World Report On Violence Against Children

WORLD REPORT ON
VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN
Contents
Paulo Sérgio Pinheiro
Independent Expert for the United Nations
Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Children
WORLD REPORT ON

Independent Expert for the United Nations
Published by the United Nations

The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply
the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations or the regional
consultation partners concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its
authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
The Study Secretariat welcomes requests for permission to reproduce and translate this book in part
or in full. Applications and enquiries should be addressed to the Office of The High Commissioner
for Human Rights, United Nations Children’s Fund, and the World Health Organization which
will be glad to provide the latest information on any changes made to the text.
Designed by the United Nations Publishing Services (UN Geneva)
and Services Concept (www.services-concept.ch)
Printed in Geneva, Switzerland by ATAR Roto Presse SA
This book may also be consulted and downloaded on the following websites:
http://www.violencestudy.org
http://www.ohchr.org
http://www.unicef.org
http://www.who.int
ISBN-10 92-95057-51-1
ISBN-13 978-92-95057-51-7
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements V
Preface XI
Foreword XIII
Message from the NGO Advisory Panel XV
The Imperative to End Violence against Children XVII
1. An end to violence against children 1
Introduction 3
Making a real difference 3
Prevention is the key 6
A global problem 6
Principles and recommendations 17
Overarching recommendations 18 III
Implementation and follow-up 24
References 26
2. Violence against children and international human rights law and standards 29
Introduction 31
The Convention on the Rights of the Child 32
International criminal, humanitarian, refugee and labour law 37
Regional human rights systems 38
Non-binding instruments 39
References 42
3. Violence against children in the home and family 45
Introduction 47
Human rights instruments 48
Background and context 50
Nature and extent of the problem 50
The consequences of violence against children 63
Factors contributing to violence 66
Responses to violence against children in the home and family 73
Recommendations 92
References 96
4. Violence against children in schools and educational settings 109
Introduction 111
Impacts of violence at school 128
Responses to violence against children in schools and educational settings 136
Recommendations 153
References 157
5. Violence against children in care and justice institutions 171
Introduction 175
Factors contributing to violence in institutions 180
Children in institutional care 183
Children in custody and detention 190
Other children in State custody 201
IV Responses to violence against children in care and justice institutions 203
Recommendations 216
References 220
6. Violence against children in places of work 231
Introduction 233
Responses to violence against children in places of work 253
Recommendations 268
References 271
7. Violence against children in the community 283
Introduction 285
Responses to violence against children in the community 317
Recommendations 335
References 339
8. The way forward 353
Annex 357
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The World Report on Violence against Children has benefited from the support of many
institutions and friends. I acknowledge with thanks the many organisations, experts, authors,
peer reviewers, advisers, consultants, volunteers, interns and the Study Secretariat, whose
commitment and dedication have made this book possible.
The Coordinating Committee

The three coordinating entities of the Study: the Office of the High Commissioner for Human
Rights (OHCHR), the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the World Health
Organization (WHO). The heads of these entities, and their predecessors: Louise Arbour,
the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Mary Robinson and
the late Sérgio Vieira de Mello, and Mehr Khan Williams, Deputy High Commissioner for
Human Rights; Ann M. Veneman, UNICEF Executive Director and Carol Bellamy, and
Rima Salah, Deputy Executive Director, the late Lee Jong-wook, former Director-General of V
WHO, Anders Nordström, the acting Director-General, and Catherine Le Galès-Camus,
Assistant Director-General.
I also thank the staff of these organisations, in particular; Karin Lucke, Krista Oinonen and
Maja Andrijasevic-Boko at OHCHR; Gopalan Balagopal, Stella Schuhmacher and
Andres Guerrero at UNICEF; Alexander Butchart and Alison Phinney Harvey at WHO.
Human rights treaty bodies and mechanisms

The members of the Committee on the Rights of the Child, members of other human rights
Treaty Bodies, and my colleagues the mandate holders of the special procedures mechanisms of
the Council on Human Rights (and former Commission on Human Rights).
I also thank national human rights institutions, including ombudspersons and commissioners
for children.
Other United Nations and international organisations

The Inter-Agency Group on Violence against Children – in addition to the above, the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), in particular
Linda King and Paolo Fontani; the International Labour Office (ILO); the Office of the United
Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), in particular Ngonlardje Mbaidjol,
Ron Pouwels, Eva Ahlen, and Christoph Bierwirth; the United Nations Office on Drugs
and Crime (UNODC), in particular Sumru Noyan and Anna Giudice; the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP); the joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS
(UNAIDS); the United Nations Department of Public Information (UNDPI); the United
Nations Information Service, the Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW);
the United Nations Population Fund, (UNFPA); the United Nations Development Fund
for Women (UNIFEM); the United Nations Fund for International Partnerships (UNFIP),
in particular Kimberly Gamble-Payne; the United Nations Office for the Coordination of
Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA); UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre; the World Bank;
the Inter-Parliamentary Union; and the International Committee of the Red Cross; the Indian
Ocean Observatory; the European Commission Daphne Programme.
The Editorial Board

Shirin Aumeeruddy-Cziffra, Nancy Baron, Jo Becker, Susan Bissell, Alexander Butchart,
Nancy Cardia, Jane Connors, Jaap Doek, Amaya Gillespie, Savitri Goonesekere, Hani Jahshan,
Maria Francisca Ize-Charrin, Etienne Krug, Karin Landgren, Charlotte McClain-Nhlapo,
VI
Jim Mercy, Peter Newell, Alison Phinney Harvey, Frans Roselaers, Marta Santos-Pais.
Invited Experts
Assefa Bequele, Ragne Birte Lund, Maud de Boer-Buquicchio, Anees Jillani,
Moushira Khattab, Thoko Majokweni, Vitit Muntarbhorn, Phillip O’Brien, Juan Miguel Petit.
Contributing authors
Kevin Browne, Fatuma Chege, Luke Dowdney, Alexander Fyfe, Deborah Gorman-Smith,
Changu Mannathoko, Claudia Mitchell, Carmen Madrinan and Deborah Muir, Moncef Moalla,
Yoshie Noguchi, Teija Vallandingham, and the many peer reviewers internationally.
Publication development
Maggie Black, lead writer; Andrew Wilson, writer and editor; Stuart Adams, support writer;
Anne Schreier-Audoire, copy editor; Michelle Siegel and colleagues, UNICEF, design;
Sophie Combette, and Services-Concept, design and lay-out.
Research Advisory Group

Gareth Jones(lead expert), Patrick Belser, Jeroo Bilimoria, Joan Durrant, Michaelle de Cocke,
Michael Dunne, Claudia Garcia-Moreno, Henrica Jansen, Chen Jinqui, Jack Jones,
Ingrid Leversen, the International Society for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect
colleagues (ISPCAN), Doris Ma Fat, Dipak Naker; Sami Nevala, Leanne Riley,
Oddrun Samdal, Kenji Shibuya.
I would like to thank the generous support for my research work that I have received from
2003 to 2006 from the Center for the Study of Violence, University of São Paulo, NEV/
CEPID/USP and the São Paulo State Foundation for the Support of Research, (FAPESP),
Brazil; the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológica (CNPq), the
Centre de Recherches sur le Brésil Contemporain (CRBC); École des Hautes Études en
Sciences Sociales, Maison des Sciences de l’Homme and the Chaire Brésilienne de Sciences
Sociales Sérgio Buarque de Holanda, Paris, and the Watson Institute for International Studies,
Brown University, USA.
Donors
The Governments of Belgium, Canada, Finland, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Monaco,
Norway, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.
Private sector partners: The Oak Foundation; The Body Shop; Microsoft Corporation.
VII
The nine regional steering and planning committees and the host Governments for
the regional consultations, sub-regional and national consultations
Latin America Regional Consultation, Buenos Aires, Argentina
North America Regional Consultation, Toronto, Canada
Middle East and North Africa Regional Consultation, Cairo, Egypt
Pacific Island Nations Sub-regional Consultation, Suva, Fiji
Indian Ocean Island Nations Sub-regional Consultation, Antananarivo, Madagascar
West and Central Africa Regional Consultation, Bamako, Mali
South Asia Regional Consultation, Islamabad, Pakistan
Europe and Central Asia Regional Consultation, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Consultation, Johannesburg, South Africa
East Asia and the Pacific Regional Consultation, Bangkok, Thailand
Caribbean Regional Consultation, Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago
Regional bodies
The African Union, in particular its African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare
of the Child; the Caribbean Community (CARICOM); the Council of Europe, particularly the
Deputy Secretary-General of the Council and the European Commissioner for Human Rights;
the European Union, in particular, the Personal Representative of the Secretary-General
on Human Rights; the League of Arab States; the Organization of American States and, in
particular, its Inter-American Commission on Human Rights; and the South Asian Association
for Regional Cooperation.
Children and young people
The children and young people, and youth facilitators who have been involved in the Study
process since the very beginning. Their contributions, hope, strength and energy have been
extremely valuable in ensuring that their message, essential for future generations, would
continue to be heard loud and clear.
VIII
The NGO Advisory Panel for the UN Secretary-General’s Study
on Violence against Children
Jo Becker (co-chair), Human Rights Watch; Melanie Gow (co-chair), World Vision
International, Australia; Mary Beloff, Center of Legal and Social Studies on Childhood and
Youth, Argentina; Carol Lynn Bower, Resources Aimed at the Prevention of Child Abuse and
Neglect (RAPCAN), South Africa; Luke Dowdney, Viva Rio, Brazil; Joseph Gathia,
Centre of Concern for Child Labour, India; Dilyana Giteva, Human Rights Project, Bulgaria;
Stuart Hart, International School Psychology Association (ISPA) and the International Institute
for Child Rights and Development (IICRD), United States; Séverine Jacomy, Focal Point
Sexual Exploitation of Children, Switzerland; Elizabeth Jareg, International Save the Children
Alliance, Norway; Dr. Hasson Qasem Khan, Yemen Psychological Association, Yemen;
Ellen Mouravieff-Apostol, International Federation of Social Workers, Switzerland;
Najat M’jid, BAYTI, Morocco; Virginia Murillo Herrera, Defense for Children International,
Costa Rica; Peter Newell, Global Initiative to End all Corporal Punishment of Children,
United Kingdom; Millie Odhiambo, Child Rights Advisory Documentation and Legal Center
(CRADLE), Kenya; Anastasia Pinto, Centre for Organization Research and Education/World
Coalition for Indigenous Children and Youth, India; Elizabeth Protacio-de Castro, Program
on Psychosocial Trauma and Human Rights, Center for Integrative and Development Studies,
University of the Philippines, Philippines; Rakesh Rajani, Haki Elimu, Tanzania;
Marcellina Mian, Kimberly Svevo, Barbara Bonner (ISPCAN); Washeila Sait, Disabled
Children’s Action Group, South Africa; Dick Sobsey, Inclusion International, The Canadian
Association for Community Living, The JP Das Developmental Disabilities Centre at
the University of Alberta, Canada; Liliana Ines Tojo, Center for Justice and International Law
(CEJIL), Brazil; Marie Wernham, Consortium for Street Children, United Kingdom.
Other NGOs, civil society and academic institutions
Veronica Yates, Isabelle Guitard and Jenny Thomas at the Child Rights Information Network;
Lena Karlsson, Roberta Cecchetti, Ravi Karkara, and colleagues at Save the Children;
the National Committees of UNICEF; Desmond Runyan (ISPCAN); Carmen Madrinan,
End Child Prostitution, Child Pornography and Trafficking of Children for Sexual Purposes
(ECPAT); Christine Bloch, Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children;
Miquel Paladella, Global Movement for Children; Jim Cairns, World Conference of Religions
for Peace; the National Council for Childhood and Motherhood, Egypt; Annemarie Schlack,
SOS Children’s Villages; Plan International; Rachel Brett, Quaker UN Office; Areti Sianni,
Amnesty International; Dina Abousamra, Norwegian Refugee Council; Maria Amélia Azevedo
e Viviane Nogueira de Azevedo Guerra, Laboratorio de Estudos da Crianca (LACRI);
Musimbi Kanyoro, World YWCA and the International Alliance of Youth CEOs; IX
Bartholomew Shaha and Jenny Aris World Alliance of YMCAs; Ibrahim Osman,
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies; Gillian Shirazi,
International Award Association; Lesly Bulman, World Association of Girl Guides and Girl
Scouts; Eduardo Missoni, World Organization of the Scout Movement; Nora Groce of Yale
University School of Public Health, Michael Dunne et al of Queensland University
of Technology.
The Study Secretariat
The Director, Amaya Gillespie, and colleagues, Marcelo Daher (my principal assisant),
Esther van der Velde, Imma Guerras, Teizu Guluma, Alexandra Scolari, Véronique Taveau,
Sunita Grote, Helen Moestue, June Kane, Phyllis Ressler, Susan Fountain, and other
consultants and interns.
X
PREFACE
Violence against children cuts across boundaries of geography, race, class, religion and culture. It
occurs in homes, schools and streets; in places of work and entertainment, and in care and detention
centres. Perpetrators include parents, family members, teachers, caretakers, law enforcement
authorities and other children. Some children are particularly vulnerable because of gender, race,
ethnic origin, disability or social status. And no country is immune, whether rich or poor.
The consequences of violence can be devastating. Above all, it can result in early death. But
even children who survive must cope with terrible physical and emotional scars. Indeed, violence
places at risk not only their health, but also their ability to learn and grow into adults who can
create sound families and communities.
Violence against children is thus a major threat to global development and our work to reach
the Millennium Development Goals. We will not achieve universal primary education unless
children are safe in school. The spread of HIV/AIDS will not be halted until we also stop the XI
violence against girls that helps to fuel the pandemic. Violence against children is also a major
obstacle to gender equality.
The impact of violence against children is fully and persuasively documented in the United
Nations Study that is the subject of this book. The Study also outlines what must be done to
confront this challenge. In that effort, States bear primary responsibility for preventing and
responding to violence against children, and for upholding the Convention on the Rights of the
Child and other treaties, which guarantee girls and boys everywhere the right to live their lives
free from violence. There must be action in all sectors – from health and education to labour
and justice – and at all levels, local, national and international. But civil society groups and
individual citizens also have important roles to play. The UN family, for its part, remains strongly
committed to this work.
Violence against children is never justifiable. Nor is it inevitable. If its underlying causes are
identified and addressed, violence against children is entirely preventable. This book and Study
should help to improve our understanding of the problem, and help us devise strategies to confront
it. I therefore commend the contents to a wide global audience.
Kofi Annan
United Nations Secretary-General
October 2006
XII
FOREWORD
The World Report on Violence against Children is the outcome of the first comprehensive global
attempt to describe the scale of all forms of violence against children and its impact. Violence
is a problem that calls for a multisectoral response. This report approaches the issue from the
combined perspectives of human rights, public health and child protection.
The participatory processes which led to this report brought together the experience of
Governments, international organisations, civil society organisations, research institutions
and children. This rich collaborative effort has generated expectations of renewed action.
Now, that action is urgently needed.
The Convention on the Rights of the Child forms an international basis for ensuring the rights
and protection of children. Yet, in every country of the world, there are children who continue
to fear and experience violence. The repercussions of that violence can continue throughout their
lives, influencing their development, their behaviours and their health. XIII
This report asserts that no violence against children is justifiable and all forms of violence are
preventable. The commitments made at international and national levels and the accumulated
knowledge described in this report give us the necessary tools to protect children from violence,
to prevent it from happening in the first place, and to mitigate the consequences.
The World Report on Violence against Children must lead to lasting change. All of us share
the responsibility to implement it.
Louise Arbour Ann M. Veneman

