RANDOM VARIABLE

A Random Variable is a capacity that connects a real number with every

component in the sample space.
A Random Variable a numerical quantity that is derived from the outcomes of a random
experiment.

Types of Random Variables:

 Discrete Random Variables - finite number of distinct values. Ex. number of pencil
 Continuous Random Variables - uncountable number of potential values, regularly
measurable amounts. Example: height, weight, temperature

Probability Distribution of a discrete random variable is correspondence that assigns

probabilities to the values of a random variable. The probability distribution of a discrete random
variable is also called the probability mass function.
Probability Distribution is a listing of the possible values and the corresponding probabilities of a
discrete random variable or a formula for the probabilities.

Sum of Probability formula:

1. The mean is considered as a measure of the `central location' of a random variable. It is the
weighted average of the values that random variable X can take, with weights provided by the
probability distribution.
2. The Expected Value or Mean Value of a discrete random variable x is can be computed by
first multiplying each possible x value by the probability of observing that value and then
adding the resulting quantities. Symbolically,

μ=∑ X ∙ P( X )

The expected value is also defined as the average value of a random variable over numerous
trials of an experiment. T
2
The Variance of a Discrete Random Variable X, denoted by σ x is computed by first
subtracting the mean from each possible x value to obtain the deviations, then squaring each
deviation and multiplying the result by the probability of the corresponding x value, and then finally
adding these quantities.

Definition: If X is a random variable with mean E( X )=μ, then the variance of X is defined by,
σ =∑ ¿ ¿
2

Remember that if the value of the variance is small, then the values of the random variable are
close to the mean.

The Standard Deviation of x, denoted by σ x , is the square root of the

Variance. In symbol,
σ =√ σ 2

Normal Probability Distribution is a probability distribution of continuous random

variables. For example, your grades in Mathematics is one of the scores in the distribution, you
can predict the location of that score in the distribution and interpret it with regards to the mean
and standard deviation.

Properties of Normal Curve

 The graphical representation of the normal distribution is popularly known as a normal
curve. The normal curve is described clearly by the following characteristics.

1. The normal curve is bell-shaped.

2. The curve is symmetrical about its center. This means that, if we draw a segment from the peak
of the curve down to the horizontal axis, the segment divides the normal curve into two equal parts
or areas.
3. The mean, median, and mode coincide at the center. This also means that in a normal
distribution, or a distribution described by a normal curve, the mean, median, and mode are equal.
4. The width of the curve is determined by the standard deviation of the distribution.
5. The tails of the curve are plotted in both directions and flatten out indefinitely along the
horizontal axis. The tails are thus asymptotic to the baseline. A portion of the graph that is
asymptotic to a reference axis or another graph is called an asymptote, always approaching
another but never touching it.
6. The total area under a normal curve is 1. This means that the normal curve
represents the probability, or the proportion, or the percentage associated with specific sets of
measurement values.

To visualize and understand the properties/characteristics of a normal curve,

please refer to figure 2, as shown below.

A normally distributed random variable with a mean µ = 0 and standard deviation ơ = 1 is

called a standard normal variable. It is presented using standard normal distribution where the
center of the curve is zero, which is mean and added one unit from the center to the right and
subtract one unit from the center to the left. This is shown below in figure.

EMPIRICAL RULE
The empirical rule is better known as 68% - 95% - 99.70% rule.

Properties of Normal Random Variable:

 0 ≤ P(X )≤ 1 , for each value of X, in some books 0< P (X )≤ 1
 ∑ P (X )=1

STEPS ON HOW TO FIND THE AREA THAT CORRESPONDS TO Z –VALUE

1. Draw/sketch a normal curve and locate the given z-value on the normal curve.
2. Shade the region of the curve according to the condition of z-value whether it is below, above,
or between.
3. Use the table of the area under the normal curve to find the corresponding area.
4. Choose the appropriate operation based on step 2 and 3
4.1. When the z-value is to the left or any related terms (e.g. below, less than) just write the
value we obtained in step 3
4.2. When the z-value is to the right or any related terms (e.g. above, greater than), subtract
1 by the obtained value in step 3
4.3. When the shaded region is in between of the two z-value, subtract the biggest by
the smallest value obtained in step 3
5. Label the shaded region and draw a conclusion.

In solving real-life problems involving the normal curve, it is particularly

important to convert a random variable x to a standard normal variable or z-score. This procedure
is known as “standardizing” or “standardization” of a random variable, where a standardized
value is called a z-score. A z-score is a measure of the number of standard deviations (σ ) a
particular data value is away from the mean(μ).

Given any value x from a normal distribution with mean μand standard
deviation σ , to convert x to a z-score (standard normal score), you need to;

(a) Subtract the mean μfrom x .

(b) Divide this quantity, x – μ, by the standard deviation σ.
The formula used in converting a random variable x to a standard normal
variable z is:

where:
z – standard normal score or z – score
x – any data value in a normal distribution
μ- mean
σ - standard deviation

RANDOM SAMPLING
*example situation with answer and explanation.

