups as
a molecule of pyrophosphate
Figure 16.14

New strand Template strand

5 3 5 3

Sugar A T A T
Phosphate Base

C G C G

G C G C
DNA
OH
polymerase
3 A T A
P Pi OH
C Pyrophosphate 3 C

Nucleoside 2Pi
triphosphate 5 5
Antiparallel Elongation
■ The antiparallel structure of the
double helix affects replication
■ DNA polymerases add nucleotides
only to the free 3 end of a growing
strand; therefore, a new DNA strand
can elongate only in the
5 to 3 direction
■Along one template strand of
DNA, the DNA polymerase
synthesizes a leading strand
continuously, moving toward the
replication fork
Figure 16.15
Overview
Leading
Origin of replication Lagging
strand
strand

Primer

Lagging Leading
strand strand Origin of
Overall directions replication
of replication

3
5

5 RNA primer
3
3 Sliding clamp

DNA pol III

Parental DNA 5
3
5

5
3
3

5
■ To elongate the other new strand,
called the lagging strand, DNA
polymerase must work in the
direction away from the replication
fork
■ The lagging strand is synthesized as
a series of segments called Okazaki
fragments, which are joined together
by DNA ligase
Figure 16.16b-6
3
5 3
Template
strand 5
3 RNA primer
for fragment 1
5
1 3
5

3 Okazaki
fragment 1
5
1
RNA primer 3
for fragment 2 5
5
3
2
Okazaki
fragment 2 1 3
5
5
3
2
1 3
5 5
3
2
1 3
5
Overall direction of replication
Figure 16.17

Overview
Leading Origin of
replication Lagging
strand strand

Leading
Lagging strand
strand Overall directions
Leading strand of replication

5 DNA pol III

3 Primer
Primase
3 5
3
Parental DNA pol III Lagging strand
DNA 5
4 DNA pol I DNA ligase
35
3 2 1 3

5
 The DNA Replication Complex
• The proteins that participate in DNA
replication form a large complex, a “DNA
replication machine”
• The DNA replication machine may be
stationary during the replication process
• Recent studies support a model in which
DNA polymerase molecules “reel in” parental
DNA and “extrude” newly made daughter
DNA molecules
Figure 16.18

DNA pol III

Parental DNA Leading strand
5
5 3 3

3
3 5 5

Connecting Helicase
protein

3 5 Lagging
DNA strand
3 Lagging strand template
pol III 5
Proofreading and Repairing DNA
■ DNA polymerases proofread newly made DNA,
replacing any incorrect nucleotides
■ In mismatch repair of DNA, repair enzymes
correct errors in base pairing
■ DNA can be damaged by exposure to harmful
chemical or physical agents such as cigarette
smoke and X-rays; it can also undergo
spontaneous changes
■ In nucleotide excision repair, a nuclease cuts
out and replaces damaged stretches of DNA
Figure 16.19
5 3

3 5
Nuclease

5 3

3 5

DNA
polymerase

5 3

3 5
DNA
ligase

5 3

3 5
DEEPER LOOK: DNA
REPLICATION
DNA REPLICATION: REAL STORY

■ After RNA primer is

made, DNA pol III
starts to synthesize
the leading strand
The flow from Gene to Protein

■Triplet code
■The genetic instructions for a
polypeptide chain are written in the
DNA as a series of non-overlapping,
three-nucleotide words.
The flow from Gene to Protein

■ The series of words in a gene is

transcribed into a complementary series
of non-overlapping, three-nucleotide
words in mRNA, which is then translated
into a chain of amino acids
 Transcription

■ Messenger RNA, the

carrier of information from
DNA to the cell’s protein-
synthesizing machinery, is
transcribed from the
template strand of a gene.
 Transcription