United Nations High Commissioner Executive Director
for Human Rights United Nations Children’s Fund
Office of the United Nations High
Commissioner for Human Rights
Anders Nordström
Acting Director-General
World Health Organization
XIV
MESSAGE FROM THE NGO ADVISORY PANEL TO
THE UNITED NATIONS SECRETARY-GENERAL’S STUDY
ON VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN
NGOS’ COMMITMENT TO THE STUDY AND ITS FOLLOW-UP
This Study brings to the attention of the highest level of the United Nations the horrific scale
of all forms of violence suffered by girls and boys at the hands of adults throughout the world.
The Study process and outcome are also an affirmation of the involvement and capacity of chil-
dren. Children have been engaged in the Study to an unprecedented degree. Their presence, their
humanity, input and commitment have enriched every aspect of the Study.
Children’s hopes and expectations demand that States act now with real urgency to fulfil their
obligations to children as rights-holders. Not only Governments, but individual adults throughout
the world must accept, finally, the core message of the Study: that no violence against girls and XV
boys is justifiable, and that all violence against them is preventable. All violence against children is
a violation of their equal human right to respect for their human dignity and physical integrity.
Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) – international, regional and national – have been
involved from the very beginning of the process. Working with UN and other agencies, NGOs
have facilitated and supported the involvement of girls and boys at national, regional and inter-
national level. NGOs, often working directly with children and young people, have documented
the types and frequency of violence against children, including the shameful fact that in 2006
so much of it still remains lawful and State-authorised – endorsed and administered by those
responsible for children’s upbringing, care, welfare and education. NGOs have also demonstrated
and promoted positive programmes and interventions – ways forward towards a world in which
all violence against children is condemned and eliminated. The NGO Advisory Panel, set up to
support the Study and expanded to include children and youth members, and the Sub-Group on
Children and Violence of the NGO Group for the Convention on the Rights of the Child, have
been fully consulted and involved in the preparation of the Study outcomes.1
The UN Secretary-General’s Study must generate a living process that starts rather than ends with
the submission of the report to the General Assembly and the publication of this book. NGOs are
ready and willing to continue and collaborate in this process. We believe that it should be led and
coordinated by a Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Violence against Children
who must, reflecting the Study process, engage directly with children as partners.
Children have underlined with passion the urgency of stopping all this violence; Paulo Sérgio
Pinheiro has responded by setting essential time-bound targets for Governments, which bear the
primary obligation to prevent violence and respond. We will work together with Governments to
meet these targets, and in particular:
• to ensure that all currently lawfully accepted violence against girls and boys, including
all corporal punishment, all harmful traditional practices, and all sexual violence,
is prohibited and also effectively eliminated through awareness raising and public
education;
• to support the development of a multi-faceted and systematic framework to respond to
violence against children, fully integrated within national planning processes.
Finally, we would like to express our thanks to Paulo Sérgio Pinheiro, who has led the Study pro-
cess in an open and participatory fashion, travelled tirelessly and proved himself to be an attentive
and responsive listener to children.
XVI
1 Members of the Sub-Group on Violence of the NGO Group for the Convention on the Rights of the Child include:
African Child Policy Forum; Arigatou Foundation; ECPAT International; Friends World Committee for Consultation;
Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children; Human Rights Watch; International Alliance of Women;
International Catholic Child Bureau (ICCB/BICE); International Council of Women; International Federation of Social
Workers ; International Federation Terre des Hommes; International Save the Children Alliance; Jesuit Refugee Service;
Plan International; Resources Aimed at the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect – R APCAN; SOS-Kinderdorf
International; World Organisation Against Torture (OMCT); WWSF Women’s World Summit Foundation; World Union
of Catholic Women’s Organisations; World Vision International.
THE IMPERATIVE TO END
The World Report on Violence against Children is not an individual achievement nor the work of
just one office, but the result of a genuine and lively participatory process, involving Governments,
international entities, civil society and children. Over the last three years I have had the privilege
of learning from the testimony of thousands of adults and children from all regions of the world.
Their commitment to the protection and promotion of children’s rights has been the driving force
behind the development of the United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against
Children, and this book which elaborates on the ‘Study’.
The Study confirms that violence against children happens in all parts of the world. In the course
of the Study process, though, I have witnessed the efforts of many civil society organisations that
strive ceaselessly at local and international levels to ensure the protection of children. We must
be inspired by the strength of those in the field who are confronted with very difficult conditions XVII
on a daily basis and who have extremely creative approaches for reducing children’s exposure to
violence and advocating for their rights.
Another promising element of the Study process has been the great interest of Governments all
over the world to address the issue of violence against children. As of September 2006, I had
received a total of 136 responses to the questionnaire I sent to Governments as I prepared my
report. Their responses do not deny the pervasiveness of violence. This recognition of violence,
and the open involvement of Governments, are important steps towards putting into practice the
commitments States made when they ratified the United Nations Convention on the Rights of
the Child.
The collaboration of the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, the United
Nations Children’s Fund and the World Health Organisation in developing the Study was crucial
in recognising the multi-faceted nature of violence against children and the need for a coopera-
tive, multidisciplinary approach to addressing it. The Study also benefited from the substantial
contributions of research centres and experts working in very different fields such as criminal jus-
tice, public health, education, public security and human rights. This is in itself a reminder that
making a real and lasting difference in the lives of children requires all sectors to work together
and to coordinate their efforts.
The preparation of a Study with such global dimensions was only possible through mobilisation
of a formidable network of organisations and programmes around the world. United Nations
entities played a leading role in promoting this participatory process, in partnership with Gov-
ernments and civil society, and especially through the national, subregional and regional con-
sultations that were facilitated by UNICEF offices and various partners. This broad process of
consultation was the key strategy that ensured that the final recommendations in this report are
firmly anchored in the reality of children’s lives at country level.
Some forms of violence, such as sexual exploitation and trafficking and the impact of armed con-
flict on children, have provoked international condemnation over the past decade. The recogni-
tion of these extreme situations has helped to bring children’s concerns high on the international
agenda. However attention to violence against children in general continues to be fragmented
and very limited – different forms of violence in the home, schools, institutions and the commu-
nity are largely ignored in current debates in the international community.
Family units are the best providers of physical and emotional care for children. Schools have a
fundamental role in ensuring the development of children’s potential while protecting them. But
it is Governments that have the responsibility to build a solid legal framework and to provide the
support needed by families, schools and communities to adequately fulfil their role.
XVIII
Appropriate legal frameworks are vital to ending violence against children, but preventing and
responding to violence does not mean adopting unilateral, tough or repressive measures. More-
over, if these measures violate the rights of any group of citizens, they are never going to be effec-
tive. This is particularly serious when countries face the challenges of growing levels of violence
and crime. If Governments are committed to ensuring safety, it is clear that this is not going to be
achieved by locking up adolescents under appalling conditions, by condoning the use of violence
by agents of the State, or by weakening civil and political rights. This Study demonstrates that
effective responses to violence involve comprehensive efforts, combining long-term investment in
prevention, challenging attitudes which condone or support violence, reliable data collection, and
improving the functioning of State institutions and ensuring accountability.
As Nelson Mandela has reminded us, violence thrives in the absence of democracy and respect for
human rights. Violence against children persists as a permanent threat where authoritarian rela-
tionships between adults and children remain. The belief that adults have unlimited rights in the
upbringing of a child compromises any approach to stop and prevent violence committed within
the home, school or state institution. For lasting change, attitudes that condone or normalise
violence against children, including stereotypical gender roles, need to be challenged,
Our failure to listen to children has resulted in a failure to respond to their needs. It is hard to
understand why and how adults can continue to argue that children should have less protection
from violence than adults do: in law, in policy and in practice. I sincerely hope that this Study will
be a watershed in ending the double standards and compromises that have existed for far too long.
Throughout the Study, children’s voices were listened to, heard, and respected. They asserted
their right to protection from all forms of violence, and their desire to enjoy that right without
delay. Their testimonies describing the harm they experience as a result of violence, and their
distress that many adults continue to accept and approve of it must prompt us to live up to our
principles, and to practise what we preach. We must act now to end children’s scepticism about
adult promises. Children are tired of being told they are the future. They want to see us fulfil our
promises in the present, and enjoy their right to be protected from violence today.

Geneva, Fall 2006
XIX
UNICEF/HQ 05-1826. Giacomo Pirozzi
Ukraine, 2005, Artem, 14, sits on a wall outside ‘Way Home’, a shelter in the port city of Odessa.
Artem arrived at the shelter three months ago after living for two years on the streets.
AN END TO
1
Introduction 3
Making a real difference 3
Prevention is the key 6
A global problem 6
Settings in which violence occurs 7
Hidden dimensions of violence against children 10
Range and scale of the problem 11 1
Risk factors and protective factors 12
AN END TO VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN

The devastating impact of violence 13
Principles and recommendations 17
Overarching recommendations 18
Implementation and follow-up 24
National and regional level 24
International level 25
References 26
2
1
“The children must, at last, play in the open veldt, no longer tortured by the pangs of hunger or ravaged
by disease or threatened with the scourge of ignorance, molestation and abuse, and no longer required
to engage in deeds whose gravity exceeds the demands of their tender years.”
Nelson Mandela, Nobel Peace Prize Laureate
INTRODUCTION There can be no compromise in challenging

violence against children. Children’s uniqueness
The full range and scale of all forms of – their human potential, their initial fragility
violence against children are only now becom- and vulnerability, their dependence on adults
ing visible, as is the evidence of the harm it for their growth and development – make an
does. This book documents the outcomes and unassailable case for more, not less, investment
recommendations of the process of the United in prevention and protection from violence.
Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
against Children. In recent decades some extreme forms of
violence against children, including sexual
‘The Study’ is the first comprehensive, global exploitation and trafficking, female genital
study on all forms of violence against children. mutilation (FGM), the worst forms of child
It builds on the model of the study on the labour and the impact of armed conflict, have
impact of armed conflict on children, prepared provoked international outcry and achieved
by Graça Machel and presented to the Gen- a consensus of condemnation, although no 3
eral Assembly in 1996, and follows the World rapid remedy. But in addition to these extreme

Health Organization’s 2002 World Report on forms of violence, many children are routinely
Violence and Health.1 exposed to physical, sexual and psychological
violence in their homes and schools, in care
The Study is also the first United Nations and justice systems, in places of work and in
(UN) study to engage directly and consistently their communities. All of this has devastating
with children, underlining and reflecting chil- consequences for their health and well-being,
dren’s status as rights holders, and their right now and in the future.
to express views on all matters that affect them
and have their views given due weight. MAKING A REAL
The central message of the Study is that no DIFFERENCE
violence against children is justifiable, and all
A number of linked and profound develop-
violence against children is preventable. The
ments suggest that the process and outcomes
Study reveals that in every region, in stark
of the Study are timed to make a real differ-
contradiction to States’ human rights obli-
ence to the status and lives of children.
gations and children’s developmental needs,
much violence against children remains legal, First, recognition of human rights obliga-
State-authorised and socially approved. The tions to eliminate violence against children
Study aims to mark a definitive global turning has intensified with the adoption and almost
point: an end to the justification of violence universal ratification of the Convention of the
against children, whether accepted as ‘tradi- Rights of the Child (CRC). The latter under-
tion’ or disguised as ‘discipline’. lines children’s status as rights holders. Yet, as
“Children are not mini-human beings with mini-human rights. But as long as adults continue
to regard them as such, violence against children will persist.”
Maud de Boer-Buquicchio, Deputy Secretary General of the Council of Europe
MANDATE AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY
In 2001, on the recommendation of the Committee on the Rights of the Child, the
General Assembly in its resolution 56/138 requested the Secretary-General to conduct
an in-depth study on the question of violence against children and to put forward rec-
ommendations for consideration by Member States for appropriate action. In February
2003, I was appointed by the UN Secretary-General to lead this Study.
The Study adopts the definition of the child as contained in article 1 of the Conven-
tion on the Rights of the Child (CRC): “every human being below the age of 18
years unless, under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier.” The
definition of violence is that of article 19 of the CRC: “all forms of physical or mental
violence, injury and abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploita-
tion, including sexual abuse.” It also draws on the definition in the World Report on
4
Violence and Health (2002): “the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened
or actual, against a child, by an individual or group, that either results in or has a high
likelihood of resulting in actual or potential harm to the child’s health, survival, devel-
opment or dignity.”2
In my capacity as Independent Expert, I submitted a report to the UN General Assem-
bly, and this book is intended to complement that report. Child-friendly materials have
also been produced. This book elaborates on the five different settings where violence
against children occurs: the family, schools, alternative care institutions and detention
facilities, places where children work, and in their communities. It does not address the
issue of children in armed conflict, as this is in the mandate of the Special Representa-
tive of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict, but it considers related
issues, such as violence against child refugees and other displaced children.
The Study and its secretariat in Geneva were supported by three UN entities: the Office
of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), the United
Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), and the World Health Organization (WHO),
and were also informed by a multidisciplinary Editorial Board of experts.
“We have to wipe their tears and transform their gloomy faces into happy ones.
We have to kindle the flame of hope and a better tomorrow in them.”
The First Lady of Pakistan, Begum Sehba Pervez Musharraf, 2005 I
1
the Study reveals, despite this broad accep- has given new urgency to prevention. Until the
tance of the CRC, children in almost all States 1960s there was no significant acknowledge-
are still waiting for full recognition of respect ment, even among professionals, of the extent
for their human dignity and physical integrity, of death, rape and injuries inflicted on children
and for adequate investment in actions to pre- by parents and those who have a duty of care
vent all forms of violence against them. or are in positions of trust. The problems of
violence against children in schools and other
Second, children themselves are speaking
settings had also only been given scant atten-
out on this issue and beginning to be heard
tion until recent decades.
and taken seriously. Children have testified
at the nine Regional Consultations held in Significantly, the expansion of research in the
connection with the Study about the routine neurobiological, behavioural and social sci-
violence they experience, in their homes and ences has generated a much deeper understand-
families and also in schools, other institutions ing of the significance of childhood experiences
and penal systems, in places of work, and in to the development of the brain and the cen- 5
their communities. Violence against children tral role of early relationships in healthy brain

exists in every State and cuts across boundar- development.3 This research clearly indicates
ies of culture, class, education, income, ethnic the importance of the child’s positive bond or
origin and age. Throughout the Study pro- attachment to parents; it demonstrates that
cess, children have consistently expressed the when protective relationships do not exist, expo-
urgent need to stop all this violence. Children sure to stress in the form of violence can disrupt
testify to the hurt – not only physical, but the developing nervous and immune systems,
‘the hurt inside’ – which this violence causes leading to greater susceptibility to physical and
them, compounded by adult acceptance, even
mental health problems. Thus, the opportu-
approval of it.
nity to prevent violence against children prom-
Governments need to accept that this is indeed ises to address a host of longer-term problems
an emergency, although it is not a new emer- that impose a substantial social and economic
gency. Children have suffered violence at the burden on the nations of the world.
hands of adults unseen and unheard for cen-
Fourth, there is increased recognition that the
turies. But now that the scale and impact of
prevention of violence against children requires
violence against children is becoming visible,
cooperation and collaboration among many
they cannot be kept waiting any longer for
partners. In effect, preventing and responding to
the effective protection to which they have an
unqualified right. violence against children should be everybody’s
business. The Study has benefited from collabo-
Third, growing recognition of the impact of ration between UN agencies addressing human
violence on the mental and physical health and rights, child protection and public health, and
well-being of children throughout their lives from input from a very broad range of sectors.
“There is a large gap between what we know about violence against children and what we know should
be done. We know that violence against children often causes lifelong physical and mental harm. We
also know that violence erodes the potential for children to contribute to society by affecting their
ability to learn and their social and emotional development. Given the importance of children to our
future the current complacency cannot continue – we must place “preventing” violence against children
among our highest priorities.”
James A. Mercy, Editorial Board of the UN Secretary-General’s Study
No longer can different professions afford to and the underlying economic and social con-
address this problem while working in isolation. ditions associated with violence.
Public health, criminal justice, social services,
education, human rights organisations, media As the Report of the United Nations Secretary-
and businesses – all have a common interest in General’s Study on Violence against Children
notes: “The core message of the Study is that
eliminating violence against children, and can
no violence against children is justifiable; all
find more efficient and effective ways to achieve
violence against children is preventable. There
this goal by working together.
should be no more excuses. Member States
must act now with urgency to fulfil their
PREVENTION IS THE KEY human rights obligations and other commit-
ments to ensure protection from all forms of
Despite the emerging picture of the scale
violence. While legal obligations lie with States,
of violence against children, there is a great
all sectors of society, all individuals, share the
opportunity now to move towards its elimi-
6 responsibility of condemning and preventing
nation. Violence is not an inevitable con-
violence against children and responding to
sequence of the human condition. Govern- child victims. None of us can look children in
ments are increasingly acknowledging and the eye if we continue to approve or condone
enforcing their human rights obligations to any form of violence against them.”4
children, and recognising the prevalence and
long-term impact of violence. The Study has
confirmed that the knowledge and capacity to A GLOBAL PROBLEM
prevent violence against children and reduce Reports of infanticide, cruel and humiliating
its consequences exist. The science base for punishment, neglect and abandonment, sexual
developing effective violence prevention strate- abuse and other forms of violence against
gies and therapeutic interventions is expanding; children date back to ancient civilisations.5,6
the existence of evidence-based strategies dem- Recently, documentation of the magnitude
onstrates that – with sufficient commitment and and impact of violence against children shows
investment – creative approaches to prevention clearly that this is a very substantial and seri-
can make a difference. Moreover, protecting ous global problem.7,8 It occurs in every coun-
young children from violence has vast potential try in the world in a variety of forms and set-
for reducing all forms of violence in society, as tings and is often deeply rooted in cultural,
well as reducing the long-term social and health economic, and social practices.
consequences of violence against children.
A large proportion of children in every society
Every society, no matter what its cultural, eco- suffer significant violence within their homes.
nomic or social background, can and must stop Only 16 States prohibit all corporal punishment
violence against children now. This requires gainst children in all settings, leaving the vast
transformation of the ‘mindset’ of societies, majority of the world’s child population without
“Violence against children is a violation of their human rights, a disturbing reality of our societies.
1
It can never be justified whether for disciplinary reasons or cultural tradition. No such thing as
“reasonable” levels of violence is acceptable. Legalized violence against children in one context risks
tolerance of violence against children generally.”
Louise Arbour, United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
equal legal protection from being hit and delib- institutions, by teachers in schools, and are
erately humiliated within their homes. In addi- also inflicted on children in conflict with the
tion, children face violence from those entrusted law. In workplaces where children below the
with their care in schools, in care and justice sys- minimum legal age for employment are found,
tems, as well as in places where they are work- employers often enjoy impunity in inflicting
ing legally or illegally. In over 100 countries, corporal punishment on children for inade-
children in schools suffer the reality or threat of quate performance. In the community, a child
State-authorised, legalised beating. In at least 30 who is labelled vagrant or anti-social may be
States, sentences of whipping or caning are still assaulted or otherwise ill-treated, with impu-
being imposed on children in penal systems, nity, by figures in authority, including police.
and in many more States violent punishments Children forced into prostitution frequently
are authorised in penal and care institutions.9 describe their violent treatment by clients as if
it were something they deserved.12
SETTINGS IN WHICH VIOLENCE
Sexual abuse, physical and psychological vio- 7
OCCURS
lence, and sexual harassment are forms of vio-

The Study used an analytical framework based lence which occur in all settings. In most soci-
on the environments or settings in which child- eties, sexual abuse of girls and boys is most
hood is spent – home and family, schools, care common within the home or is committed by a
and justice systems, workplaces and the commu- person known to the family. But sexual violence
nity. Chapter 2 explores the existing framework also occurs in schools and other educational set-
of international instruments and mechanisms tings, by both peers and teachers. It is rife against
applicable to violence against children. Chapters children in closed workplaces, such as domestic
3 to 7 focus on the forms violence takes within labourers employed in private households. It also
each of these settings. Each chapter aims to cover takes place in institutions and in the commu-
the settings-related background and context of nity, at the hands people known to the victim
violence against children, contributory factors and others. Girls suffer considerably more sexual
and risks, prevalence insofar as it has been iden- violence than boys, and their greater vulnerabil-
tified, impacts on children and others, and the ity to violence in many settings is in large part a
necessary directions for preventive action and product of the influence of gender-based power
for response to violence when it occurs. relations within society. At the same time, boys
are more likely to be the victims of homicide,
Describing children’s experience of violence and particularly of violence involving weapons.
is far from straightforward. Certain forms
of violence against children are common in Exposure to violence in one setting may well
all settings. Corporal punishment and other be reflected or compounded by violence in
forms of cruel or degrading punishment are another, and the Study’s analysis has illumi-
used by parents and other family members at nated specific vulnerabilities that need to be
home, by those responsible for their care in addressed, setting by setting.
“Throughout history some children have been loved and cherished and others brutalized by violence.
This report reflects that global reality. I hope it will help to promote action to address and eliminate all
forms of violence against children, as an essential path to human development and peace.”
Savitri Goonesekere, Editorial Board of the UN Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Children
THE STUDY PROCESS
The Study was developed through a participatory process which included Regional,
Sub-regional and National Consultations, expert thematic meetings and field visits. In
March 2004, a detailed questionnaire was sent to Governments on their approaches
to violence against children. A total of 136 responses had been received at the time of
publishing.10
Between March and July 2005, nine Regional Consultations, for the Caribbean, South
Asia, West and Central Africa, Latin America, North America, East Asia and the
Pacific, the Middle East and North Africa, Europe and Central Asia, and Eastern
and Southern Africa, were convened. Each Consultation brought together an aver-
age of 350 participants, including Government ministers and officials, parliamentar-
ians, representatives of regional and other intergovernmental organisations and UN
8
entities, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), national human rights institutions
(NHRIs), other elements of civil society, including the media and faith-based organi-
sations, and children themselves. Children participated in each Regional Consultation,
which were all preceded by meetings where they developed inputs and recommenda-
tions for the Study. Outcome reports for each Regional Consultation were also pro-
duced. A number of Sub-regional and National Consultations were also held.
Governments which hosted these consultations were actively involved in the promotion
of the Study. Regional organisations including the African Union, the Arab League, the
Caribbean Community (CARICOM), the Council of Europe, the European Union,
the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of the Organization of American
States and the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation played important
roles in the organisation of consultations. National and regional organisations have
committed themselves to ongoing involvement in the follow-up to the Study.
Field visits were undertaken in Argentina, Canada, China, El Salvador, Guatemala,
Haiti, Honduras, India, Israel and the Occupied Palestinian Territory (OPT), Mali,
Pakistan, Paraguay, Slovenia, South Africa, Thailand, Trinidad and Tobago – thanks
to the hospitality of the Governments of the countries in which visits and consultations
took place.
Regular consultations with members of the Committee on the Rights of the Child and
special procedure mandate holders of the former Commission on Human Rights were
“The participatory process adopted by the Study unleashed a sense of ownership; soul searching and
1
courage in confessing what has long been denied. We have a historic opportuniy to uproot all forms of
violence against children and we must not waste it.”
Ambassador Moushira Khattab, Secretary General of the National Council for Childhood and
Motherhood-Egypt, Vice Chair of the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child
held. The concluding observations on States parties’ reports to the Committee were
analysed, as were the reports of relevant special procedure mandate holders.
Many organisations made contributions to the Study, including the International
Labour Organization (ILO), the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organi-
zation (UNESCO), the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), and
the Division for the Advancement of Women of the United Nations Department of
Economic and Social Affairs. A UN Inter-agency Group on Violence against Children
met to develop strategies of follow-up to the Study.
This report has also drawn on many inputs made to the Study over the last three years
by different stakeholders, including children. Close to 300 individuals, NGOs, and 9
other organisations from many parts of the world responded to the call for public

submissions. Contributions included submissions from children and major research
reports commissioned specifically for the Study.11
An NGO Advisory Panel, including children and young people, was established early
in the Study process which included representatives from all regions. The Subgroup on
Children and Violence established within the NGO Group for the CRC also contributed
to this effort.
In addition to preparing numerous studies, the International Save the Children Alli-
ance made a special contribution by advising on and facilitating the involvement of
children, in particular in the Regional Consultations, together with UNICEF and
other partners. The global Children’s Rights Information Network (CRIN) docu-
mented the progress of the Study, including the meetings with children, making it
widely available on its website.
The UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre provided particular support, along with other
research centres and networks who submitted information and participated in consul-
tations. Thematic meetings were also convened on gender-based violence, violence in
schools, the home and family, violence against children with disabilities; juvenile justice
systems and violence against children in conflict with the law; the role of faith-based
organisations; information and communication technologies; violence against child
refugee and other displaced children; and on methodologies for measuring violence.
“Violence against children is a serious breach of human rights, which must end NOW! Let us continue
to work together to make this world a world free from any forms of violence against children.”
Charlotte Petri Gornitzka, Secretary General, Save the Children Sweden
HIDDEN DIMENSIONS OF VIOLENCE into and registration of child deaths. Although

