BM30A0500 Applied Optics

Lectures: 2. period, Weeks 44 – 50

Monday, 11 – 14, Room 1314
Tuesday, 9 – 12, Room 1314

Exercises: Weeks 45 – 50
Thursday, 12 – 14, Room 7332
or
Friday, 12 – 14, Room 1325
REFERENCES

1. Eugene Hecht, Optics, 4th edition (Addison-Wesley, 2002)

2. G. R. Fowles, Introduction to Modern Optics, 2nd edition,

(Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc., New York, 1976)

3. R. W. Boyd, Nonlinear Optics (Academic Press, San Diego, 1992)

4. Y. R. Shen, The Princples of Nonlinear Optics (Wiley, New York, 1984)

REFERENCES (continued)

1. OPTICA (previously OSA publishing): Optica, Optics Letters, Optics

Express, Applied Optics, JOSA A, JOSA B, Optics Continuum

2. Optics Communications (North-Holland)

3. Nature Photonics

4. Phys. Rev. Lett., Phys. Rev. A, Phys. Rev. B,

5. J. Phys. Chem. A, B and C, Applied Spectroscopy

6. Appl. Phys. Lett., Applied Physics, J. Biomed. Opt. Lett.

 Why study optics and photonics?

• Optics in one of the key technologies in 21st century

Why photons instead of electrons?
• …For example in computing

• Advantages of optics
– speed
– lack of interactions
– massive parallerism
– small energy consumption
– In case of quantum computing photons work in room temperature,
whereas electronic cubits require < 10 mK temperature

• Cons
– lack of interactions → no all-optical transistor yet
→ solution: nonlinear optical materials
 HOT TOPICS in modern optics

• Lasermicroscopies (4pi-confocal-,STED-, CARS-microscopies )

• Nonlinear optics in metrology
• nano-optics and near-field optics
• applications of ultrashort laser pulses
• photonic crystals
• all-optical computer processors
• slow and fast light
• negative-refractive-index materials
The era of modern optics:
Laser applications from 1960s up to today
❑ Birth of nonlinear optics: light interaction with light
- 2nd and 3rd harmonic generation
- three- and four-wave mixing
- nonlinear optical spectroscopies
- nonlinear optical metrology and imaging
- optical computing

❑ Ultrafast lasers and their applications

- Ultrafast laser spectroscopy
- Quantitative hyperspectral imaging and microscopy Spectrally broad
- Generation of THz radiation THZ spectroscopy and imaging pulses
- Medical applications (for ex. eye surgery)
- Material processing and micromacthing Minimal heat effects
- Supercontinuum generation
- Laser cooling and trapping of atoms
High intensity
- Nonlinear optical effects
- Optical frequency combs
- Controlling chemical reaction Temporally short pulses
Lecture 1, part 1

- Maxwell's Equations and Light Waves

- Optics in dielectric media
The propagation of light in dielectric media
- Optical phenomena in media are governed by the Maxwell’s
equations, in non-ferromagnetic media m = mr m0 = m0 they are:

B E P
E = − ;   B = m 0 0 + m0 + m0 J
t t t
  E =  / 0 ;   B = 0

E = electric field (V/m),

B = m0mrH = magnetic flux density, i.e. ”magnetic field” (Vs/m2 = T)
H = magnetic field strength, i.e. ”magnetic field” (A/m)
P = 0(r-1)E = polarization (As/m2 = C/m2 = Cm/m3)
J = current density of free charges (A/m2 )
 = charge density of free charges (As/m3 )
m0 = 4p . 10-7 H/m = permeability of the vacuum (H = Vs/A )
0 = 8.854 . 10-12 F/m = permittity of the vacuum (F = C/V)
r = relative permittity i.e. dielectric constant
The propagation of light in dielectric media
Maxwell equations: in dielectric media  = 0, J = 0
B E P
E = − ;   B = m 0 0 + m0
t t t
E = 0 ; B = 0
B
Taking (   ) from the first equation   E = − we get
t
  E P
  (  E) = − (   B ) = −  m0 0 + m0 
t t  t t 
This leads to a general wave equation (in a dielectric medium) :
1  2E  2P
  (  E ) + 2 2 = − m 0 2
c t t

where c = ( m0 0 )
−1 2
is the speed of light in vacuum:

c = (299 792 456,2  1,1)m/s  3  10 8m/s

 The propagation of light in dielectric media
The general wave equation :
1  2E  2P
  (  E ) + 2 2 = − m0 2
c t t
..can be simplyfied by using the result:
  (   E ) =  (   E ) −  2E
..and noting that   E = 0 in a dielectric medium to get:

1  2E  2P
 E − 2 2 = m0 2
2

c t t

where the polarization P is the indused dipole moment by E per unit

volume, thus being a responce of the dielectric medium to the electric field.