1. A researcher writes the name of each student on a piece of paper, mixes the papers in a bowl,
and draws 7 pieces of paper.
Situation 1 illustrates simple random sampling. The pieces of paper correspond to each student
as elements of the population. All of them have an equal chance of being selected as a sample by
randomly picking 7 pieces of paper in a bowl.
2. A researcher selects every 7th students from a random list.
3. A researcher tells the class to count and then selects those students who
count a multiple of 7 numbers.
Situations 2 and 3 illustrate systematic random sampling because samples are being selected
based on the kth consistent intervals. Selecting every 7th student on the random list of names
creates an equal chance for all of the students. The same thing happened in selecting students
who count multiple of 7 or 7, 14, 21, and so on.

4. A researcher separates the list of boys and girls, then draws 7 names by
gender.
Situation 4 illustrates stratified random sampling because the students
were divided into two different strata or groups, boys and girls. With a proportional number for
each group, samples will then be selected at random from these two groups.

5. A researcher surveys all students from 3 randomly selected classes out of 7 classes.
Situation 5 illustrates cluster sampling since all students are divided into
clusters or classes, then 3 classes were selected at random out of the 7 classes. All of the
students of these three classes comprised the samples of the study. Take note that each cluster is
mutually homogeneous yet internally heterogeneous.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF RANDOM SAMPLING

a. A Simple random sampling technique is the most basic random sampling
wherein each element in the population has an equal probability of being selected. Lottery method.
Random numbers selected to decide which elements are included as the sample. The drawing
number of paper is based on the desired number of samples.
b. Systematic random sampling is a random sampling that uses a list of all
the elements in the population and then elements are being selected based on the kth consistent
intervals. To get the kth interval, divide the population size by the sample size.
c. Stratified random sampling - the population is divided into different strata or divisions. The
number of samples will be proportionately picked in each stratum that is why all strata are
represented in the samples.
d. Cluster sampling - population is divided into clusters or groups and then the clusters are
randomly selected. All elements of the clusters randomly selected are considered the samples of
the study.

The sampling techniques that involve random selection are called probability sampling.
Likewise, simple random, systematic, and stratified and cluster sampling are all probability
sampling techniques. There are also sampling techniques that do not involve random selection of
data. They are called non-probability sampling. An example of this is convenience sampling
wherein the researcher gathers data from nearby sources of information exerting minimal effort.
Convenience is being used by persons giving questionnaires on the streets to ask the passers-by.
Purposive sampling -respondents are being selected based on the goal of the study.

A parameter is a measure that is used to describe the population while statistic is a

measure that is used to describe the sample.

POPULATION MEAN
The mean is the sum of the data divided by the number of data. The mean is used to describe
where the set of data tends to concentrate at a certain point.
Population mean is the mean computed based on the elements of the population or data. The
symbol µ is used to represent population mean. To compute for the population mean, we simply
add all the data (X) and then, divide it by the number of elements in the population (N). We apply
the formula:
POPULATION VARIANCE AND POPULATION STANDARD DEVIATION
Variance and standard deviation determine how to spread or to scatter each data on the
set from the mean. Standard deviation is simply the square root of the variance.
Population variance is the computed variance of the elements of the
population. The symbol σ 2 (read as “sigma squared”) is used to represent population variance.

To compute for the population variance, we apply the formula:

Population standard deviation is the computed standard deviation of the elements of the
population. The symbol σ (read as “sigma”) is used to represent population standard deviation.

To compute for the population standard deviation, we use the formula:

Note: Population mean ( µ), population variance ( σ 2) and population standard deviation (σ ) are
what we called parameters.

SAMPLE MEAN
The sample mean is the average of all the data of the samples. The symbol x (read as “x
bar”) is used to represent the sample mean. To compute for the sample mean, we simply add all
the data and divide it by the number of elements in the sample (n). We apply the formula:

Sample variance is the computed variance of the elements of the sample. s2 is used to represent
sample variance.

To compute for the sample variance, we apply the formula:

Sample standard deviation is the computed standard deviation of the elements of the sample. s is
used to represent sample standard deviation.
To compute for the sample standard deviation, we use the formula:

Note: Sample mean ( x ), sample variance ( s2) and sample standard deviation ( s) are what we
called statistics.

SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION
Steps in solving the mean and variance of the sampling distribution of the sample means.
 Compute the mean of the population using the formula μ=∑ x /N . The value equals to 3.0.
 Compute the variance of the population using the formula σ 2=∑ ¿ ¿ .
 Determine the number of possible samples of size 2 (without replacement). Use the
combination formula NCn where N is the population size and n is the sample size.
 List all possible samples and compute the corresponding means.
 Construct the sampling distribution of the sample means.
 Compute the mean of the sampling distribution of the sample means.
 Compute the variance of the sampling distribution of the sample means using the formula
σ x =∑ ¿ ¿
2

MIND THIS: The mean of the population is equal to the sampling distribution of sample mean.