AGAINST CHILDREN millions of girls are married before the age of 18,
lack of marriage registration makes the prob-
Only a small proportion of acts of violence lem difficult to track.13 Few States consistently
against children is reported and investigated, record and report on the placement of children
and few perpetrators held to account. In in institutions and alternative care, or in deten-
many parts of the world there are no systems tion, and fewer still collect information about
responsible for recording, or thoroughly inves- violence against children in such placements.
tigating, reports of violence against children.
Where official statistics based on reports of Persistent social acceptance of some types of
violence in the home and other settings exist, violence against children is a major factor in its
they dramatically underestimate the true mag- perpetuation in almost every State. Children,
nitude of the problem. the perpetrators of violence against them and
the public at large may accept physical, sexual
10 There are various reasons for this lack of report-
and psychological violence as an inevitable
ing. Very young children who suffer violence
part of childhood. Laws in a majority of States
in their homes lack the capacity to report.

still condone ‘reasonable’ or ‘lawful’ corporal
Many children are afraid to report incidents
punishment and reflect societal approval of
of violence against them for fear of reprisals by
violence when it is described or disguised as
perpetrators, or of interventions by authorities
‘discipline’ (see Figure 1.1). Corporal punish-
which may worsen their overall situation.
ment and other forms of cruel or degrading
In many cases parents, who should protect punishment, bullying and sexual harassment,
their children, are silent if the violence is per- and a range of violent traditional practices may
petrated by a spouse or other family member, or be perceived as normal, particularly when no
a more powerful member of society such as an lasting visible physical injury results.
employer, a police officer, or community leader.
No country can measure its progress towards
Fear is closely related to the stigma frequently
the elimination of violence against children
attached to reporting violence. In societies
without reliable data. To estimate the magni-
where patriarchal notions of family ‘honour’
tude and nature of non-fatal violence against
are valued above girls’ human rights and well-
children accurately, surveys are required that
being, an incident of rape or sexual violence can
lead to ostracism of the victim, further violence explore the use of violence by parents and
and even death at the hands of her family. other adults, experiences of violence in child-
hood, and current health status and health-risk
Many Governments lack systems for consistent behaviours of children and adults. Fatal vio-
registration of births, leading to a lack of formal lence against children can only be measured
identity that can place infants and small children accurately through comprehensive death regis-
at risk. Many also lack rigorous investigation tration, investigation and reporting systems.
“How can we expect children to take human rights seriously and to help build a culture of human
1
rights, while we adults not only persist in slapping, spanking, smacking and beating them, but actually
defend doing so as being ‘ for their own good’? Smacking children is not just a lesson in bad behaviour;
it is a potent demonstration of contempt for the human rights of smaller, weaker people.”
Thomas Hammarberg, Commissioner for Human Rights of the Council of Europe, 2006 II
FIGURE 1.1
Percentage of the world’s children who are legally protected

from corporal punishment
Protected Not protected Unknown
Home
2 98 0
Alternative care 4 78 18
School 42 58 0
Penal system
(corporal punishment 42 55 2
as sentence)
Penal sytem 11
81 19 0
(corporal punishment

as disciplinary measure)
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percentage of children
Source: Global Initiative to End all Corporal Punishment of Children (2006). Global Summary of
the Legal Status of Corporal Punishment of Children. 28 July 2006.
RANGE AND SCALE OF give some idea of the range and scale of violence
THE PROBLEM against children covered by the Study:
A variety of initiatives, ranging from interna- • WHO estimates that almost 53,000
tional comparative studies to small-scale inter- child deaths in 2002 were homicides.14
view studies with children at local level, are pro- (See Annex for regional homicide rates
viding a clearer picture of the magnitude and by age, income group and sex.)
pervasive nature of the problem in all regions. • In the Global School-Based Student
Information generated by these initiatives indi- Health Survey carried out in a
cates that, while some violence against children wide range of developing countries,
is perpetrated by strangers, the vast majority of between 20% and 65% of school-
violent acts is perpetrated by people who are part aged children reported having been
of the child victim’s immediate environment: verbally or physically bullied in school
parents and the wider family, boyfriends or girl- in the previous 30 days.15 Similar
friends, spouses and partners, teachers, school- rates of bullying have been found in
mates, and employers. The following examples industrialised countries.16
“I hate being a child, I hate being hit and I hate being taken for granted. I have feelings and emotions.
I need love, care, protection and attention.”
Girl, 13, South Asia, 2005 III
• An estimated 150 million girls and 73 simplistic explanations, the model emphasises
million boys under 18 have experienced that it is a combination of factors, acting at dif-
forced sexual intercourse or other forms ferent levels, which influence the likelihood
of sexual violence involving physical that violence will occur, recur, or cease. The
contact.17 various factors relevant to the different levels
• UNICEF estimates that in sub- of the ecological model will also be affected by
Saharan Africa, Egypt and Sudan, the context of the settings that children interact
3 million girls and women are with – in their home and family environment,
subjected to FGM every year.18 at school, in institutions and workplaces, as well
• ILO estimates that 218 million as in their community and broader society.
children were involved in child
labour in 2004, of whom 126 million For example, economic development, social
were engaged in hazardous work.19 status, age and gender are among the many risk
Estimates from 2000 suggest that factors associated with fatal violence. WHO
12 5.7 million were in forced or bonded estimates that the rate of homicide of children
in 2002 was twice as high in low-income coun-
labour, 1.8 million in prostitution and

pornography, and 1.2 million were tries than high-income countries (2.58 versus
victims of trafficking.20 1.21 per 100,000 population). As can be seen
• Only 2.4% of the world’s children in Figure 1.3, the highest child homicide rates
are legally protected from corporal occur among adolescents, especially boys,
punishment in all settings.21 aged 15 to 17 years (3.28 per 100,00 for girls,
9.06 for boys) and among children aged 0 to 4
RISK FACTORS AND PROTECTIVE years (1.99 for girls, 2.09 for boys). 22 However,
FACTORS studies on infant homicide are urgently needed
to strengthen the reliability of these estimates
The 2002 World Report on Violence and Health and to determine the extent of practices such
adopted an ‘ecological model’ to help under- as female infanticide in various regions.
stand the multi-level, multi-faceted nature of
violence. As an analytical tool, the model recog- Available data suggest that young children are
nises that a wide and complex range of factors at greatest risk of physical violence, while sexual
increases the risk of violence and helps to per- violence predominantly affects those who have
petuate it – or, alternatively may protect against reached puberty or adolescence. Boys appear
it. As illustrated in Figure 1.2, the ecological to be at greater risk of physical violence than
model identifies personal history and char- girls, while girls face greater risk of neglect and
acteristics of the victim or perpetrator, his or sexual violence.23 Social and cultural patterns
her family, the immediate social context (often of behaviour, socio-economic factors including
referred to as community factors) and the char- inequality and unemployment, and stereotyped
acteristics of the larger society. In contrast to gender-roles also play an important role.
1
Some groups or categories of children are espe- the Millennium Development Goals, will aid
cially vulnerable to different forms of violence. the elimination of violence against children.
For example, higher levels of vulnerability
are associated with children with disabilities, At the same time, other factors may prevent
orphaned children (including the millions or reduce the likelihood of violence. Although
more research is needed on these protective
orphaned by AIDS), indigenous children,
factors, it is clear that the development of
children from ethnic minorities and other
strong attachment bonds between parents and
marginalised groups, children living or work-
children, and the nurturing of relationships
ing on the streets, children in institutions and
with children that do not involve violence or
detention, children living in communities in
humiliation within stable family units, can be
which inequality, unemployment and poverty
powerful sources of protection for children.
are highly concentrated, child refugees and
other displaced children. Gender also plays a Factors applicable to the prevention of vio-
key role, as girls and boys are at different risk lence in the various settings are described in
13
for different kinds of violence. Chapters 3 to 7.

Global issues also play a part, including increas-
THE DEVASTATING IMPACT
ing inequality between and within States,
OF VIOLENCE
migration, urbanisation, and armed conflict.
Addressing these challenges, as well as reach- Although the consequences of violence against
ing internationally agreed objectives such as children vary according to its nature and sever-
FIGURE 1.2
Ecological model for understanding risk factors and protective factors of violence
Society Community Relationship Individual
Source: Krug EG et al. (Eds) (2002). World Report on Violence and Health. Geneva, World Health Organization.
ity, the short- and long-term repercussions can as substance abuse, early sexual activity, and
be devastating (see Table 1.1). Early exposure to smoking.25,26 Related mental health and social
violence is critical because it can have an impact problems include anxiety and depressive dis-
on the architecture of the maturing brain. In the orders, hallucinations, impaired work perfor-
case of prolonged violence, including witnessing mance, memory disturbances, as well as aggres-
violence, the disruption of nervous and immune sive behaviour. These risks are also associated
systems can lead to social, emotional, and cog- later on in life with lung, heart, and liver dis-
nitive impairments, as well as behaviours that ease, sexually transmitted diseases and foetal
cause disease, injury and social problems.24 death during pregnancy, as well as intimate
partner violence, and suicide attempts.27,28
Exposure to violence in childhood may also
result in greater susceptibility to lifelong Exposure to violence in the community is also
social, emotional, and cognitive impairments, associated with troubling health behavioural,
to obesity, and to health-risk behaviours such and social consequences. Associations have
14
FIGURE 1.3
Estimated child homicide rates by age and sex

10.00
9.06
9.00
rate per 100 000 population
8.00
Females
7.00 Males
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.28
3.00 2.93
1.92 1.99 2.09 2.08
2.00 1.48 1.49
1.00
1.00
0.00
0-17 yrs 0-4 yrs 5-9 yrs 10-14 yrs 15-17 yrs
Source: WHO (2006). Global Estimates of Health Consequences due to Violence against Children.
Background Paper to the UN Study on Violence against Children. Geneva, World Health Organization.
“UBUNTU is an embodiment of humaneness, empathy, respect, dignity and many other such values
1
and it can only result from an investment of the same values in the children themselves.
Let us leave a legacy consistent with ensuring UBUNTU in the world by speaking
and acting against abuse of all children.”
Adv. Thoko Majokweni, Head of the SOCA Unit: National Prosecuting Authority of South Africa
TABLE 1.1 – Acute and long-term consequences of violence against children
Physical health consequences

Abdominal/thoracic injuries
Brain injuries
Bruises and welts
Burns and scalds
Central nervous system injuries
Fractures
Lacerations and abrasions 15

Damage to the eyes
Disability
Sexual and reproductive consequences
Reproductive health problems
Sexual dysfunction
Sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS
Unwanted pregnancy
Psychological consequences
Alcohol and drug abuse
Cognitive impairment
Criminal, violent and other risk-taking behaviours
Depression and anxiety
Developmental delays
Eating and sleep disorders
Feelings of shame and guilt >>>
“Nations will not prosper if their children do not heal. To suffer violence in childhood is to be wounded
in the soul, and if not healed, to go on to inflict pain on others as well as oneself.
No child should be a victim of violence. All children have the right to protection and to first call
on their nations’ resources. The time to fulfil their rights is now.”
Hon. Landon Pearson, Director, Landon Pearson Resource Centre for the Study of Childhood and
Children’s Rights, Carleton University, Canada
Continued
TABLE 1.1 – Acute and long-term consequences of violence against children
Hyperactivity
Poor relationships
Poor school performance
Poor self-esteem
Post-traumatic stress disorder
Psychosomatic disorders
Suicidal behaviour and self-harm
16 Other longer-term health consequences

Cancer
Chronic lung disease
Irritable bowel syndrome
Ischaemic heart disease
Liver disease
Reproductive health problems such as infertility
Financial consequences
Treatment, visits to the hospital doctor and other
Direct costs:
health services
Lost productivity, disability, decreased quality of life
Indirect costs:
and premature death
Expenditures related to apprehending and prosecuting
Costs borne by offenders. Costs to social welfare organisations, costs
criminal justice system associated with foster care, to the educational system
and other institutions: and costs to the employment sector arising from
absenteeism and low productivity
Source: Runyan D et al. (2002). Child Abuse and Neglect by Parents and Other Caregivers. In: Krug EG et al. (Eds).
World Report on Violence and Health. Geneva, World Health Organization, pp 59–86.
1
been established between exposure to commu- programmes to address factors that give
nity violence and post-traumatic stress disor- rise to violence against children;
der (PTSD), depression, antisocial behaviours, • States have the primary responsibility
substance abuse, decline in academic perfor- to uphold children’s rights to protection
mance, problematic peer relations, and greater and access to services, and to support
involvement with the criminal justice system. families’ capacity to provide children
with care in a safe environment;
While there is little information available about • States have the obligation to ensure
the global economic costs of violence against chil- accountability in every case of violence;
dren, in particular from the developing world, • The vulnerability of children to
the variety of short- and long-term consequences violence is linked to their age and
associated with it suggest that the economic evolving capacity. Some children,
costs to society are significant. In the United because of gender, race, ethnic
States, the financial costs associated with child origin, disability or social status are
abuse and neglect, including future lost earnings 17
particularly vulnerable;

and cost of mental health care, were estimated in • Children have the right to express their
2001 to amount to US$ 94 billion.29 views and have them given due weight
in the planning and implementation of
PRINCIPLES AND policies and programmes.
RECOMMENDATIONS The Study has developed overarching and
Efforts to prevent and respond to violence against setting-specific recommendations, which are
children must be multi-faceted and adjusted included in the Study Report to the General
according to the form of violence, its setting and Assembly. The overarching recommendations
the perpetrator or perpetrators. Whatever the outline broad actions that all States must take
action taken, the best interests of the child must to prevent violence against children and to
always be the primary consideration. respond to it effectively if it occurs. These are
supplemented by additional recommendations
The Study Report to the UN General Assem- for specific settings: the home and family,
bly has identified a number of key principles schools, care and justice systems, places where
which are reflected in his recommendations: children are working legally or illegally, and
the community; these are found in the conclu-
• No violence against children is sions to each of the Chapters 3 to 7.
justifiable. Children should never
receive less protection than adults; The recommendations presented here are
• All violence against children is addressed primarily to Governments, referring
preventable. States must invest to their legislative, administrative, judicial,
in evidence-based policies and policy-making, service delivery and institu-
“This study provides a comprehensive assessment of the impacts of violence on children.
It is clear that protection of children is everyone’s responsibility.”
Ann M. Veneman, Executive Director, UNICEF
tional functions. Some recommendations are 2. Prohibit all violence against children
directed at the role of other partners and sec- I urge States to ensure that no person
tors of society, such as civil society organisa- below 18 years of age should be sub-
tions, which are also of critical importance. jected to the death penalty and sentences
of life imprisonment without possibil-
OVERARCHING RECOMMEN- ity of release. I recommend that States
take all necessary measures to immedi-
DATIONS ately suspend the execution of all death
1. Strengthen national and local commit- penalties imposed on persons for having
ment and action committed a crime before the age of 18,
I recommend that all States develop a and take the appropriate legal measures
multi-faceted and systematic framework to convert them into penalties in confor-
to respond to violence against children mity with international human rights
which is integrated into national plan- standards. Death penalty as a sentence
18 imposed on persons for crimes commit-
ning processes. A national strategy, policy
or plan of action on violence against ted before the age of 18 should be abol-
children with realistic and time-bound ished as a matter of highest priority.
targets, coordinated by an agency with
I urge States to prohibit all forms of vio-
the capacity to involve multiple sectors
lence against children, in all settings,
in a broad-based implementation strat-
including all corporal punishment, harm-
egy, should be formulated. National
ful traditional practices, such as early and
laws, policies, plans and programmes
forced marriages, female genital mutila-
should fully comply with international
tion and so-called honour crimes, sexual
human rights and current scientific
violence, torture and other cruel, inhu-
knowledge. The implementation of the
man or degrading punishment and treat-
national strategy, policy or plan should
ment, as required by international trea-
be systematically evaluated according to
ties, including the Convention against
established targets and timetables, and
Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or
provided with adequate human and
Degrading Treatment or Punishment
financial resources to support its imple-
and the Convention on the Rights of the
mentation.
Child. I draw attention to General Com-
An integrated and systematic framework to ment No. 8 (2006) of the Committee on
tackle violence against children should include the Rights of the Child on the right of the
components to address the prevention of vio- child to protection from corporal punish-
lence in all settings, care and rehabilitation for ment and other cruel or degrading forms
child victims, awareness-raising and capacity of punishment (articles 19. 28, para 2
building, and research and data collection. and 37, inter alia) (CRC/C/GC/8).
“Commitments should be translated into concrete, time-bound targets.”
Jaap Doek, Chairperson of the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child
1
The first purpose of clear prohibition of vio- Prevention takes many forms, including those
lence is educational – to send a clear message set out in other overarching recommenda-
across societies that all violence against children tions: developing a consistent legal and policy
is unacceptable and unlawful, to reinforce posi- framework prohibiting all forms of violence;
tive, non-violent social norms. There should be challenging social norms which condone vio-
no impunity for those who perpetrate violence lence, and enhancing the capacity of all those
against children, but care must be taken to ensure who work with and for children and families
that child victims do not suffer further through to promote non-violence.
insensitive enforcement of the law. Prosecutions
4. Promote non-violent values and aware-
and formal interventions, in particular within
ness-raising
the family, should occur when necessary to pro-
I recommend that States and civil society
tect a child from significant harm and when
should strive to transform attitudes that
judged to be in the best interests of the child.
condone or normalise violence against
Strong and enforceable legal sanctions should be 19
children, including stereotypical gender
implemented to deter violence against children.
roles and discrimination, acceptance of