■ An enzyme called an RNA

polymerase pries the two
strands of DNA apart and
joins together RNA
nucleotides
complementary to the DNA
template strand, thus
elongating the RNA
polynucleotide
DNA polymerases VS RNA polymerases
DNA polymerases RNA polymerases
■ assemble a
■ Function in DNA polynucleotide only in its
replication 5’ to 3’ direction.
■ Needs primer ■ able to start a chain from
scratch; they don’t need
a primer
■ attaches and initiates
transcription is known as
the promoter;
3 types of RNA are made from DNA
■ mRNA “messenger”
– Made from DNA in nucleus
– Travels out of nucleus and finds the ribosome
■ tRNA “ Transfer”
– Brings amino acids to the ribosomes
– Found in Cytoplasm
■ rRNA ribosomal
– Part of the ribosome
– This is where the proteins are made
TRANSCRIPTION OR
RNA SYNTHESIS
Transcription
■ RNA molecules are produced by copying part of a
nucleotide sequence of DNA into a complementary
sequence in RNA.
■ This process is called transcription.
■ Transcription requires the enzyme RNA
polymerase.
■ Have we heard of another polymerase recently??
Transcription Steps
■ 1. RNA polymerase binds to the promoter site (TATA box) (start)
on the DNA
■ 2. RNA polymerase adds RNA nucleotides complimentary to the
DNA strand
■ 3. mRNA building is complete when the RNA polymerase
reaches a Termination (stop) site on the DNA
■ 4. This strand of mRNA is EDITED before leaving the nucleus &
carrying the code into the cytoplasm
■ DNA never leaves the nucleus
 IS ALL THE DNA
TRANSCRIBED INTO
MRNA?
IS ALL THE DNA
TRANSCRIBED INTO
MRNA? NO
Only certain sections of the DNA are made (transcribed) into
message (mRNA)
AND…only part of the mRNA is used and sent out of the nucleus to
meet up with a ribosome!
This is EDITING!
How is mRNA Edited?.
■ On a mRNA strand there
are areas called: Exons
and Introns
■ Introns are cut out before
leaving the nucleus Exons
are left, and this shortened
piece of mRNA leaves the
nucleus and gets
Translated into Proteins
 TRANSLATION OR
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Main stages:

1.Initiation
2.Elongation
3.Termination
INITIATION
Initiation
when an mRNA molecule attaches to a
ribosome.
■promoter of a gene includes
within it the transcription start
point and typically extends
several dozen or more nucleotide
pairs “upstream” from the start
point.
Initiation

■ Ribosomes contain three binding sites: an A site,

a P site, and an E site. The mRNA will shuffle
through from A to P to E.
■ As the mRNA codons are read, the polypeptide
will be built. In all organisms, the start codon for
the initiation of protein synthesis is A–U–G, which
codes for the amino acid methionine.
Initiation

■ Proteins can have AUGs in the rest of the protein

that code for methionine as well, but the special
first AUG of an mRNA is the one that will kick off
translation.
■ The tRNA with the complementary anticodon, U–
A–C, is methionine’s personal shuttle; when the
AUG is read on the mRNA, methionine is
delivered to the ribosome.
Elongation

■In the ribosome, amino acids are

transferred to the growing polypeptide
chain by the action of the tRNA
(elongation)
Elongation
■ Addition of amino acids is called elongation.
■ Remember that the mRNA contains many
codons, or “triplets,” of nucleotide bases.
■ As each amino acid is brought to the mRNA,
it is linked to its neighboring amino acid by a
peptide bond.
■ When many amino acids link up, a
polypeptide is formed.
Termination
■When the “STOP” codon is reached
the mRNA uncouples from the
ribosome
Termination
■ The synthesis of a polypeptide is ended
by stop codons.
■ A codon doesn’t always code for an
amino acid; there are three that serve as
a stop codon.
■ Termination occurs when the ribosome
runs into one of these three stop codons.
HIGHLIGHTS:
• In transcription, mRNA is created from a particular gene
segment of DNA.
• In eukaryotes, the mRNA is “processed” by having its introns, or
noncoding sequences, removed. A 5’ cap and a 3’ tail are also
added.
• Now, ready to be translated, mRNA proceeds to the ribosome.
• Free-floating amino acids are picked up by tRNA and shuttled
over to the ribosome, where mRNA awaits.
• In translation, the anticodon of a tRNA molecule carrying the
appropriate amino acid base pairs with the codon on the mRNA.
• As new tRNA molecules match up to new codons, the ribosome
holds them in place, allowing peptide bonds to form between the
amino acids.
• The newly formed polypeptide grows until a stop codon is
reached.
• The polypeptide or protein folds up and is released into the cell.