In the vacuum P = 0, so the wave equation in vacuum is:

1  2E
 E− 2 2 =0
2

c t
The refractive index of medium
1  2E  2P
The polarization P in the wave equation  E − 2 2 = m0 2
2

c t t
..can be given (in a linear medium) by: P =  0 ( r − 1) E

The wave equation can now be written as

1  2E  2E 1  2E 1  2E
 E − 2 2 − m0 0 ( r − 1) 2 =  E − 2 2 − 2 ( r − 1) 2 = 0
2 2

c t 2
t c t c t
1/ c
1  2E
Which simplifies to  E− 2 2 =0
2

u t

Where the wave velocity, u, (i.e. the speed of light) in a medium is given by
c2c2
u =
2
= 2
r n
and n = r is the refractive index of the (dielectric) medium.

Here we assumed that mr = 1 , in general: n 2 = mr  r

The refractive index of medium

Table 1. Material constants for some dielectrics and metals

The optical path legth (OPL)
When light travels through a discrete-layered
medium with different refractive indeces and
thicknesses, the optical path length (OPL) is
given by:
M
OPL =  ni d i
i =1

Fermat’s principle:
The path taken by a ray between two given points is the path that can be traveled in the
least time.
This is equivalent to that a ray takes a path of minimum OPL
d
i.e. OPL( x) S − D  = 0
dx
Example.
Use Fermat’s principle to derive the law of refraction:
ni sin  i = nt sin  t

Solution:
OPL(x) S − D = ni Sl + nt lD = ni x 2 + a 2 + nt (d − x ) 2 + b 2

d
Fermat's principle: OPL( x) S − D  = 0
dx
d 2x −2( d − x)
 OPL( x) S − D  = ni + nt =0
dx 2 x +a
2 2
2 (d − x) + b
2 2
d
x d−x
 ni = nt
x2 + a2 (d − x)2 + b 2

 ni sin  i = nt sin  t
Wave equation in the vacuum
1 2E
 E− 2 2 = 0
2

One solution: c t
Harmonic plane wave, for example, wave propagating in z-direction:

Ex ( z , t ) = E0 exp i ( k z −  t ) 
By ( z , t ) = B0 exp i ( k z −  t ) 
Why light waves are transverse
Suppose a longitudinal wave propagating in the x-direction. Then it’s just a
function of x and t (and not y or z), so all y- and z-derivatives are zero:

E y Ez By Bz

= = = =0
y z y z
Now, in a charge-free medium,  E = 0 and  B = 0
that is,
Ex E y Ez Bx By Bz
+ + =0 + + =0
x y z x y z
Substituting the zero Ex Bx
values, we have: =0 and =0
x x
So the longitudinal fields are at most constant, and not waves.
The magnetic-field direction in a light wave
Suppose a wave propagates in the x-direction and has its electric field
along the y-direction [so Ex = Ez= 0, and Ey = Ey(x,t)].

What is the direction of the magnetic field?

B  Ez E y Ex Ez E y Ex 

Use: − =  E =  − , − , − 
t  y z z x x y 

B  E y 
So: − =  0, 0, 
t  x 
In other words:
Bz E y
− =
t x
And the magnetic field points in the z-direction.
The magnetic-field strength in a light wave
Suppose a wave propagates in the x-direction and has its electric
field in the y-direction. What is the strength of the magnetic field?

Bz E y
Start with: − = and E y ( x, t ) = E0 exp i ( kx −  t ) 
t x t
E y
We can integrate: Bz ( x, t ) = Bz ( x, 0) −
0
x
dt

Take Bz(x,0) = 0
Differentiating Ey with
ik
So: Bz ( x, t ) = − E0 exp i(kx − t ) respect to x yields an ik,
−i and integrating with
respect to t yields a 1/-i.

1
But  / k = c: Bz ( x, t ) = E y ( x, t )
c
An Electromagnetic Wave

The electric and magnetic fields are in phase. snapshot of the

wave at one time

The electric field, the magnetic field, and the k-vector are all
perpendicular:

EB  k
The Energy Density of a Light Wave

1 2
The energy density of an electric field is: U E =  E
2
11 2
The energy density of a magnetic field is: U B = B
2m
1
Using B = E/c, and c = , which together imply that B = E m
m
we have:
UB =
2m
(
11 2
E m ) =  E = U E
1 2
2

Total energy density: U = UE +UB =  E2

So the electrical and magnetic energy densities in light are equal.

Why the magnetic field can be negleted

The force on a charge, q, is: Felectrical Fmagnetic

where v is the
F = qE + q v  B charge velocity

Taking the ratio of

the magnitudes Fmagnetic qvB v  B = vB sin 
of the two forces: 
Felectrical qE  vB

Fmagnetic v
Since B = E/c: 
Felectrical c

So as long as a charge’s velocity is much less than the speed of light,

we can neglect the light’s magnetic force compared to its electric force.
The Poynting Vector: S = c2  E x B
The power per unit area in a beam. U = Energy density

Justification (but not a proof): A

Energy passing through area A in time Dt:

= U V = U A c Dt

So the energy per unit time per unit area: c Dt

= U V / ( A Dt ) = U A c Dt / ( A Dt ) = U c = c  E2

= c2  E B

And the direction E  B  k is reasonable.