3. Prioritise prevention corporal punishment, and other harm-
I recommend that States prioritise pre- ful traditional practices. States should
venting violence against children by ensure that children’s rights are dissem-
addressing its underlying causes. Just inated and understood, including by
as resources devoted to intervening children. Public information campaigns
after violence has occurred are essen- should be used to sensitize the public
tial, States should allocate adequate about the harmful effects that violence
resources to address risk factors and has on children. States should encourage
prevent violence before it occurs. Poli- the media to promote non-violent values
cies and programmes should address and implement guidelines to ensure full
immediate risk and factors such as lack respect for the rights of the child in all
of parent–child attachment, family media coverage.
breakdown, abuse of alcohol or drugs, Positive, non-violent environments must be
and reducing access to guns and other created for and with children, in their homes,
weapons. In line with the Millennium schools, other institutions and communities,
Development Goals, attention should be including through public and parent educa-
focused on economic and social policies tion, advocacy campaigns and training. Social
that address poverty, gender and other and cultural attitudes and actions which
forms of inequality, income gaps, unem- plainly conflict with human rights must be
ployment, urban overcrowding, and confronted with sensitivity because of people’s
other factors which undermine society. attachment to their traditions.
5. Enhance the capacity of all who work or disclosed. Health, criminal justice,
with and for children and social service systems should be
I recommend that the capacity of all designed to meet the special needs of
those who work with and for children children.
to contribute to eliminate all violence
Violence against children can have a range of
against them must be developed. Initial
serious health and social outcomes, costly both
and in-service training which imparts
to individuals and to society. Minimising these
knowledge and respect for children’s
consequences of violence will require a vari-
rights should be provided. States should
ety of treatment and support services. Services
invest in systematic education and
focused on rehabilitation and reintegration may
training programmes both for profes-
also help to reduce the risk of child victims of
sionals and non-professionals who work
violence continuing the cycle of violence.
with or for children and families to
prevent, detect and respond to violence 7. Ensure the participation of children
20
against children. Codes of conduct and I recommend that States actively engage
clear standards of practice, incorporat- with children and respect their views in
ing the prohibition and rejection of all all aspects of prevention, response and
forms of violence, should be formulated monitoring of violence against them,
and implemented. taking into account article 12 of the
Convention on the Rights of the Child.
While many services contribute to the preven- Children’s organisations and child-led
tion of violence against children, all need to initiatives to address violence, guided
consider how to maximise their potential for by the best interests of the child, should
prevention, including through the specific be supported and encouraged.
training of all who work with children. Sys-
tematic and long-term support, in pre-service The CRC elaborates children’s right to express
as well as in-service training, is needed at all their views freely on all matters that affect
levels to ensure highly functional staff and them and to have those views given due weight.
high-quality services for children. Children’s own views and experiences must
contribute to prevention and other interven-
6. Provide recovery and social reintegra- tions to stop violence against them. Children
tion services – acting voluntarily and with appropriate ethi-
I recommend that States provide accessi- cal safeguards – can make a significant contri-
ble, child-sensitive and universal health bution to both describing the problem of vio-
and social services, including pre-hospi- lence against them, and also to the design of
tal and emergency care, legal assistance services and other interventions that they can
to children and, where appropriate, trust and use. The obligation to ascertain and
their families when violence is detected take children’s views seriously must be built
“No matter whether violence against children occurs in the family, school, community, institution or
1
workplace, health workers are the front line for responding to it. We must make our contribution to ensuring
that such violence is prevented from occurring in the first place, and that where it does occur children receive
the best possible services to reduce its harmful effects.”
Anders Nordström, Acting Director-General, WHO
into the legal framework for child protection cerns about violence against children under
and must inform the training of all those who mandatory reporting systems. In a few coun-
work with children and families. Child vic- tries, the public are under the same legal duty.
tims of violence must not be simply objects of The Study has heard varying views about
concern, but treated as individual people with mandatory reporting. It is essential that every
rights and views of their own. Children must Government should review existing reporting
invariably be listened to and taken seriously. systems and involve children or young adults
with recent experience of child protection ser-
8. Create accessible and child-friendly
vices in the review.
reporting systems and services
I recommend that States should estab- In every locality and every setting which
lish safe, well-publicised, confidential includes children, there should be well-publi-
and accessible mechanisms for chil- cised and easily accessible services required to
dren, their representatives and others investigate reports or indications of violence
to report violence against children. All against children. There should also be access to 21
children, including those in care and services where children can go to talk in confi-

justice institutions, should be aware dence about anything that is worrying or hurt-
of the existence of mechanisms of coming them. Providing confidential services for
plaint. Mechanisms such as telephone children – services which guarantee that they
helplines through which children can will not report to others or take action without
report violence, speak to a trained coun- the child’s consent, unless the child is at imme-
sellor in confidence and ask for support diate risk of death or serious harm – remains
and advice should be established and the
controversial in many countries. Making confi-
creation of other ways of reporting vio-
dential services available to children, including
lence through new technologies should
those most vulnerable to violence, challenges
be considered.
outdated concepts of parental ‘ownership’ of
Retrospective studies, questioning young adults their children. Yet what we now know about
about their childhood experiences, reveal that the intra-familial violence demands that children
majority of child victims did not talk to anyone should have the rights to seek confidential
or approach child protection services during advice and help.
their childhood, even in States which have
9. Ensure accountability and end impunity
highly developed systems. Reasons included not
I recommend that States should build
knowing where to go for help, a lack of services,
lack of trust in the services or in some cases fear community confidence in the justice
of reprisals from the perpetrator. system by, inter alia, bringing all per-
petrators of violence against children
In many countries, certain professional groups to justice and ensure that they are
are under a legal obligation to report any con- held accountable through appropriate
“Ending violence against children needs to be part of national development plans and
development assistance frameworks, not an afterthought”
Ragne Birte Lund, Ambassador, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Norway
criminal, civil, administrative and 10. Address the gender dimension of vio-
professional proceedings and sanctions. lence against children
Persons convicted of violent offences and I recommend that States ensure that
sexual abuse of children should be pre- anti-violence policies and programmes
vented from working with children. are designed and implemented from a
gender perspective, taking into account
Governments must develop child-sensitive
the different risks facing girls and boys
procedures for investigating cases of violence,
in respect of violence. States should
which avoid subjecting the victim to multiple
promote and protect the human rights
interviews and examinations. Court processes
of women and girls, and address all
must ensure that child witnesses are treated sen-
forms of gender discrimination as part
sitively, that they are not subjected to extended
of a comprehensive violence prevention
court proceedings, and that their privacy is
strategy.
respected. The stress of court proceedings can
22 be reduced through the use of technology such Girls and boys are at different risk for different
as video-taped evidence, courtroom screens, forms of violence across different settings. All
and witness-preparation programmes as well research into violence against children and into
as access to child-friendly legal support. strategies to prevent and respond to it should
be designed to take gender into account. In
When parents or other family members are
particular, the Study has found a need for men
the perpetrators of violence, decisions con-
and boys to play active roles and exercise lead-
cerning formal interventions and prosecutions
ership in efforts to overcome violence.
must be made according to the best interests
of the child. When the perpetrator is another 11. Develop and implement systematic
child, the response should be focused on reha- national data collection and research
bilitation, while ensuring the protection of the efforts
affected child. I recommend that States improve data
collection and information systems in
The risk of perpetrators of violence against
order to identify vulnerable sub-groups,
children re-offending should be minimised by
inform policy and programming at all
appropriate treatment. Governments should
levels, and track progress towards the
be encouraged to review the situation of per-
goal of preventing violence against chil-
petrators currently serving sentences to deter-
mine whether their sentence or treatment is dren. States should use national indi-
minimising the risk of re-offending, and make cators based on internationally agreed
appropriate recommendations for future sen- standards, and ensure that data are
tencing and treatment, focused on this aim. compiled, analysed and disseminated
to monitor progress over time. Where
not currently in place, birth, death
“How is it that Africa, a continent so rich in resources, cultures and values, today fails to protect
its own children, its present and future resource?”
Young refugee, Eastern and Southern Africa, 2005 IV
1
and marriage data registries with full between these trends and various strategies for
national coverage should be created and prevention. Internationally accepted uniform
maintained. States should also create standards for collecting data on violence against
and maintain data on children without children are needed to enhance comparability,
parental care, and on children in the and ensure appropriate ethical safeguards.
criminal justice system. Data should be
disaggregated by sex, age, urban/rural, While some progress has been made in the iden-
household and family characteristics, tification of effective strategies for preventing
education and ethnicity. States should some forms of violence against children in a
also develop a national research agenda few countries, additional research is needed to
on violence against children across set- identify and evaluate policies and programmes
tings where violence occurs, including that are appropriate and effective in prevent-
through interview studies with children ing all forms of violence against children, and
and parents, with particular attention especially for vulnerable girls and boys.
23
to vulnerable groups of girls and boys. 12. Strengthen international commitment

The development of a national research agenda I recommend that all States should ratify
on violence against children across settings is and implement the Convention on the
critical for knowledge building and improved Rights of the Child and its two Optional
programme development. Such plans should Protocols on the involvement of chil-
include children, parents, service providers dren in armed conflict and on the sale
and others, and use a range of methods such as of children, child prostitution and child
interview studies, improved reporting and reg- pornography. All reservations which are
istration systems and investigation procedures, incompatible with the object and pur-
and regular surveys, with particular attention pose of the Convention and the Optional
given to vulnerable groups of girls and boys. Protocols should be withdrawn in accor-
dance with the Vienna Declaration and
No country can be complacent about violence Plan of Action of the World Conference
against children and more research into preva- on Human Rights of 1993. States should
lence, causes, and prevention is needed every- ratify all relevant international and
where. Our ability to determine the magnitude, regional human rights instruments that
characteristics, and trends of many forms of provide protection for children includ-
violence against children is poor, even in indus- ing the Convention against Torture
trialised countries. All countries must increase and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrad-
their capacity to monitor deaths, injuries and ing Treatment or Punishment and its
behaviours associated with violence against Optional Protocol; the Rome Statute
children to determine whether the problem of the International Criminal Court;
is getting better or worse, and the association the Convention on the Elimination of
“All of our proposals are achievable with political will and the commitment of civil society.”
Young person, Europe and Central Asia, 2006 V
All Forms of Discrimination against mitments. These include UN entities, civil

Women and its Optional Protocol; ILO society organisations including national
Conventions No. 138 on the Minimum human rights institutions, professional bodies
Age for Admission to Employment and such as doctors’ and nurses’ associations, com-
No. 182 on the Worst Forms of Child munity associations, educators, parents and
Labour; and the United Nations Con- children. The key strategies for implementa-
vention against Transnational Orga- tion are set out below.
nized Crime and the Protocol to Prevent,
Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Per- NATIONAL AND REGIONAL LEVEL
sons, Especially Women and Children,
supplementing the United Nations Con- Above all, the Study has focused on improving
vention against Transnational Orga- implementation at the country level, for the
nized Crime. States should implement benefit of all girls and boys. To this end, the
all their international legal obligations Report to the UN General Assembly empha-
24 and strengthen their cooperation with sises the urgency of country-level action and
sets targets for Governments:
the treaty bodies.

I recommend that States act in confor- • The integration in national planning
mity with their commitments on the processes of measures to prevent and
prevention of violence made at the UN respond to violence against children
General Assembly Special Session on should take place by 2007 and should
Children, and in the context of the WHO include the identification of a focal
Health Assembly resolution on imple- point, preferably at ministerial level.
menting the recommendations of the • Prohibiting all violence against children
World Report on Violence and Health, 30 by law and initiating a process to
and other regional public health resolu- develop reliable national data collection
tions that reinforce this resolution. systems should be achieved by 2009.
The report also urges Governments to provide
IMPLEMENTATION AND information on implementation of the Study’s
FOLLOW-UP recommendations in their periodic reports to
the Committee on the Rights of the Child.
The Study Report submitted to the General
Assembly emphasised that the primary respon- International organisations should encourage
sibility for implementing the recommenda- and support Governments in the implementa-
tions rests with Governments. However, the tion of these recommendations. International
participation of other actors at national, financial institutions should review their poli-
regional and international level is critical to cies and activities to take account of the impact
assist Governments to carry out their com- they may have on children. UN country teams
“Vision without action is a dream, but action without a vision is a nightmare.”
Young Person, Europe and Central Asia, 2006 VI
1
should include measures to address violence lence against children, to encourage interna-
against children within poverty reduction tional and regional cooperation, and to ensure
strategies, coordinated country assessments follow-up and monitoring of the Study’s rec-
and development assistance frameworks. ommendations.
Governments should consider establishing an The Special Representative should disseminate
ombudsperson or commissioner for children’s and promote the Study recommendations in
rights – complying with the Paris Principles.31 different international, regional and national
Working closely with other agencies concerned
forums, and provide a periodic report to the
with public health and child protection issues,
Human Rights Council and the General
these independent institutions should have
Assembly. In addition, a report on implemen-
a clear mandate to monitor children’s rights
at national, regional and local levels. Where tation of the Study recommendations is pro-
appropriate, they should have the competence posed for the sixty-fifth session of the General
to receive and investigate complaints on vio- Assembly in 2010. 25
lations of children’s rights from the public,

The Special Representative should work closely
including from children.
with, but not duplicate the work of, the Com-
In light of the contribution of regional organisa- mittee on the Rights of the Child, the Special
tions to the development of the Study, regional Representative of the Secretary-General for
entities should be involved in the implemen- children in armed conflict, the Special Rap-
tation and follow-up of its recommendations. porteur on the sale of children, child prostitu-
The further development of regional mecha- tion and child pornography, and the Special
nisms should be encouraged as an important Rapporteurs on violence against women and
part of the overall framework for follow-up. on trafficking in persons. He or she should
Regional human rights protection systems are collaborate with regional human rights pro-
also encouraged to monitor implementation of
tection systems and all other regional and
the Study’s recommendations.
national follow-up initiatives.
INTERNATIONAL LEVEL It is recommended that the Special Represen-
tative should have an initial mandate of four
In view of the importance of multi-sectoral
coordination to address violence against chil- years. Building on the successful interagency
dren, the Study Report has proposed that collaboration that marked the Study, he or she
Governments establish a Special Represen- should be supported by OHCHR, UNICEF
tative of the Secretary-General on Violence and WHO. The United Nations Inter-agency
against Children. The Special Representative Group on Violence against Children, with rep-
should act as a high-profile global advocate to resentation from NGOs and children, should
promote prevention and elimination of all vio- also support follow-up.
13 Bruce J (2002). Married Adolescents Girls: Human Rights,
REFERENCES Health and Development Needs of a Neglected Majority.
1 Krug EG et al. (Eds) (2002). World Report on Violence Paper presented by the Population Council at the
and Health. Geneva, World Health Organization. Supporting Event: Early Marriage in a Human Rights
Context, United Nations Special Session on Children,
2 Krug EG et al. (Eds.) (2002). World Report on Violence
8–10 May 2002.
and Health. Geneva, World Health Organization, p 5.
14 WHO (2006). Global Estimates of Health Consequences
3 Shonkoff JP, Phillips DA (Eds) (2000). From Neurons Due to Violence against Children. Background Paper to
to Neighbourhoods: The Science of Early Childhood the UN Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against
Development. Washington DC, National Academy Press. Children. Geneva, World Health Organization.
4 Krug EG et al. (Eds) (2002). World Report on Violence 15 Analysis provided to the Study by the Global School-
and Health. Geneva, World Health Organization. based Student Health Survey: The World Health
5 Ten Bensel RW, Rheinberger MM, Radbill SX (1997). Organization (http://www.who.int/chp/gshs or http://
Children in a World of Violence: The Roots of Child www.cdc.gov/gshs) for surveys conducted in 2003–5 for
Maltreatment. In: Helfer M et al. (Eds). The Battered Botswana, Chile (metropolitan area), China (Beijing),
Child. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, pp 3–28. Guyana, Jordan, Kenya, Lebanon, Namibia, Oman,
26 Philippines, Swaziland, Uganda, UAE, Venezuela (Lara),
6 United Nations Secretary-General (2006). Report of
Zambia and Zimbabwe (Harare).

the Independent Expert for the United Nations Study on
Violence against Children. Promotion and protection 16 Currie C et al. (2004). Health Behaviour in School-aged
of the rights of children. United Nations General Children (HBSC) Study: International Report from the
Assembly, Sixty-first session. A/61/299. 2001/2002 Survey. Health Policy for Children and
Adolescents, No 4. Geneva, World Health Organization.
7 Reza A et al. (2001). Epidemiology of Violent Deaths in
the World. Injury Prevention, 7: 104–111. 17 WHO (2006). Global Estimates of Health Consequences
Due to Violence against Children. Background Paper to
8 Krug E et al. (Eds) (2002). World Report on Violence and
the UN Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against
Health. Geneva, World Health Organization.
Children. Geneva, World Health Organization, based
9 Global Initiative to End all Corporal Punishment of on estimates by Andrews G et al. (2004). Child Sexual
Children (2006). Global Summary of the Legal Status of Abuse. Ch. 23 in Ezzati M et al. (2004). Comparative
Corporal Punishment of Children. 28 June 2006. Quantification of Health Risks: Global and Regional
10 All responses are available at: http://www.ohchr.org/ Burden of Disease Attributable to Selected Major Risk
english/bodies/crc/study.htm. As of 20 September 2006, Factors, Vol 2. Geneva, World Health Organization, pp.
135 Member States and one observer had submitted 1851–1940, and using UN Population Division data for
responses. the population under 18 years.
11 The list of submissions is available at the website of the 18 UNICEF (2005). Changing a Harmful Social
United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence Convention: Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting.
against Children: http://www.violencestudy.org. Innocenti Digest. Florence, UNICEF Innocenti Research
Centre.
12 Save the Children Alliance (2005). 10 Essential Learning
Points: Listen and Speak Out against Sexual Abuse of Girls 19 ILO (2006). The End of Child Labour: Within
Reach. Global Report. Geneva, International Labour
and Boys. Global Submission by the International Save
Organization.
the Children Alliance to the UN Secretary-General’s
Study on Violence against Children. Oslo, Save the 20 ILO (2002). A Future Without Child Labour. Global
Children Norway. Report. Geneva, International Labour Organization.
1
21 Global Initiative to End all Corporal Punishment of 30 WHO (2003). Implementing the Recommendations of
Children (2006). Global Summary of the Legal Status of the World Report on Violence and Health. Report on the
Corporal Punishment of Children. 28 June 2006. World Health Assembly, WHA56.24, Fifty-sixth World
22 WHO (2006). Global Estimates of Health Consequences Health Assembly. Geneva, World Health Organization.
Due to Violence against Children. Background Paper to 31 United Nations (1993). Principles Relating to the Status
the UN Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against and Functioning of National Institutions for Protection
Children. Geneva, World Health Organization. and Promotion of Human Rights. Available at:
23 Runyan D et al. (2002). Child Abuse and Neglect by http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu6/2/fs19.htm#annex.
Parents and Other Caregivers. In: Krug EG et al. (Eds). These recommendations were endorsed by the General
World Report on Violence and Health. Geneva, Assembly in its resolution
World Health Organization, pp 59–86. A/RES/48/134 of 20 December 1993.
24 Perry BD (2001). The Neurodevelopmental Impact