Mean of the Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean

Variance of the Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean

σ x =∑ P( X ¿)∙ ¿ ¿ or
2

Standard Deviation of the Sampling Distribution

σ x =√ ∑ P( X ¿)∙ ¿ ¿ ¿
where:
μ x = mean of the sampling distribution of the sample mean
2
σ x =¿ variance of the sampling distribution of the sample mean
∑ ¿¿ sum of the products of the sample mean and the probability of the sample mean
μ=¿ population mean
σ =¿ population variance
2

n=¿ sample size

N=¿ population size
X =¿ sample mean
P( X)=¿ probability of the sample mean
(X −μ)=¿ square of the difference between the sample mean
and population mean
∑ ¿¿ summation of the products of probability of the sample mean and the square of the
difference between the sample mean and the population mean
μ =¿ square of the population mean
2

X =¿ square of the sample mean

2

2
X ∙ P ( X )¿=¿ sum of the product of the square of the sample mean
and the probability of the sample mean

Note:
In computing for the variance of the sampling distribution o the sample means, you may
2
σ N −n
use the formula σ 2x =∑ ¿ ¿ or σ 2x = ∙ for finite population (sampling without replacement) and
n N−1
2
2 σ
σ x = for infinite population (sampling with replacement). The standard error of the mean is also
n
σ
computes using the formula σ x = .
√n

Distribution of the Sample Mean for Normal Population

1. Population variance σ 2 is known
The population has a mean μ and variance of σ 2, the distribution pf the sample mean is (at least
σ
approximately) normal and standard error of the mean σ x = , where σ is the population standard
√n
deviation and n is the sample size. To determine the probability of a certain event, we can use the
z- distribution by transforming the mean of the sample data to an approximately normal variable,
x−μ
z=
using the relation σ . This distribution is best applied for large sample sizes, say n ≥ 30.
√n
2. Population variance σ 2 is unknown
s
The standard error of the mean becomes s x = , where s is the point-estimate of σ (population
√n
standard deviation ) or the sample standard deviation and n is the sample size. To estimate the
x−μ
t=
population parameters, we can use the t-distribution by using the formula s . Remember that
√n
as n the sample size is very large, the standard deviation s is almost indistinguishable from the
population standard deviation σ and therefore t and z distributions are essentially identical.
Remember that, we use the t-distribution for small sample size, say n ≥ 30.

Properties of the sampling distribution of the sample means in terms of its mean, standard
deviation, and the shape of the histogram.
1. Its mean is equal to the population mean μ x =μ.
2. Its standard deviation is equal to the standard deviation of the
σ
population divided by the square root of the sample size, σ x = . This is true for infinite
√n
population. For infinite population, like the examples that we had previously, the standard
deviation of the sampling distribution of the means is given by

σ x=
σ
√∙
N−n
√ n N −1
The term
finite.
√ N −n
N −1
is called the finite correction factor. This is used when the population is

3. It will tend to have a normal distribution, regardless of the shape of the population.
Note: These three facts about the sampling distribution of the sample means comprise what is
otherwise known as the Central Limit Theorem.

This formula use when n ≥ 30:

X−μ
z=
σ
√n
This formula use when n ≤ 30:
x−μ
t=
s
√n
Note: The Central Limit Theorem describes the normality of the distribution of the sample mean
taken from a population that is not normally distributed.

CENTRAL LIMIT THEOREM

 Central Limit Theorem illustrates:
 If the sample size n, where n is sufficiently large is drawn from any population with mean μ
and a standard deviation σ , then the sampling distribution of sample means approximates
the normal distribution.
 Whenever the population is not normally distributed, or if we do not know of its distribution,
the Central Limit Theorem allows us to conclude that the distribution of sample means will
be normal if the sample size is sufficiently large.
 Given a random variable X with mean μ and variance σ 2, then regardless of whether the
population distribution of X is normally distributed or not, the shape of the distribution of
the sample means taken from the population approaches a normal distribution.
 The Central Limit Theorem states that the sample size is large.
 The Central Limit Theorem states that the mean of the sampling distribution of the sample
mean is exactly equal to the population mean.
 As the sample size n increases, the mean of the sampling distribution decreases.
 If a population has a mean of 12.8, the mean of the sampling distribution is also exactly the
same as 12.8
 When the sample size tends to infinity (a very large sample) the distribution of the sample
mean X will be normally distributed.
 If the sample size tends to infinity, the sample mean μ x equals the population mean μ .
 When the original variable is normally distributed, the distribution of the sample means will be
normally distributed, for any sample size n.
 When the distribution of the original variable might not be normal, a sample size of 30 or more
is needed to use a normal distribution to approximate the distribution of the sample means.
The larger the sample, the better the approximation will be.
 If the sample size is sufficiently large the Central Limit Theorem can be used to answer the
sample mean.

A sampling distribution of the sample mean is a frequency distribution of the sample mean
computed from all possible random samples of a specific size n taken from a population.
The probability distribution of the sample mean is also called the sampling distribution of the
sample mean.
The standard distribution of the sampling distribution of the sample mean is also known as
the standard error of the mean.
Steps to Solve Problems Involving Sampling Distribution of the Sample Mean
Step 1. Identify the given information
Step 2. Identify what is asked for
Step 3. Identify the formula to be used
Step 4. Compute for the Probability