The Irradiance (often called the Intensity)
t +T / 2


A light wave’s average power 1
per unit area is the irradiance. S (r , t ) = S ( r , t ') dt '
T
t −T / 2

Substituting a light wave into the expression for the Poynting vector,
S = c 2  E  B, yields: real amplitudes

S (r , t ) = c 2  E0  B0 cos 2 (k  r −  t −  )

The average of cos2f is 1/2:

 I (r , t ) = S (r , t ) =

= c 2  E0  B0 (1/ 2)
The Irradiance (continued)
Since the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular and B0 = E0 / c,

I = c  E0  B0
2
I = c  E0
1 2 1
2 becomes: 2

2 because the real amplitude

or: I = 12 c  E~ 0
squared is the same as the
mag-squared complex one.

where:
2
E0 = E0 x E0*x + E0 y E0* y + E0 z E0*z

Remember: this formula only works when the wave is of the form:

(
E ( r , t ) = Re E0 exp i k  r −  t 
 )
that is, when all the fields involved have the same k r −t
Where does light come from?
We’ve seen that Maxwell’s Equations (i.e., the wave equation)
describe the propagation of light.
But where does light come from in the first place?
Some matter must emit the light. It does so through the matter’s
polarization, ie. the induced dipole moment, q xq(t), per unit
volume:

P (t ) = V −1  qi xqi (t ) = Nqxq (t )
i
where N is the number density of charged particles, q is the charge
of each particle, and xq (t ) is the position of the charge. Here, we’ve
assumed that each charge is identical and has identical motion.

Note that matter’s polarization is analogous to the polarization of light. Indeed, it

will cause the emission of light with the same polarization direction.
Polarized and unpolarized media

Unpolarized medium Polarized medium

On the right, the displacements of the charges are correlated, so it

is polarized at any given time (and its polarization is oscillating).
Maxwell's Equations in a Medium
The induced polarization, P, contains the effect of the medium and is
included in Maxwell’s Equations:
B
E = 0  E = −
t
E P
B = 0   B = m 0 0 + m0
t t
This extra term also adds to the wave equation, which is known as
the Inhomogeneous Wave Equation:

2E 1 2E  2 xq The polarization is the

− 2 2 = m00 Nq 2 source term and tells us
z 2
c t t what light will be emitted.

Notice that the induced polarization, and hence xq (t ), gets

differentiated twice. But  xq / t is just the charge acceleration!
2 2

So it’s accelerating charges that emit light!

Sources of light
Accelerating charges emit light!

Linearly accelerating charge

Synchrotron radiation—
light emitted by charged
particles deflected by a B
magnetic field

Bremsstrahlung (Braking radiation)—

light emitted when charged particles
collide with other charged particles
But the vast majority of light in the universe
comes from molecular vibrations emitting light.

Electrons vibrate in their motion around nuclei

High frequency: ~1014 - 1017 cycles per second.

Nuclei in molecules vibrate

with respect to each other
Intermediate frequency:
~1011 - 1013 cycles per second.

Nuclei in molecules rotate

Low frequency: ~109 - 1010 cycles per second.
Water’s vibrations
Atomic and molecular vibrations
correspond to excited energy levels in
quantum mechanics.

Energy levels are everything in quantum mechanics.

Excited level

 DE = hn

Energy
Ground level

The atom is vibrating The atom is at least partially in

at frequency, n. an excited state.
Excited atoms emit photons
spontaneously.
When an atom in an excited state falls to a lower energy level, it
emits a photon of light.

Excited level
Energy

Ground level

Molecules typically remain excited for no longer than a few

nanoseconds. This is often also called fluorescence or, when it
takes longer, phosphorescence.
 Different atoms emit light at different
widely separated frequencies
Each colored
emission line
corresponds to
a difference
between two
energy levels.

These are
emission
spectra from
gases of hot
atoms.
Frequency (energy)

Atoms have relatively simple energy level systems (and hence simple
spectra).
Molecules have many energy levels.
A typical molecule’s energy levels:

E = Eelectonic + Evibrational + Erotational

2nd excited
electronic state
Lowest vibrational and
rotational level of this
electronic “manifold”
Energy

1st excited
Excited vibrational and
electronic state
rotational level

Transition There are many other

complications, such as
Ground spin-orbit coupling,
electronic state nuclear spin, etc.,
which split levels.

As a result, molecules generally have very complex spectra.

Atoms and molecules can also absorb
photons, making a transition from a lower
level to a more excited one.

Excited level
This is, of
course,
Energy

absorption.
Ground level

Absorption lines in an
otherwise continuous
light spectrum due to
a cold atomic gas in
front of a hot source.
Decay from an excited state can occur in
many steps.

Infra-red

Energy

Ultraviolet Visible

Microwave

The light that’s eventually re-emitted after absorption may occur

at other colors.
The Greenhouse Effect
VIS IR
The greenhouse effect occurs because
windows are transparent in the visible but
absorbing in the mid-IR, where most
materials re-emit. The same is true of the
atmosphere.

Greenhouse gases:
carbon dioxide
water vapor
methane
nitrous oxide

Methane, emitted by
microbes called
methanogens, kept the
early earth warm.