of Violence in Childhood. In: Schetky D, Benedek QUOTES
EP (Eds). Textbook of Child and Adolescent Forensic
Psychiatry. Washington DC, American Psychiatric Press, I United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
pp 221–238. against Children (2005). Regional Consultation Outcome
Report: South Asia, p 3. Available at: 27
25 Felitti VJ et al. (1998). Relationship of Childhood

http://www.violencestudy.org/r27.
Abuse and Household Dysfunction to Many of the
Leading Causes of Death in Adults. The Adverse II Commissioner for Human Rights (2006). Children
Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. American Journal and corporal punishment: The right not to be hit, also
of Preventive Medicine 14: 245–258. a children’s right. Issue paper 2006/1. 6 June 2006.
Strasbourg, Council of Europe.
26 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2006).
Adverse Childhood Experiences Study. Atlanta, GA, III United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
National Centers for Injury Prevention and Control, against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: South
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Asia, p 23. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27.
Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/NCCDPHP/ACE. IV United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
27 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2006). against Children (2005). Regional Consultation Outcome
Adverse Childhood Experiences Study. Atlanta, GA, Report: Eastern and Southern Africa, p 18. Available at:
National Centers for Injury Prevention and Control, http:/www.violencestudy.org/r27.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
V Council of Europe (2006). Monaco launching
Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/NCCDPHP/ACE.
conference for ‘Building a Europe for and with
28 Panel on Research on Child Abuse and Neglect, Children’, 4-5 April 2006. Available at:
Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences http://www.coe.int/t/transversalprojects/children/
and Education, National Research Council (1999). events/monacoLaunch_en.asp
Understanding Child Abuse and Neglect. Washington
VI Council of Europe (2006). Monaco launching
DC, National Academy Press.
conference for ‘Building a Europe for and with
29 Fromm S (2001). Total Estimates of the Cost of Child Children’, 4-5 April 2006. Available at: http://www.
Abuse and Neglect in the United States – Statistical coe.int/t/transversalprojects/children/events/
Evidence. Chicago (IL), Prevent Child Abuse America monacoLaunch_en.asp
(PCAA). Cited on: August 14 2006. Available at:
http://www.preventchildabuse.org/learn_more/
research_docs/cost_analysis.pdf.
UNICEF/HQ05-1931. Roger Lemoyne
HAITI, 2005, Girls stand in the concrete yard of the women’s prison at Pétionville, a suburb of Port-au-Prince.
2
AND INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW
AND STANDARDS
Introduction 31
The Convention on the Rights of the Child 32
International criminal, humanitarian,
refugee and labour law 37
Regional human rights systems 38
Non-binding instruments 39
References 42 29
VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN AND INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW AND STANDARDS
30
“I would like a coalition of international associations and organisations to be set up as quickly
as possible to encourage and support those governments which undertake to adopt specific measures
to prevent the most serious crimes committed against children from going unpunished – measures such
as extending or doing away with the time limits for the prosecution of offences, stepping up judicial
2
co-operation or adopting a model or framework law to strengthen action against trafficking
in children, including that done with the help of the Internet.”
HRH Princess Caroline of Hanover, April 2006 I
INTRODUCTION tion of racial discrimination, discrimination

against women, the prevention of torture, and
Each child has the right to his or her physical the rights of migrant workers and members
and personal integrity, and protection from all of their families. These instruments, legally
forms of violence. Children, as human beings, binding on States which have accepted them,
are entitled to enjoy all the rights guaranteed include provisions which are relevant to elimi-
by the various international human rights trea- nating violence against children. Some trea-
ties that have developed from the Universal ties, in particular the two Covenants, also con-
Declaration of Human Rights.1 They are also tain provisions extending specific protections
entitled to the protection laid down in inter- to children.
national legal instruments relating to interna-
tional criminal, humanitarian and labour law.* Thus the International Covenant on Eco-
nomic, Social and Cultural Rights includes
Since the adoption in 1948 of the Univer- a provision requiring that children be pro-
sal Declaration of Human Rights, the first tected from economic and social exploitation, 31
authoritative – although not legally binding and that the employment of children in work
– statement on human rights, over 60 treaties that is harmful to their morals, or health or
addressing slavery, the administration of jus- dangerous to life, or likely to hamper their
tice, the status of refugees and minority groups normal development, be punished by law. The
and human rights have been elaborated. All International Covenant on Civil and Political
are grounded in the concepts of non-discrimi- Rights expressly prohibits the imposition of
nation, equality and recognition of the dignity death sentences on children and young people
of each and every individual as contained in under 18. It also includes provisions govern-
the Universal Declaration, and each makes ing the proper treatment of accused and con-
it clear that the rights contained therein are victed children, which in particular require
available to all, including children, on a basis their separation from the adult(s) accused and
of equality.
offenders.
Children are therefore entitled to the rights
The Convention on the Elimination of All
and procedures set out in the International
Forms of Discrimination against Women is
Bill of Rights, consisting of the International
fully applicable to girls under 18 years of age.
Covenants on Economic, Social and Cul-
Article 16.2 of the Convention provides that
tural Rights, and that on Civil and Political
the betrothal and marriage of a child shall have
Rights. They are also entitled to the rights
no legal effect and that all necessary action,
and protections contained in specific treaties,
including legislative action, shall be taken by
including those which address the elimina-
States to specify a minimum age for marriage,
* Further information on all instruments referred to in this and to make the registration of marriages in an
chapter is available at: http://www.ohchr.org. official registry compulsory.
“I really believe there is nothing more important than child protection because it is linked with every other
child right, be it development, survival or participation. For all countries the recognition of this right
as paramount and the decision to set up both programmes and institutions to ensure child protection
is a giant step in the right direction.”
Ms. Loveleen Kacker, Joint Secretary, Ministry of Women and Child Development, India
Existing protection under international steps to eliminate and respond to violence

human rights law will be expanded with the against children in their concluding observa-
finalisation of treaties regarding children, on tions, reports, and in several of their decisions
disappearance and disability, currently being on petitions. Several treaty bodies have also
concluded. Specific provisions relating to the adopted General Comments or recommen-
human rights of children with disabilities, dations which outline States’ obligations to
including obligations of States to address vio- address violence against children. The Com-
lence against them, are included in the draft mittee on Economic, Social and Cultural
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Rights General Comment on the Right to
Disabilities, which will be submitted to the Education indicates that corporal punishment
General Assembly for adoption at its sixty- in an educational setting is inconsistent with
first session. international law and the dignity of the indi-
vidual. The Committee on the Elimination of
The implementation of each of the seven core Discrimination against Women has adopted a
32 human rights treaties currently in force is general recommendation on States’ obligations
monitored by a Committee of Experts through
under the Convention with regard to female

various procedures. Each reviews implemen- genital mutilation (FGM) and two general
tation thereof through the consideration of recommendations concerning gender-based
reports submitted by States, and makes rec- violence against women.
ommendations for further action. Four Com-
mittees are empowered to consider petitions THE CONVENTION ON
from individuals who allege that their rights
have been violated in cases where the State THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILD
concerned has accepted this procedure. Two Although protections are provided to children
Committees have competence to conduct by general international human rights treaties
inquiries into grave, systematic or serious vio- and other international agreements, at an early
lations of the treaty, again in cases where the stage in the history of the United Nations, the
State has accepted these procedures. Similar international community recognised the need
procedures are contained in the draft trea- to provide specific human rights protection for
ties on disappearance and disability, while the children. The General Assembly’s 1959 Dec-
Optional Protocol on the Convention against laration on the Rights of the Child set out 10
Torture and other Forms of Cruel, Inhuman non-legally binding principles aimed at pro-
and Degrading Treatment or Punishment viding special safeguards for children.
introduces a system of visits to places of deten-
tion in States parties. The Convention on the Rights of the Child
(CRC), which sets out legally binding standards,
All bodies accepting the treaty have empha- was adopted by the General Assembly in 1989.
sised the obligations of States to take specific The CRC, which signals clearly that children
“Upon ratification of the Convention (on the Rights of the Child), countries are required to adopt laws,
policies and programmes to ensure that each and every child grows up in an environment of love and
understanding, enjoys freedom from fear and from want, is protected from discrimination,
violence and exploitation and is given all opportunities to develop to the fullest potential.
2
With the Convention, we are committed to ensure that the opportunities of life are not determined
by the circumstances of birth.”
Marta Santos Pais, Editorial Board of the UN Secretary-General’s Study
are holders of human rights and acknowledges of the Child to Protection from Corporal Pun-
their distinct legal personality and evolving ishment and Other Cruel or Degrading Forms
capacities, is the most widely accepted human of Punishment, adopted at its forty-second ses-
rights treaty, having been ratified or acceded sion in June 2006, highlights the obligation
to by 192 States. Its 42 substantive articles set of all States to move quickly to prohibit and
out civil, political, economic, social and cul- eliminate all corporal punishment and other
tural rights, formulated to address the special cruel or degrading forms of punishment of
needs of the child, defined by the CRC as every children, focusing on the legislative, aware-
human being under the age of 18, unless major- ness-raising and educational measures that
ity is attained earlier under national law.2 States must take.3
The CRC sets up a framework of legal prin- The General Comment makes clear that the
ciples and detailed standards which should Committee does not reject the positive concept
govern all law, policy and practice affecting of discipline, and recognises that parenting
children. These include the promotion of pre- and caring for children, especially babies and 33
vention of violence, and responses to protect young children, demands frequent physical
all children from all forms of violence. action and intervention to protect them. The
Committee indicates that this is quite distinct
Various articles of the CRC assert the rights from the deliberate and punitive use of force
of children to physical and personal integrity, to cause some degree of pain, discomfort or
and establish high standards for protection. humiliation to children.
Article 19 requires that States which are par-
ties to the CRC take “all appropriate legisla-
tive, administrative, social and educational “Addressing the widespread acceptance
measures to protect the child from all forms or tolerance of corporal punishment of
of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, children and eliminating it, in the family,
neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment schools and other settings, is not only an
or exploitation, including sexual abuse, while obligation of States parties under the Con-
in the care of parent(s), legal guardian(s), vention. It is also a key strategy for reduc-
or any other person who has the care of the ing and preventing all forms of violence in
child.” The breadth of this obligation has been societies.”
emphasised by the Committee on the Rights Committee on the Rights of the Child,
of the Child. General Comment No. 8, para. 3 4
The Committee has also underlined the
requirement that all violence against children
be prohibited. This includes all forms of cor- Article 28(2) of the CRC requires that school
poral punishment, however light. The Com- discipline be “administered in a manner con-
mittee’s General Comment No. 8 on the Right sistent with the child’s human dignity and
“Children are betrayed every day by silence, inaction, and impunity. Teachers who have sexually
assaulted their pupils continue to teach. Police officers who have tortured children before witnesses
remain on duty. Orphanage staff who subject children to shocking levels of cruelty and neglect suffer
no consequences. Too often, children are victimized twice: first by the initial abuse, and again by the
failure of authorities to hold perpetrators accountable.”
Jo Becker, Editorial Board of the UN Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Children
in conformity with the present Convention.” of exploitation prejudicial to any aspects of the
In interpreting this provision, the Commit- child’s welfare” (article 36).
tee underlines that it requires States parties
to prohibit corporal punishment and all other Article 38, by which States parties undertake
humiliating and harmful forms of discipline to respect and to ensure respect for the rules of
in the educational context. international humanitarian law applicable to
them in relation to children and armed con-
flicts, recalls the obligations laid down in the
“…Children do not lose their human Geneva Conventions, while article 37 declares
rights by virtue of passing through the that no child shall be subjected to “torture or
school gates. Thus, for example, education other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or
must be provided in a way that respects punishment,” nor sentenced to capital punish-
the inherent dignity of the child, enables ment or to life imprisonment without possibility
the child to express his or her views freely of release. Article 37 also prohibits all arbitrary
in accordance with article 12(1) and to or unlawful restriction of the liberty of children,
34
participate in school life. Education must and sets out strict limits and conditions for any
also be provided in a way that respects deprivation of liberty, which apply to any restric-
the strict limits on discipline reflected in tion of liberty imposed for ‘welfare’ as well as
article 28(2) and promotes non-violence in for ‘penal’ purposes. Article 39 obliges States to
school…” take all appropriate measures to promote physi-
Committee on the Rights of the Child, cal and psychological recovery and social reinte-
General Comment No. 15 gration of child victims of violence.
Together with article 37, article 40 on the
Articles 32 to 36 entrench the child’s legal administration of juvenile justice sets out
right to protection from various forms of detailed safeguards: children who come into
exploitation: from economic exploitation and conflict with the law should be “treated in a
from “any work that is likely to be hazardous manner consistent with the promotion of the
or to interfere with the child’s education, or child’s sense of dignity and worth,” which,
to be harmful to the child’s health or physi- combined with article 19, requires the State to
cal, mental, spiritual, moral or social develop- ensure that children do not suffer violence at
ment” (article 32); from “the illicit use of nar- the hands of State officials at any stage of the
cotic drugs and psychotropic substances” and system. Treatment and punishments must not
involvement “in the illicit production and traf- involve physical or mental violence of any kind.
ficking of such substances” (article 33); from Wherever appropriate and desirable, there
“all forms of sexual exploitation and sexual should be diversion from judicial systems; for
abuse,” including prostitution and pornogra- children found guilty of infringing the law
phy (article 34); from abduction, sale and traf- there should be alternatives to institutional care,
ficking (article 35); and from “all other forms “such as care, guidance and supervision orders;
2
counselling; probation; foster care; educational any participation in these acts, including
and vocational training programmes.” attempt and conspiracy be penalised in a way
that takes into account the gravity of these
Other provisions of the CRC are relevant
offences. It also requires States to close any
to the protection of children from violence.
premises used for child prostitution and por-
These include civil rights relating to freedom
nography, and to seize and confiscate the pro-
of expression, information, conscience and reli-
ceeds of these activities, as well as any means
gion, association, peaceful assembly, privacy
used to facilitate them, and provides detailed
and access to information (articles 12, 13, 14,
provisions relating to the treatment of child
15, 16 and 17). Article 9 guarantees the child’s
right not to be separated from parents unless victims. The Optional Protocol to the CRC
it is in their best interests. Article 18 provides on the involvement of children in armed con-
that States shall render appropriate assistance flict limits the recruitment of children under
to parents and legal guardians in their perfor- 18 years of age in armed conflict, and obliges
mance of their child-rearing responsibilities; States to provide the children who have par-
35
and under article 20, children deprived of a ticipated in armed conflict with any necessary
family environment are entitled to special State physical and psychological rehabilitation and
assistance and protection. Article 25 provides support for reintegration within society.
for a right of periodic review of placement or The Committee on the Rights of the Child
treatment. Obligations relating to adoption are
has identified articles 2, 3, 6 and 12 as pro-
set out in article 21, to refugee children in arti-
viding general principles. In line with article
cle 22, and to disabled children in article 23.
2, all rights in the Convention are available
More general obligations – relevant particularly to all children without discrimination of any
to the prevention of violence – are included in kind, and States parties are required to take all
article 24 on the right to health and access to appropriate measures to protect children from
health services; articles 28 and 29 on the right discrimination.
to education and the aims of education; and
The best interests of the child must be a pri-
article 27 on the right to an adequate standard
of living. mary consideration in all actions concerning
children; thus all public and private bodies,
The CRC is supplemented by two Optional courts and administrative authorities are
Protocols, both adopted in 2000, which pro- required to consider the impact of actions
vide more detailed protection for children from on children in order to ensure that the best
particular forms of violence. The Optional interests of the child are properly considered
Protocol on the sale of children, child pros- (article 3). The child’s inherent right to life
titution and child pornography defines these and maximum capacity for survival and devel-
violations. It also requires States parties to opment, envisaged by the CRC to include
criminalise these activities and requires that physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social
“In bringing to light the many issues of children facing violence, we realize that our plight is part of
a larger worldwide struggle for the realization of human rights. Our cry is not to be treated specially
but, rather, humanely, in accordance with the core values of human dignity that are the cornerstones of
the Universal Declaration of Human rights. As global citizens we demand to be acknowledged as first
and not second class human beings.”
Declaration of children and young people, Regional Consultation, the Caribbean, 2005 II
since 1993, has provided substantial guidance

“… interpretation of a child’s best interests on States’ obligations on violence against chil-
must be consistent with the whole Conven- dren, in particular regarding recommenda-
tion, including the obligation to protect tions issued following its two days of general
children from all forms of violence and the discussion on Violence against Children in
requirement to give due weight to the child’s 20008 and 20019 and in its General Comments
views; it cannot be used to justify practices, Nos 110 and 8.11
including corporal punishment and other
forms of cruel or degrading punishment, The Committee has been pleased to note that
which conflict with the child’s human dig- domestic courts, including constitutional and
nity and right to physical integrity.” superior courts in many jurisdictions, have
condemned violence against children in judge-
Committee on the Rights of the Child, ments which increasingly draw on human
General Comment No. 8 6 rights treaties, in particular the CRC, and the
36 output of the human rights treaty bodies.
dimensions (article 6), is also identified as a
general principle. Under article 12, the child “Children have rights no way inferior to
has the right to express his/her views freely on the rights of adults. Fiji has ratified the
all matters affecting them and to have their Convention. Our Constitution also guar-
views given due weight in accordance with age antees fundamental rights to every person.
and maturity. Government is required to adhere to prin-
The Committee on the Rights of the Child, ciples respecting the rights of all individu-
which has been considering reports from States als, communities and groups. By their
status as children, children need special
protection. Our educational institutions
“… in conceptualising violence, the critical should be sanctuaries of peace and creative
starting point and frame of reference must enrichment, not places for fear, ill-treat-
be the experience of children themselves. ment and tampering with the human dig-
Therefore children and young people must nity of students.”
be meaningfully involved in promoting
and strategising action on violence against Fiji Court of Appeal, 2002, in Naushad
children”. v. the State, holding that corporal
punishment in schools and the penal
Committee on the Rights of the Child, system is unconstitutional 12
recommendations adopted following the day
of general discussion on Violence against
Children in the Family and Schools, 2001 7
2
INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL, ficking are also included in the Conventions
on the Elimination of Discrimination against
HUMANITARIAN, REFUGEE
Women and Rights of the Child, and the Inter-
AND LABOUR LAW national Labour Organization’s Worst Forms
The protection provided to children through of Child Labour Convention (1999), No. 182.
human rights provisions is relevant at all In 2000, the General Assembly adopted the
times. At the same time, the Rome Statute of United Nations Convention against Transna-
the International Criminal Court, the four tional Organized Crime and its supplementary
Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their two Protocols: the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress
Additional Protocols of 1977 provide key and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially
legal protection to children in internal and Women and Children, and the Protocol against
international conflict. Children who meet the the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and
definition of a refugee within the 1951 United Air. The Convention provides for coopera-
Nations Convention relating to the Status of tion in investigation, mutual legal assistance,
and extradition where trafficking is concerned. 37
Refugees and its 1967 Protocol have access to
The Trafficking Protocol, now accepted by 105
a wide array of rights and protections, includ-
ing legal aid and material protection, as well as States from all regions of the world (as of the
the right not to be returned to the place where 6th of September 2006), includes the first inter-
they face persecution. While not legally bind- national legal definition of trafficking, makes
ing, the 1998 Guiding Principles on Internal provision for assistance and protection of vic-
Displacement consisting of 30 principles, pro- tims of trafficking, and requires States parties
vide protection and assistance for individuals to criminalise this activity, as well as to provide
throughout displacement, and establish guide- assistance and protection for victims. It also
lines for safe return, resettlement and reinte- sets out preventive measures in this context.
gration. The Guiding Principles pay particular Specific rights and protection for children
attention to the rights and needs of children, in the context of work are provided by the
in particular girls, prohibiting sale of chil- numerous conventions elaborated by the Inter-
dren into marriage, sexual exploitation, forced national Labour Organization, with particular
labour and the recruitment or use of children protection being provided by the Minimum
during hostilities. Age Convention (1973), No. 183 and the Worst
Trafficking generally, including the trafficking Forms of Child Labour (1999), No. 182.
of children, is addressed in the first consoli-
dated instrument on this issue, the Convention
for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons
and of the Exploitation of Others which was
adopted by the General Assembly in 1950.
Provisions directed at the elimination of traf-
“Fundamental rights, children rights are yet to be built, first and foremost at national level.”
Françoise Tulkens, Judge of the European Court of Human Rights, April 2006 III
REGIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS “The Committee does not find it accept-

SYSTEMS able that a society which prohibits any
form of physical violence between adults
The international legal framework for the pro-
would accept that adults subject children
motion and protection of human rights and the
to physical violence.”
standards that it provides in respect of violence
against children are reinforced by treaties which European Committee of Social Rights (2001).
have been adopted regionally, by the Council of General observation in General Introduction
Europe, the European Union, the Organization to Conclusions XV–2, Volume 116
of American States, the African Union, and
mechanisms established to monitor and enforce
them. The African Charter on the Rights of the In 2002, the Inter-American Court of Human
Child is particularly relevant, as is the African Rights issued an Advisory Opinion on the
Protocol on the Rights of Women adopted in legal status and human rights of the child: this
38 2004 which contains provisions directed at the indicates that States parties to the American
Convention on Human Rights are under an
elimination of harmful traditional practices,

including female genital mutilation (FGM), obligation to adopt all positive measures to
scarification, medicalisation of harmful tra- ensure protection of children against mistreat-
ditional practices, and establishes 18 years as ment, whether in their relations with public
being the minimum age for marriage. authorities or private individuals or with non-
governmental entities.17
Regional human rights mechanisms, respon-
sible for the oversight of these legal instru- In 2003, the African Commission on Human
ments have addressed various forms of violence and Peoples’ Rights decided that lashing of
against children. For example, the European students constituted cruel, inhuman or degrad-
Court of Human Rights has found violations ing punishment and requested that the State
of the European Convention on Human Rights concerned amend the law, abolish lashing as a
in a number of judgements concerning cases penalty and take appropriate measures to com-
of corporal punishment in the penal system, pensate the victims.18
schools and the home.13 Other judgements of
the Court have concerned sexual abuse, fail-
ures of child protection systems and juvenile
justice.14 The European Committee of Social
Rights, which monitors compliance with the
European Social Charter and the Revised
Social Charter, has held that these instruments
require prohibition in legislation of any form
of violence against children.15
“Eradicating violence requires that the common aim and intrinsic connections between health and
human rights are used to safeguard human dignity and improve well-being.”
Dr Gro Harlem Brundtland, Former Director-General, WHO
2
tial section on violence against children in its
“There is no right for individuals, and outcome document, “A World Fit for Chil-
particularly the Government of a country dren.” The Millennium Development Goals
to apply physical violence to individuals adopted by the Millennium Summit in 2000,
for offences. Such a right would be tanta- and the Outcome of the 2005 UN Summit
mount to sanctioning State-sponsored tor- also include agreements which are relevant to
ture (under the African Charter on Human the elimination of violence against children.
and Peoples’ Rights) and contrary to the
very nature of this human rights treaty.” Non-legally-binding but highly persuasive
instruments relevant to the context of vio-
African Commission on Human and Peoples’ lence against children have also been adopted
Rights, Curtis Francis Doebbler v. Sudan, within the framework of the governing bodies
Communication No. 236/2000 (2003) 19 of the specialised agencies and other entities
of the United Nations system. These include
resolutions adopted by the governing bodies 39
NON-BINDING of the WHO (see box) and UNICEF. The
INSTRUMENTS Executive Committee of the United Nations
High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
International and regional human rights trea- adopted a policy on refugee children in 1993,
ties are supplemented by instruments which, and it has developed guidelines on the protec-
although not legally binding, set standards or tion and care of refugee children, which pro-
elaborate principles which are concerned with the vide detailed guidance aimed at ensuring that
eradication of violence against children. Within child refugees are protected from physical and
the United Nations, rules and guidelines have sexual violence, especially when they are living
been adopted on the administration of juvenile in large refugee camps.
justice (the Beijing Rules, 1985), the prevention
of juvenile delinquency (the Riyadh Guidelines, By becoming party to international and regional
1990) and the protection of juveniles deprived treaties, States incur legally binding obligations
of their liberty. The 1993 United Nations Dec- to respect, protect and fulfil the rights they
laration on Violence against Women defines have said they comply with. They are required
gender-based violence, and provides guidance to refrain from interfering in the enjoyment of
to States on the steps that should be taken to rights, protect individuals from violence by non-
address violence against women and girls. State actors, and take positive steps to ensure
that human rights can be exercised.
The outcome of United Nations world confer-
ences and their reviews by special sessions of Where violence against children is concerned,
the General Assembly also address violence Governments are required to take immediate
against children. The 2002 General Assembly and positive steps to prevent and eliminate
special session on children includes a substan- all forms of violence against children and to
REGIONAL TREATIES RELEVANT TO VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN*
Organization of American States:
Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture
Inter-American Convention on the Forced Disappearance of Persons
Inter-American Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against
Persons with Disabilities.
Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of
Violence against Women ‘Convention of Belém Do Pará’
African Union:
African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights
Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights on the Rights of
Women in Africa
African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child
40
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC):
Convention on Regional Arrangements on the Promotion of Child Welfare

Social Charter
Regional Convention on Combating the Crime of Trafficking in Women and
Children for Prostitution
League of Arab States:
Arab Charter on Human Rights (adopted 1994, revised 2005; not yet in force)
European Union:
Communication from the Commission: Towards an EU Strategy on the Rights of the
Child, Brussels, 4.7.2006, COM (2006) 367 final
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council:
Fighting trafficking in human beings – an integrated approach and proposals for an
action plan, Brussels, 18.10.2005, COM (2005) 514 final
Council of Europe:
European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms
European Social Charter and the Revised European Social Charter
Additional Protocol to the European Social Charter Providing for a System of Collective
Complaints
European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Other Inhuman and Degrading
Treatment or Punishment
Convention on Cyber Crime
Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings
*This list is not exhaustive

2
THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION
The activities of the World Health Assembly in relation to violence against children
also reflect commitment by Governments and constitute a strong platform to address
violence against children which complements human rights.
The public health mandate for addressing violence against children is grounded in the
World Health Organization’s broader mandate for prevention of all forms of violence. The
World Health Assembly, governing body of the World Health Organization, in resolu-
tion WHA 49.25 (1996), declared violence to be a leading worldwide public health prob-
lem and expressed particular concern at levels of violence against women and children; it
urged Member States to assess the problem of violence, and requested that WHO present
a plan of action for the prevention of violence. The World Health Assembly endorsed the
plan of action and called for its further development (resolution WHA 50.19).
41
In response to these resolutions WHO prepared the first world report on violence and
health, launched in 2002. The World Report on Violence and Health described the
extent of violence as a global public health problem, set out a public health-oriented
prevention strategy, and made nine recommendations. The report inspired the World
Health Assembly to adopt a resolution (WHA 56.24) urging Member States to promote
the report recommendations, appoint a ministry of health focal point for violence pre-
vention, and prepare a national report on violence and violence prevention.
respond to it effectively if it occurs, ensur- International law thus provides a powerful,

ing that perpetrators do not enjoy impunity. overarching legal framework which demands a
States are required to ensure that their authori- multifaceted response. Required responses will
ties, such as the police or teachers in State-run vary according to the type of violence and the
schools do not perpetrate violence against chil- setting in which it occurs. They will include
dren through the adoption of legislative and public health responses, which emphasize pre-
other measures to prevent such acts through, vention, criminal law responses, compensation,
for example, training police and other State education, health or legislative approaches.20
officials in investigation techniques which do
not involve violence. They are also required to The existing standards in international law
adopt legislative and other measures to protect relevant to violence against children are com-
children and to prevent and to deter parents, prehensive and detailed. The challenge is to
legal guardians and other non-State actors from ensure that all States implement their obli-
a violating children’s rights through violence. gations. The systemic and widespread nature
of violence against children in all its forms REFERENCES
and all its settings must be recognised and
acknowledged. Thereafter, appropriate and 1 UNICEF (2005). UN Human Rights Standards and
Mechanisms to Combat Violence against Children: A
effective legislative, policy and programmatic Contribution to the UN Secretary-General’s Study on
responses must be put in place, implemented, Violence against Children. Florence, UNICEF Innocenti
monitored and consistently modified so as to Research Centre.
respond effectively and urgently to this mas- 2 UNICEF (2001). Implementation Handbook for the
sive global issue. Convention on the Rights of the Child, Revised edition.
Geneva, UNICEF.
3 Committee on the Rights of the Child (2006). General
Comment No. 8. The Right of the Child to Protection
from Corporal Punishment and Other Cruel or Degrading
Forms of Punishment, (articles 19, 28(2) and 37, inter
alia), CRC/C/GC/8.
42 4 Committee on the Rights of the Child (2006). General


Forms of Punishment (articles 19, 28(2) and 37, inter
alia), CRC/C/GC/8, para 3.
5 Committee on the Rights of the Child (2001).
General Comment No. 1. The Aims of Education.
CRC/GC/2001/1, para 8.
Recommendations Adopted Following the General
Discussion Day on Violence within the Family and in
Schools. Report on the 28th session, September/October
2001, CRC/C/111.
Discussion Day on the State of Violence against
Children. Report on the 25th session, September/
October 2000, CRC/C/100.
General Discussion Day on Violence within the Family
and in Schools. Report on the 28th session, September/
October 2001, CRC/C/111.
2
10 Committee on the Rights of the Child (2001). 19 African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights
General Comment No. 1. The Aims of Education, (2003). Curtis Francis Doebbler v. Sudan. African
CRC/GC/2001/1. Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights,
Communication No. 236/2000, para. 42.
Comment No. 8. The Right of the Child to Protection 20 Krug EG et al. (Eds) (2002). World Report on Violence
from Corporal Punishment and Other Cruel or Degrading and Health. Geneva, World Health Organization.
alia), CRC/C/GC/8.
QUOTES
12 Fiji Court of Appeal (2002). Naushad Ali v. State.
Cited in: Committee on the Rights of the Child (2006). I Council of Europe (2006). Monaco launching
General Comment No. 8. The Right of the Child to conference for ‘Building a Europe for and with
Protection from Corporal Punishment and Other Cruel or Children’, 4-5 April 2006. Available at:
Degrading Forms of Punishment (articles 19, 28(2) and http://www.coe.int/t/transversalprojects/children/
37, inter alia), CRC/C/GC/8. events/monacoLaunch_en.asp
13 UNICEF (2005). UN Human Rights Standards and II United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
Mechanisms to Combat Violence against Children: against Children (2005). Regional Consultation Outcome 43
A Contribution to the UN Secretary-General’s Study on Report: the Caribbean, p 22. Available at: www.
Violence against Children. Florence, UNICEF Innocenti violencestudy.org/r27.
Research Centre.
III Council of Europe (2006). Monaco launching
14 UNICEF (2005). UN Human Rights Standards and conference for ‘Building a Europe for and with
Mechanisms to Combat Violence against Children: Children’, 4-5 April 2006. Available at:
A Contribution to the UN Secretary-General’s Study on http://www.coe.int/t/transversalprojects/children/
Violence against Children. Florence, UNICEF Innocenti events/monacoLaunch_en.asp
Research Centre.
15 European Committee of Social Rights (2001).
Conclusions XV-2, Volume 1. General Introduction:
General observations regarding Articles 7 para. 10 and
17, pp 27 et seq.
16 European Committee of Social Rights (2001).
Conclusions XV-2, Volume 1, General Introduction:
General observations regarding Articles 7 paras 10 and
17, p 27.
17 Inter-American Court of Human Rights (2002).
Advisory Opinion OC-17/2002, Legal Status and Human
Rights of the Child. 28 August 2002, paras 87 and 91.
18 African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights
(2003). Curtis Francis Doebbler v. Sudan. African
Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights,
Communication No. 236/2000.
UNICEF/HQ01-0432. Claudio Versiani
Brazil, 2001, Maria (name changed), 6, hides her face in a pillow, in a room at CEDECA, the Centre for the Defense of Children and
Adolescents, in a major city in Brazil. Maria was the victim of child abuse. Behind her is a six-year-old boy who is also being treated at
the centre, to help him recover from abuse of his older sister.
3
IN THE HOME AND FAMILY
Introduction 47
Physical violence 51
Homicide 51
Non-fatal physical violence 52 45
Neglect 54
VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN IN THE HOME AND FAMILY

Sexual violence 54
Violence related to sexual behaviour and perceptions of honour 56
Sexual violence in intimate relationships and child marriage 56
Prevalence of child marriage 57
Physical, sexual and psychological violence 58
Harmful traditional practices 60
Female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM) 60
Psychological violence 61
The consequences of violence against children 63
Developmental consequences: physical and psychological 63
Consequences over the longer term 64
Further victimisation 65
Social and economic consequences 66
Child-related factors 67
Family-related factors 68
Societal and cultural factors 70
Protective factors within the home 72
Responses to violence against children in the home and family 73
Legal reform 74
Laws on corporal punishment and
other forms of cruel or degrading punishment 74
Other areas for legal change 75
Prevention strategies 76
Support for parents and families 77
Programmes for and with children 80
Social policy 81
Other strategies 82
Intervening when violence becomes known 83
46 Detection of violence against children in the family 83
Treatment for victims of violence 84
Reporting by professionals 85
Intervention in the best interests of the child 85
When alternative care is necessary 87
Advocacy and public education 87
Eliminating harmful traditional practices 88
Improving information for policy development and action 90
Recommendations 92
References 96
“With these two hands my mother holds me, cares for me, this I love.
But with these two hands, my mother hits me – this I hate”
Girl, East Asia and the Pacific, 2005 I
3
INTRODUCTION the adoption of measures to ensure that par-
ents, legal guardians and others do not violate
Families, defined widely, hold the greatest children’s rights. It is obliged to put in place a
potential for protecting children from all forms framework of laws, policies and programmes to
of violence. Families can also empower chil- prevent violence by providing adequate protec-
dren to protect themselves. A basic assumption tion, and responding to violence if it occurs.
of the Convention on the Rights of the Child
(CRC) is that the family is the natural envi- Younger children tend to be more vulnerable
to violence in the home. In some industrialised
ronment for the growth and well-being of all
States, where child deaths are most rigorously
its members – particularly for children – while
recorded and investigated, infants under one
the Universal Declaration on Human Rights
year of age face around three times the risk of
and the International Covenant on Civil and
homicide, almost invariably by parents, than
Political Rights and the International Cove-
children aged one to four, and twice the risk of
nant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights those aged five to 14.1 While all physical pun- 47
proclaim the family as being the fundamental ishment is degrading, there are other cruel and

group unit of society. The CRC requires the degrading and potentially equally damaging
State to fully respect and support families. non-physical forms of violence which children
But families can be dangerous places for chil- suffer within the family. These include endur-
dren and in particular for babies and young ing persistent threats, insults, name-calling or
other forms of verbal abuse, belittling, isolation
children. The prevalence of violence against
or rejection. In addition to the direct violence,
children by parents and other close family
many children witness violence between adult
members – physical, sexual and psychologi-
family members, which in itself has serious
cal violence, as well as deliberate neglect – has
consequences, only very recently recognised.
only begun to be acknowledged and docu-
mented. Challenging violence against children Everywhere that sexual violence has been studied,
is most difficult in the context of the family it is increasingly acknowledged that a substantial
in all its forms. There is a reluctance to inter- proportion of children are sexually harassed and
vene in what is still perceived in most societies violated by the people closest to them. Forced sex
as a ‘private’ sphere. But human rights to full within forced and early marriage is common in
respect for human dignity and physical integ- many States. So-called ‘honour killings’ of ado-
rity – children’s and adults’ equal rights – and lescent girls, regarded as having breached moral
State obligations to uphold these rights do not codes, occur in some countries. Despite legisla-
stop at the door of the family home. tion and advocacy efforts, female genital mutila-
tion or cutting (FGM) remains widespread: in
State responsibility to respect, protect and fulfill parts of North and Eastern Africa, over 90% of
the rights of children extends beyond its direct girls undergo this operation, usually at around
activities and those of State agents, and requires the age of seven.2,3
“The Study marks a watershed in adult relationships with children. In just a few years time,
we should be looking back with shame and bewilderment at the fact that in the early years of the second
millennium, governments and individual adults were still justifying - even promoting - hitting and
deliberately hurting babies and children as lawful and legitimate.”
Peter Newell, Editorial Board of the UN Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Children
Sexual and gender-based violence has pro- and girls are encouraged to be passive, compli-
found implications in the era of HIV/AIDS, ant caregivers. These gender-based stereotypes
and also compromises self-esteem, psychologi- support the use of violence and coercion that
cal and emotional health. The implications perpetuates gender inequalities.
of all forms of home and family violence for
future development, behaviour and well-being This chapter discusses the various types of
in adulthood, and for future parenting, are physical, psychological and sexual violence
profound. In addition, home is the place where that occur in home and family settings, their
gender-based inequalities are first experienced impacts on children, and the wide range of
by children, and where future power-imbal- responses that can be used to reduce and ulti-
anced relationships are modelled, or chal- mately eliminate this violence.
lenged. Boys may be encouraged to become
aggressive and dominant (‘takers’ of care),
48
HUMAN RIGHTS INSTRUMENTS
The adoption of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) in 1989 confirmed
that children too are holders of human rights. The CRC claims, on the one hand, chil-
dren’s right to individuality and to have their views on all matters which affect them
taken seriously; and on the other, in the light of their developmental state and vulner-
ability, rights to special care and protection. The CRC makes clear that wherever pos-
sible children should be raised within their family; and where the family is unable to
care for and protect them adequately, an alternative family-type environment should be
provided. Therefore the CRC uncompromisingly asserts that the family is the primary
site for children’s healthy, loving and safe upbringing. However, this role must be fully
underpinned and supported by the State, including by stepping over the family thresh-
old to intervene when necessary, in the best interests of the child.
The balance between the responsibilities and duties of families and of States to provide
children with the necessary protections for their development is addressed in several articles
of the CRC. Article 18 expresses the balance as follows: “…Parents or …legal guardians,
3
have the primary responsibility for the upbringing and development of the child,” and
in paragraph 2: “… States parties shall render appropriate assistance to parents and legal
guardians in the performance of their child-rearing responsibilities.” Article 3 requires
that “the best interest of the child shall be a primary consideration in all actions con-
cerning children.” Article 9 states: “A child shall not be separated from his or her parents
against their will” except when competent authorities determine that such separation is
necessary in the best interests of the child, including in cases of violence.
The CRC therefore provides clear authorisation to the State to protect children against
all forms of violence in the home and family, and establishes its role as final arbiter of
child welfare in the domestic arena. Article 19 asserts children’s right to protection
“from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury and abuse, neglect or negligent
treatment, maltreatment or exploitation, including sexual abuse, while in the care of 49
parent(s), legal guardian(s) or any other person who has care of the child.” Articles 20

and 21 address the State’s obligations to make arrangements for alternative care where
a child is parentless or has been separated from the family. Article 23 concerns special
support for disabled children; articles 34 and 35 seek protection from sexual exploi-
tation and abuse, and from sale and trafficking; article 37 states: “No child shall be
subjected to torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment;”
article 24 requires States to take action to end harmful traditional practices, including
for example FGM and forced and/or early marriage.
The CRC requires States both to prevent all forms of violence and to respond to violence
effectively when it occurs. While the State cannot be held directly responsible for indi-
vidual acts of violence against children by parents or others, it is required to provide a
framework of law and other necessary measures to supply adequate protection, includ-
ing effective deterrence. Few States have put in place the necessary laws prohibiting all
violence against children, together with policies, structures, and reporting and referral
mechanisms to address violence in the home and family. Law enforcement officials in
many countries remain reluctant to intervene even in cases of severe violence, child
marriage, and incest. Violent forms of discipline remain legal and socially accepted in
many States, despite the consistent interpretation of the CRC and other human rights
instruments as requiring their prohibition and elimination (most recently, this has
been underlined by the Committee’s General Comment No. 8, 2006 on “The right of
the child to protection from corporal punishment and other cruel or degrading forms
of punishment and control,” discussed later in this chapter).4
“I was forced to marry with an old man of over 30 years who had raped me.”
Girl, 16, Eastern and Southern Africa, 2005 II
BACKGROUND AND negative effects for children, and often lead to

permanent family break-up.10 Single-parent
CONTEXT
households may also have the stress of economic
In most parts of the world, the family as an disadvantage, and the added burden of child-
institution is itself changing or evolving in the care responsibilities, especially where other
light of social and economic pressures. The extended family support is not available.11,12,13
pace of urbanisation, especially in sub-Saha- In Southern Africa where HIV/AIDS also
ran Africa (nearly 6% a year) and in Asia (3– exerts stress on families, fathers are reported
4%),5 has important implications for family absent in 42% of households.14,15,16 Heavily
living patterns and make-up. One in three AIDS-affected countries have also seen the
city dwellers – nearly one billion people – live emergence of ‘child-headed households’ where
in slums. Crowded living conditions, and the orphaned children are left managing the home
necessity for cash income to meet all family and struggling to provide for siblings.
needs, create circumstances of stress very dif-
50 ferent from the life of rural subsistence.6 NATURE AND EXTENT OF
In industrialised countries, family make-up is THE PROBLEM

less stable and also taking new forms, and the
nature of ‘family life’ is undergoing change. Forms of violence to which a child will be
Where income gaps have widened or there has exposed vary according to age and stage of
been rapid social change, levels of interpersonal development, especially as the child starts to
violence tend to rise.7 In many parts of the interact with the world outside the home.17,18
world there has also been a loss of protection Infants and young children are more likely to
from kin, community and informal employers be victimised by primary caregivers and other
or ‘patrons’ that families traditionally relied family members because of their dependence on
upon.8 Market-based social policy reforms of adult caregivers and limited independent social
the 1990s and early 2000s have exacerbated interactions outside the home.19 As children
pressures, especially on women, by reducing develop, they grow in independence and spend
the already limited access of poorer families to increasing amounts of time outside the home
health care, pensions, schooling, and care for and away from family; therefore older children
small children and the elderly. are more likely to be victimised by people out-
side their home and family. However, there are
Economic pressures on low-income families many overlaps in terms of age as well as forms
in all regions have also led to significant levels of violence, and in terms of perpetrators.
of migration – seasonal, temporary or perma-
nent – by one or other parent, either to town or In the home and family setting, children
another country, to earn and send remittances experience assaults and other acts of physi-
home.9 Unprecedented levels of mobility lead cal violence, sexual violation, harmful tradi-
to protracted periods of family separation, with tional practices, humiliation and other types
3
of psychological violence, and neglect. As well the home and family setting requires sophisti-
as assaults and other physical violence, these cated surveillance systems of child deaths, which
can include acts of omission, such as failure to are lacking in most countries. Where deaths are
protect the child from exposure to preventable not recorded or investigated, the extent of fatal
violence at the hands of friends, neighbours, or violence to children is not accurately known,
visitors; acts of stigma or gross discrimination; and may become obscured by the high rates
and failure to utilise child health and welfare of under-five mortality generally. It is assumed
services to support the child’s well-being. Per- that violence in one form or another – includ-
petrators of violence in the home circle include ing neglect – may often play a part in infant
parents and step-parents, and can also include and young child deaths that are not recorded as
alternative family carers, extended family, homicides, or perhaps not recorded at all. It is
spouses (in the case of child marriage) and widely agreed that violence against children by
their in-laws. family members results in death far more often
than official records suggest.23
PHYSICAL VIOLENCE 51
Where sufficient reliable data exist (for example

Homicide in New Zealand, Switzerland, and the USA),
a few trends emerge.24,25,26,27,28 In general, chil-
In countries where homicide statistics are anal- dren under 10 are at significantly greater risk
ysed according to age of the victim, 15–17-year- than children aged 10 to 19 of severe violence
olds are the age group that is most at risk. The perpetrated by family members and people
second high-risk group is infants. Data from closely associated with the family. Age and sex
OECD countries suggest that the risk of death is are important risk factors. The majority of mur-
about three times greater for children under one ders of children under the age of one are perpe-
year old than for those aged 1 to 4, who in turn trated by one or both of the child’s parents, fre-
face double the risk of those aged 5 to 14. The quently the mother. While approximately 50%
younger the child, the more likely their death to 75% of murders of children aged under 10
will be caused by a close family member.20,21 are by family members, this proportion drops
to about 20% of murders of children aged 10
The most frequent causes of death are injuries to to 14, and 5% of murders of children aged 15
the head or to the internal organs. Other causes to 19. A substantial proportion of homicides of
include intentional suffocation, shaking, and children under 10 years of age are committed
more rarely, choking or battering. According to by a stepparent, by a parent’s boyfriend or girl-
WHO estimates, the highest rates of homicide friend, or by other people known to the victim.
in children under the age of five are found in sub-
Saharan Africa and Northern America, and the A US study found that female victims were
lowest in the high-income countries of Europe, twice as likely as male victims to have been
and in Eastern and Western Asia.22 Estimating killed by family members.29 Although girls’
the proportion of child homicides occurring in risk of murder by immediate family mem-
“One day I went to put the cows to graze and one cow got lost. When I returned home,
my father beat me almost to death and I sustained wounds all over my body”
Boy, 17, Eastern and Southern Africa III
bers appears to decline after the age of 10, the (as discussed above), in disability, or in severe
data suggest that they face increased risk of physical injury. In other cases, physical vio-
murder by intimate partners (dating partners lence may leave no outwardly visible sign of
or spouses) or by the families of the intimate injury. In all instances, however, physical vio-
partner. Moreover, in regions where early mar- lence has a negative impact on a child’s psy-
riage and so-called ‘honour killings’ against chological health and development.
women are common, it is probable that the
proportion of murders of girls by family mem- Surveys from around the world suggest that
bers may remain stable or actually increase in physical violence against children in the home
the 10 to 14- and 15 to 19-year age groups. is widespread in all regions. For example, in a
Further research is needed to confirm whether survey of students aged 11 to 18 in the Kurd-
this is so. istan Province of the Islamic Republic of Iran,
38.5% reported experiences of physical violence
In some parts of South Asia, high rates of at home that had caused physical injury ranging
52 murder of girls within a few days of birth have from mild to severe.31 A review of research on
been reported, with these deaths often dis- physical victimisation of children in the Repub-
guised and registered as a still birth. A study lic of Korea found that kicking, biting, choking
in India, interviewing 1,000 women regard- and beating by parents are alarmingly common,
ing pregnancy outcomes, found that 41% of with a high risk of physical injury – and for a
the early neo-natal female deaths are due to small proportion, disability – as a result.32 In
female infanticide. Although the practice is the UK, a national survey found that moth-
apparently not limited to India, one study in ers and fathers were most often responsible for
Tamil Nadu estimated that 8–10% of infant physical violence, although violence by siblings
deaths in 1995 could have been due to female was also reported.33
infanticide.30 Further research is required to
better understand the nature and extent of the Corporal punishment is defined by the Com-
phenomenon across countries. mittee on the Rights of the Child as “any
punishment in which physical force is used
Non-fatal physical violence
and intended to cause some degree of pain or
Physical violence is the intentional use of phys- discomfort, however light.”34 While growing
ical force against a child that either results in global concern over the prevalence of corporal
or has a high likelihood of resulting in harm punishment in the home – perpetuated by its
to the child’s health, survival, development or widespread legality and social approval – has
dignity. Children around the world experi- fostered interest in understanding its prevalence
ence hitting, kicking, shaking, beating, bites, and forms, it has also generated debate. Most
burns, strangulation, poisoning and suffoca- corporal punishment involves hitting (‘smack-
tion by members of their family. In extreme ing’, ‘slapping’, ‘spanking’) children, with the
cases this violence can result in a child’s death hand or with an implement – whip, stick, belt,
3
shoe, wooden spoon, etc. But it can also involve, There are considerable variations in popu-
for example, kicking, shaking or throwing lar views about the use and effectiveness of
children, scratching, pinching, biting, pulling corporal punishment, according to available
hair or boxing ears, forcing children to stay in studies. While a Canadian study found that
uncomfortable positions, burning, scalding or 59% of people believed that spanking is harm-
forced ingestion (for example, washing chil- ful and 86% that it is ineffective,36 research
dren’s mouths out with soap or forcing them in the USA found that 84% agreed “that it
to swallow hot spices). The Committee com- is sometimes necessary to discipline a child
ments: “In the view of the Committee, cor- with a good hard spanking.”37,38 A study in the
poral punishment is invariably degrading. In Republic of Korea found that 90% of parents
addition, there are other non-physical forms of thought corporal punishment ‘necessary’.39 In
punishment which are also cruel and degrading a report from Yemen, almost 90% of children
and thus incompatible with the CRC. These said that physical and humiliating punishment
include, for example, punishment which belit- is the main method of discipline in the family,
tles, humiliates, denigrates, scapegoats, threat- with the most common form being beating. 53
ens, scares or ridicules the child.”35

WHAT CHILDREN THINK ABOUT CORPORAL PUNISHMENT
The Save the Children Alliance conducted research on physical and humiliating pun-
ishment with children around the world as a special contribution to the Study. The
resulting report found that overwhelmingly, the children disagreed with the idea that
such punishment accomplished anything positive. The report suggested that while
children may comply with adults’ wishes immediately after being hit, “young children
frequently do not remember why they are hit, and children will only refrain from the
misbehaviour if they face an imminent threat of being hit. This sort of punishment
frightens children into certain behaviours: it does not help children to want to behave,
or teach them self-discipline or promote any alternative.”41 In a survey undertaken by
UNICEF in Europe and Central Asia, over 75% of children said that ‘hitting’ was
‘never’ a good solution to problems at home.42 In Regional Consultations for the Study,
children repeatedly called for other methods of discipline, including being offered a
proper explanation of what they had done wrong. They underlined how hurtful it was
to be hit and humiliated by those who professed to love and care for them.
NEGLECT vices less often, and later in the course of any
illness.45 A study from Nepal into outcomes of
Neglect is an important contributor to death polio infection in the population found that
and illness in young children. Neglect means several years later, the survival rate of boys was
the failure of parents or carers to meet a child’s twice that of girls, despite the fact that polio
physical and emotional needs when they have affects equal numbers of males and females,
the means, knowledge and access to services thus suggesting gender bias in care.46 In China,
to do so; or failure to protect her or him from the sex ratio is unbalanced in favour of boys
exposure to danger. However, in many set- (117 to 100), with this being contributed to by
tings the line between what is caused deliber- infanticide.47
ately and what is caused by ignorance or lack
of care possibilities may be difficult to draw. SEXUAL VIOLENCE
The degree to which neglect influences child
mortality rates in many parts of the world The WHO estimates that 150 million girls
54 is unknown (with exceptions, including the and 73 million boys under 18 have experi-
‘missing girls’ phenomenon; see below). enced forced sexual intercourse or other forms
of sexual violence involving physical contact,48

Cases of neglect are difficult to interpret in cir- though this is certainly an underestimate.
cumstances of poor public health and under- Much of this sexual violence is inflicted by
nutrition. In some industrialised countries, family members or other people residing in
neglect constitutes the largest proportion of child or visiting a child’s family home – people nor-
maltreatment cases reported to the authorities. mally trusted by children and often respon-
Studies in these countries confirm that forms of sible for their care.
violence and neglect interconnect.43 All of the
Regional Consultations for the Study expressed A review of epidemiological surveys from 21
concern about neglect of children with dis- countries, mainly high- and middle-income
abilities; although there is little quantitative countries, found that at least 7% of females
evidence, it is known that these children are at (ranging up to 36%) and 3% of males (rang-
high risk of neglect, from deliberate withhold- ing up to 29%) reported sexual victimisation
ing of basic physical necessities to emotional during their childhood.49 According to these
isolation and lack of stimulation. studies, between 14% and 56% of the sexual
abuse of girls, and up to 25% of the sexual
Research on sex differences in neglect in abuse of boys, was perpetrated by relatives or
India suggests that girls suffer relatively more step-parents. In many places, adults are outspo-
neglect than boys throughout early child- ken about the risk of sexual violence their chil-
hood. They are breast-fed less frequently than dren face at school or at play in the community,
boys and for shorter duration; once weaned, but rarely do adults speak of children’s risk of
they are given food of an inferior quality and sexual abuse within the home and family con-
quantity.44 Girls are also taken to health ser- text. The shame, secrecy and denial associated
3
“When I was like twelve, I thought I was pregnant by my father. I contemplated suicide because
I was just saying to myself. “How am I going to explain this to people?”
I mean, I was twelve years old. Nobody is going to believe me.”
Young girl, North America, 2005 IV
with familial sexual violence against children reported childhood sexual abuse. Of
foster a pervasive culture of silence, where chil- these, 66% and 54% reported that a
dren cannot speak about sexual abuse they have family member was the perpetrator.
suffered, adults do not speak about the risk of • In Namibia, 21% of the women
sexual violence in the home, and where adults reported childhood sexual abuse. Of
do not know what to do or say if they suspect these, 47% indicated that a family
someone they know is sexually abusing a child. member was the perpetrator.
• In the two Peruvian sites, city and
Most children do not report the sexual vio- province, 19.5% and 18% of the
lence they experience at home because they are women reported childhood sexual
afraid of what will happen to them and their abuse, with 54% and 41% of the
families, that their families will be ashamed or perpetrators being family members.
reject them, or that they will not be believed.
Adults may also fail to report such abuse. In The most commonly reported perpetrators of
communities and families with rigid norms sexual violence towards girls were male family 55
about masculinity, femininity and family members (brothers, uncles), followed by step-

honour, boys who disclose sexual violence may fathers, fathers and female family members.
be viewed as weak and unmanly, and girls Male friends of family were also commonly
who disclose sexual violence risk being blamed named as perpetrators. Other research con-
– and frequently beaten and killed.50,51 Both firms that parents, caregivers, aunts and uncles,
boys and girls are vulnerable to sexual violence, siblings, grandparents, cousins, and friends of
but comparison of international studies reveals the family perpetrate sexual violence against
that rates of sexual violence against girls are children. For example:
generally higher than those against boys.52,53
• In a study of women aged 15 to 49
A recent WHO multi-country study inter- in South Africa, 21% of women who
viewed more than 24,000 women in 10 coun- reported being forced or persuaded to
tries (Bangladesh, Brazil, Ethiopia, Japan, Peru, have intercourse against their will prior
Namibia, Samoa, the former Serbia and Mon- to the age of 15 years, reported that the
tenegro, Thailand, and the United Republic of perpetrator was a relative.55
Tanzania), and asked if someone had touched • In a Romanian national study of 13-
them sexually or made them do something and 14-year-olds, 9% of the children
sexual they did not want to do, before the age reported they had been sexually violated
of 15 years.54 In some of these countries, the in the family and 1% reported they had
proportion of childhood sexual abuse perpe- been raped by a family member.56
trated by family members is extremely high: • In the Occupied Palestinian Territory,
19% of surveyed undergraduate college
• In the two Brazil sites, city and province, students reported at least one act of
12% and 9% respectively of the women sexual violence against them by an
“I was just 15 years old and was studying in Grade 9 when my dreams shattered. I was attacked with
acid for refusing a marriage proposal. You can imagine the physical pain of having acid thrown over
your face and body, but the pain of social stigma is worse than physical pain and can last forever.”
Acid victim, South and Central Asia, 2005 V
immediate family member prior to the In some cultures, suspected loss of virginity of
age of 16. A further 36.2% reported a female member of the family, including as
sexual abuse by a relative at least once. a result of rape, is perceived as compromising
Males and females reported similar family honour, and may lead to her murder by
rates of childhood sexual abuse.57 family members. In Pakistan, human rights
• In a study of university students in the organisations report that there were over 1,200
Hong Kong Special Administrative cases of so-called ‘honour killings’ in 2003
Region of China, 4.3% of males and alone.62,63 They also occur in Jordan, India,
7.4% of females reported experiencing Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, the Occupied Pal-
one or more incidents of sexual violence estinian Territory, Turkey, Iraq, and Afghani-
before the age of 17 years. Perpetrators stan; and in countries with populations origi-
were strangers in less than one-third of nally from Asia and the Middle East. UK data
cases.58 suggest that around 12 of these killings occur
• An analysis of child protection files in there every year.64 These deaths are thought
56 Spain from 1997 and 1998 showed that to represent only the extreme end of a much
3.6% of abuse cases involved sexual larger problem of intimidation and violence.65
abuse, and 96% of the perpetrators

Extreme violence may be perpetrated against
of sexual abuse were family members
girls and women who do not respond in stereo-
or relatives. Fathers and stepfathers
typical ways. Rejection of romantic overtures or
accounted for the largest proportion of
marriage proposals, for example, may prompt a
persons responsible for sexual abuse,
violent reaction. The proportion of acid attacks
followed by mothers and uncles or
on women and girls in Bangladesh, currently
aunts.59
estimated at around 120 every year,66 related to
• In Somalia, 20% of the children
refusal of a relationship or marriage proposal
reported to one study that they knew of
was reported as amounting to 17% in 2003.67
a sexual assault against a child in their
Most of the girls come from poor households,
family.60
and attacks often occur on the way to school or
Violence related to sexual behaviour during collection of water or fuel.
and perceptions of honour
SEXUAL VIOLENCE IN INTIMATE
In some circumstances, girls are regarded as RELATIONSHIPS AND CHILD
complicit in cases of sexual violence against MARRIAGE
them and they, rather than their abusers, are
held responsible for any sexual act, forced, For a large number of girls – and some boys
violent or otherwise. In some countries, a girl – the first experience of sexual intercourse in
older than 12 can be punished severely in cases adolescence is unwanted and even coerced,
of rape and other sexual assaults if the perpe- and a proportion of these rapes occur in the
trator denies it, and there is no witness.61 context of intimate partnerships and under-
3
age permanent unions or marriages. There ommends to States that the legal age for mar-
can also be violence in the context of dating, riage should be raised and equalised.
but this type of non-formal partnership rela-
tionships between adolescent boys and girls Early marriage of girls has significant negative
(and between same-sex young couples) tends consequences on their health, development
to occur outside the home and family context. and rights. It often ends their opportunities for
It is therefore primarily covered in the chapter formal education, and results in social isola-
on violence against children in the commu- tion. Young wives are regarded as having con-
nity. sented to sexual relations with their husbands,
and become pregnant when young, before
In many societies, a marriage or permanent their bodies are ready. They face higher rates
union is arranged – in the case of girls, usually of problems in childbirth and maternal mor-
at or soon after puberty – by parents and family tality. The same applies to child marriage.68
elders. Sometimes these unions are forced on
children, particularly girls, and result in early In addition to other risks to their health and 57
marriage. development, girls who marry before the age of

18 face significant risk of physical, sexual and
While the justifications include protection of psychological violence at the hands of their
family honour and a girl’s sexual purity, eco- husbands, with existing evidence suggest-
nomic factors also play a role: girls may be ing that girls who marry young are at higher
viewed as an economic burden in poor fami- risk of violence than other women.69 Intimate
lies; dowry costs are commonly lower, and partner violence against married girls is often
bride wealth gains are higher for younger girls; a manifestation of unequal power relations
a young girl’s marriage may be arranged to between her and her husband, and indicative
secure her and her family’s economic future. of underlying societal beliefs in the status and
The Convention on the Elimination of All roles of men and women.
Forms of Discrimination against Women pro- Prevalence of child marriage
vides that the marriage of a child shall have
no legal effect, and that all necessary action, Child marriage is common in South Asia, West
including legislation, shall be taken to specify Africa, and some countries in East and Southern
a minimum age for marriage. In its 1994 Gen- Africa – especially Mozambique, Uganda and
eral Recommendation on equality and family Ethiopia – as well as others in the Middle East,
relations, the Committee on the Elimination notably Yemen. In some countries – mostly in
of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) West Africa, but including Bangladesh and
recommended that that the minimum age for Nepal – about 60% of girls are married by
marriage for both boys and girls should be 18. the age of 18, and in at least 28 countries, the
The Committee on the Rights of the Child proportion is 30%.70 Although the majority of
has echoed this proposal, and frequently rec- countries have legislation which prohibits mar-
“I hate early marriage. I was married at an early age and my in-laws forced me to sleep
with my husband and he made me suffer all night. After that, whenever day becomes night,
I get worried thinking that it will be like that. That is what I hate most.”
Girl, 11, married at 5, Eastern and Southern Africa, 2005 VI
riage of girls under the age of 16, and some Physical violence against married girls by their
forbid marriage under the age of 18, such laws spouses can include pushing, shaking, slap-
are frequently ignored: marriages are not regis- ping, punching, biting, kicking, dragging,
tered, customary or religious rules are accepted, strangling, burning, and threatening/attack-
with few cases resulting in court proceedings. ing with a weapon. In societies with a custom
of dowry, intimate partner violence against the
It is estimated that, globally, 82 million girls now young bride can result from her family’s failure
between 10–17 years of age will marry before to pay the dowry, or her husband’s or in-laws’
their 18th birthday.71 This includes significant dissatisfaction with the amount.
numbers of girls married at much younger ages.
In Nepal, for example, 7% of girls are married Studies of domestic violence and dowry-related
by the time they are 10, and 40% by the age harassment show that close relatives, especially
of 15.72 In the Amhara region of Ethiopia, 40% members of the husband’s family, play impor-
of girls in rural areas are married by the age of tant roles in perpetrating violence against
58 15,73 in some cases following abduction and rape women. Often the perpetrator is the husband,
in order to avoid bride price. In all such cases, assisted by the mother- in-law.75 However,
the notion of consent to the marriage by either in some cases the husband’s relatives are the
partner, especially the girl, and to the sex within main perpetrators of violence and harass-
it, does not apply. In settings where a girl is sent ment against the young bride.76,77,78 A study
to her in-laws once agreement between the fami- from India revealed that, among women who
lies with respect to the marriage has been made, reported physical violence and harassment due
sex within the union often begins at the age of to dissatisfaction with the dowry, the family
10 or 11, before the girl has menstruated. member who most frequently harassed was the
mother-in-law (95%), followed by the hus-
Physical, sexual and psychological band and father-in-law (72% each), sister-in-
violence law (49%), and brother-in-law (14%).79
Married girls experience a significant amount Many married girls experience sexual violence
of violence from their husbands. A recent from their partners; they may be physically
analysis of Demographic and Health Surveys forced, or threatened into having sexual inter-
(DHS) data showed that spousal violence had course against their will, or they may have
been experienced in the previous 12 months by sexual intercourse because they are afraid of
4% of girls aged 15 to 19 in Cambodia, 15.4% what their partner will do if they refuse, or
in the Dominican Republic, 21.0% in Egypt, they may be forced to do something sexual
25.4% in Haiti, 10.4% in India, 18.2% in that they find degrading or humiliating. In
Nicaragua, and 33.3% in Zambia.74 In these societies where the cultural norm is for men to
countries, younger women and women who have unlimited sexual access to women upon
married at the earliest ages reported the most marriage, married girls are likely to experience
intimate partner violence. forced and traumatic sexual initiation.80
3
FIGURE 3.1
Percentage of women married by the age of 18 years

Niger 77
Chad 71
Mali 65
Bangladesh 65
Guinea 65
Burkina Faso 62
Central African Republic 57
Mozambique 57
Nepal 56
Uganda 54
Cameroon 53
Ethiopia 49
Yemen 48
Eritrea 47
Malawi 47
India 46
Nigeria 43 59
Nicaragua 43

Zambia 42
Dominican Republic 41
Madagascar 40
United Republic of Tanzania 39
Benin 37
Senegal 36
Guatemala 34
Gabon 34
Côte d'Ivoire 33
Togo 31
Comoros 30
Zimbabwe 29
Ghana 28
Cambodia 25
Kenya 25
Indonesia 24
Haiti 24
Brazil 24
Colombia 21
Kyrgyzstan 21
Bolivia 21
Rwanda 20
Egypt 20
Peru 19
Philippines 15
Kazakhstan 14
Viet Nam 11
Namibia 10
Turkmenistan 9 Percentage
South Africa 8
0 20 40 60 80 100
Source: UNICEF (2005). Early Marriage - a harmful traditional practice. A Statistical Exploration.
New York, UNICEF. Data analysed from 1996 - 2003
Psychological violence, by spouses, against serious health problems: cardiovascular dis-
married girls includes humiliation, threats ease, hypertension and diabetes.
against her or someone close to her, and con-
trolling behaviours. Where a girl flees a vio- Female genital mutilation/cutting
lent marriage and returns home, she may be (FGM)
rejected by her parents and beaten for inad- The term ‘harmful traditional practices’ is most
equacy as a wife.
frequently used to refer to female genital muti-
lation, or ‘cutting’ as it is described in areas
HARMFUL TRADITIONAL PRACTICES where it is practised. According to a WHO
In some settings, cultural traditions include estimate, between 100 and 140 million girls
practices which inflict pain and ‘disfigure- and women in the world have undergone some
ment’ on children, such as scarifying, brand- form of FGM.82 Girls from very young ages up
ing, or tattooing. Although the term ‘harm- to their mid or late teens undergo this form of
60 ful traditional practices’ has been particularly genital excision, normally including the clito-
associated with FGM of girls, there are many ris, as a precursor to marriage.83 FGM is seen as
other harmful practices involving both boys a protection of virginity, a beautification pro-
and girls. In Ethiopia, a 1998 survey by the cess, and in a number of cultures is regarded as
National Committee on Harmful Traditional an essential precondition of marriage.
Practices found that uvulectomy (removal of
flesh from the soft palate at the back of the There are different forms of FGM, some of
mouth) is carried out on 84% of children, which involve more radical excisions in the
and milk teeth extraction on 89%.81 These genital area than others. In its most extreme
operations may be performed with unsterilised form (infibulation), the internal labia minora
instruments, leading to potential infection. and external labia majora are cut and the
exposed edges sutured together, leaving the
Participants in the West and Central African vagina almost shut. Following the procedure,
consultations for the Study expressed con- the girl’s legs are normally bound from foot to
cern that in West African countries includ- hip, immobilising her for days to enable scar
ing Mauritania, Niger and northern Mali, the tissue to form.84 This form of the operation is
desire to marry their children at a very young endured by 90–98% of Somali girls, usually at
age incites parents to force-feed their 5–10- the age of 7 or 8 years.85 There are profound
year-old daughters to promote their physical implications for a woman’s experience of sexual
development, make them as plump as mature relations and maternity. Prolonged labour
women, and therefore pleasing to men. This and stillbirth are common. After delivery, the
may have tragic consequences, including rejec- woman is usually ‘re-sewn’.
tion by husbands who find their wives have not
menstruated and cannot produce children, as The most reliable and extensive data on the
well as obesity which is associated with later prevalence and nature of FGM are provided
“My grandmother arrived. She told me I was to be circumcised but I did not understand.
She said: “Now you will be like everybody else, you will not be left behind.” Then they got ready.
3
They held me at my shoulders and at the knees, and I started crying and trying to close my legs.
It was very terrible. I can never forget that.”
Mother, who will still submit her daughters to the FGM due to pressure
from her mother-in-law, Eastern and Southern Africa, 2005 VII
by DHS and Multiple Indicator Cluster Sur- rimental to a child’s psychological development
veys (MICS). However, the practice varies and well-being. Standard definitions are lack-
considerably in degree of severity of mutila- ing, and little is known about the global extent
tion, and some of the countries in which it is of this form of violence against children except
most frequently practised and in its severest that it frequently accompanies other forms: a
forms have not been subject to DHS or MICS, strong coexistence between psychological and
notably Somalia and Djibouti (see Figure 3.2). physical violence against children in violent
Estimates from UNICEF published in 2005 households has been established.89 In the violent
suggest that in sub-Saharan Africa, Egypt and family setting, there is constant fear and anxi-
the Sudan, 3 million girls and women are sub- ety caused by the anticipation of violence; pain,
jected to FGM every year.86 humiliation and fear during its enactment; and,
The highest prevalence is in the countries in the in older age groups, the loneliness of parental
Horn of Africa (Somalia, Ethiopia, Eritrea and rejection, distrust, and at times self-disgust.
Djibouti), followed by neighbouring Egypt and Psychological violence may be the product of 61
Sudan, East and West Africa, with some cases uncontrolled frustration, or it may have a similar

also occurring in other parts of the Middle East purpose to that of corporal punishment: to cow
and in Asia. In many of the countries where it
a child into obedience and ‘retrain’ his or her
occurs, it is practised by certain peoples; for
unruly behaviour. Although children may know
example in Nigeria, according to DHS data,
the saying “words can never hurt me,” the truth
the prevalence reaches almost 60% of girls in
is that many children find the pain and anxiety
the southern provinces, but only 2% in the
north. In a country such as Kenya, it is prac- of rejection, and the humiliation of an attack on
tised almost universally among Kenyan Somali, their self-esteem, is also difficult to bear.90
Masai, and some other groups, but reaches 32% Psychological forms of punishment occur in
in the country as a whole.87 In Guinea, Mali every region. A study across five countries
and Mauritania, recent DHS have shown that conducted by the World Studies of Abuse in
rates of FGM are as high as 71–99%, and that
the Family Environment (WorldSAFE) proj-
some girls are nowadays ‘cut’ before the age of
ect indicated that shouting or screaming at
four.88 There are also cases in the industrialised
children was a punishment practised by par-
world among diaspora groups.
ents in all five countries (Chile, Egypt, India,
the Philippines, and the USA). The incidence
PSYCHOLOGICAL VIOLENCE
of cursing children or threatening them was
All physical and sexual violence involves some more varied; for example, in the Philippines
psychological harm; but psychological violence no mother was reported as cursing her child,
can also take the form of insults, name-calling, but 48% threatened abandonment; in Egypt
ignoring, isolation, rejection, threats, emotional 51% cursed the child, but only 10% threat-
indifference and belittlement – that can be det- ened abandonment.91
FIGURE 3.2
The prevalence of FGM among women and their daughters
Women (aged 15-49) undergone FGM/C

Countries where FGM is practiced
Women (aged 15-49) with at least one
99 daughter who has undergone FGM/C
100 97
FGM/C practiced, DHS or
92
90 89 MICS data available
FGM/C practiced,
80
80 77 no DHS or MICS data
73 71 FGM/C not practiced
66
63
Percentage
60 58
62 54
47 48
45 45
40 36
32 32
24 23
21 20 19
20 18 17
10
7 6 5 5
3
1
0
Cote d'Ivoire
Eritrea
Guinea
Egypt
Sudan (North)
Ethiopia
Mauritania
Chad
Burkina Faso
Kenya
Yemen
Nigeria
of Tanzania
Benin
Niger
Ghana
Cameroon
Mali
Central African
Republic
United Republic
Data are from latest available years, 1996–2004. Adapted from UNICEF (2005). Changing a Harmful Social
Convention: Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting. Innocenti Digest, No. 12. Florence, UNICEF Innocenti Research
Centre; UNICEF (2005). Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Statistical Exploration. New York, UNICEF.
The most reliable and extensive data on prevalence and nature of FGM are provided by
DHS and MICS. However, the surveys do not capture the degree of severity of mutila-
tion, which varies considerably between and within countries. In addition, some of the
countries in which FGM is known to be most frequently practised in its severest forms,
such as Somalia and Djibouti, have not been subject to DHS or MICS.
3
One type of punishment may give way to painful and degrading treatment that they
another, depending on age. A study conducted cannot understand and are powerless to pre-
among 2,000 children aged six to 18 in Swa- vent. These consequences include feelings of
ziland found that humiliating psychological rejection and abandonment, impaired attach-
punishment was more common against older ment, trauma, fear, anxiety, insecurity and
children, and corporal punishment more shattered self-esteem. When a parent delib-
common among younger ones.92 erately inflicts pain on a child, whether for
punishment or for some other reason, part of
the child’s lesson is that the parent is a source
THE CONSEQUENCES
of pain to be avoided; even at two years old,
OF VIOLENCE AGAINST physically punished children distance them-
CHILDREN selves from mothers compared to children who
are not physically punished.93
The consequences of violence against children
include both the immediate personal impacts Impacts and consequences are complicated by 63
and the damage that they carry forward into the fact that, at home, children are victimised

later childhood, adolescence and adult life. by people they love and trust, in places where
The violence that children experience in the they ought to feel safe. The damage is particu-
context of home and family can lead to lifelong larly severe in the context of sexual abuse, par-
consequences for their health and develop- ticularly as the stigma and shame surrounding
ment. They may lose the trust in other human child sexual abuse in all countries usually leaves
beings essential to normal human develop- the child dealing with the harm in solitude.
ment. Learning to trust from infancy onwards Loss of confidence and belief in the human
through attachments in the family is an essen- beings closest to the child can instil feelings
tial task of childhood, and closely related to of fear, suspicion, uncertainty, and emotional
the capacity for love, empathy and the develop- isolation. He or she may never again feel safe or
ment of future relationships. At a broader level, secure in the company of the parent or family
violence can stunt the potential for personal member who perpetrated the violence.
development and achievement in life, and pres-
ent heavy costs to society as a whole. A growing body of evidence suggests that expo-
sure to violence or trauma alters the developing
DEVELOPMENTAL CONSEQUENCES: brain by interfering with normal neuro-devel-
PHYSICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL opmental processes.94 Where family violence is
acute, children may show age-related changes
The most apparent immediate consequences in behaviour and symptoms consistent with
of violence to children are fatal and non-fatal Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and
injury, cognitive impairment and failure to depression. Physical and sexual victimisation
thrive, and the psychological and emotional are associated with an increased risk of suicidal
consequences of experiencing or witnessing thoughts and behaviour, and the more severe
“Violence against children in the home and family is a serious problem in itself and has been strongly
associated with health risk behaviours later in life… In turn, these behaviours contribute to some
of the leading causes of disease and death…. Preventing violence against children in the home and
family should therefore be a public health priority.”
Dr Alexander Butchart, Editorial Board of the UN Secretary-General’s Study
the violence, the higher this risk.95,96 The obesity and chronic reproductive health prob-
effects may also be influenced by how adults lems.99,100,101 The links may result from harm-
respond to children if they try to talk about ful behaviours adopted as coping mechanisms
what they have experienced. Other variables such as smoking, drinking, substance abuse,
will include how long the violence has gone bingeing or other poor dietary habits.
on, where it has taken place, and whether the
child is suffering from repeated violence from Violence against children can also have a last-
the same person, or whether he or she is being ing impact on mental health.102 A study com-
‘re-victimised’ by another perpetrator.97 paring data from around the world shows that
a significant proportion of adult mental disor-
According to WHO, the negative effects to ders are connected to sexual abuse in childhood
children of living in a violent household are (see Table 3.1).103 Although the prevalence of
similar across culturally and geographically abuse varied in different regions, the impacts
diverse settings. Based on studies of women in appeared similar, with mental health effects
64 Bangladesh, Brazil, Ethiopia, Japan, Namibia, being worse in relation to the period over which
Peru, Samoa, Thailand and the United Repub- abuse continued and degree of severity.
lic of Tanzania, children living in violent

households (where the mother reported physi- Findings are similar regarding physical pun-
cal abuse from the father) were more likely to ishment and other degrading forms of treat-
have behavioural problems such as bed-wet- ment. Corporal punishment is a predictor of
ting, nightmares, and excessively aggressive depression, unhappiness and anxiety, and feel-
behaviour or timidity, than those in non-violent ings of hopelessness in children and youth.
households.98 The results suggest that exposure Even a low frequency of corporal punishment
to violence in the home is a warning sign for may lead to psychological distress in young
damage to children, and care services need to people.104,105,106,107 In a group of adolescents in
factor this into prevention and response. the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
of China, those who had been physically pun-
CONSEQUENCES OVER ished in recent months were more likely to con-
THE LONGER TERM sume alcohol, smoke cigarettes, get into fights,
be anxious and stressed, and perceive difficul-
A growing body of research shows that violence ties in their ability to cope with everyday prob-
perpetrated against children, or the experience lems.108 The relationship with poorer mental
of living in a household where violence against health continues into adulthood according to
loved ones is frequently witnessed, can be a sig- studies in Canada and the USA, which found
nificant contributing factor in adult illness and a higher level of anxiety disorders and alcohol
death. Childhood experience of violence has dependence.109
been linked to alcohol and drug abuse, cancer,
chronic lung disease, depression, and a number
of other conditions including liver disease,
“I am 8 years old and was raped when I was 6. My parents made a complaint to the police and he was
3
sent to jail. But I cannot stay where I live anymore. You know what they call me here?
They have nicknamed me the “tainted” (la déchirée)…even when I go to the well to
get water the kids call me that. I want to run away from here”.
Girl, 8, Eastern and Southern Africa, 2006 VIII
TABLE 3.1 – Global burden of mental disorder attributed to child sexual abuse
PERCENTAGE OF GLOBAL DISEASE

BURDEN ATTRIBUTED TO CHILD
MENTAL DISORDER SEXUAL ABUSE (CSA)
FEMALES (%) MALES (%)
Depression, alcohol and drug abuse 7–8 4–5

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 33 21
Suicide attempts 11 6
Panic disorders 13 7
65
Source: Andrews G et al. (2004). Child Sexual Abuse. In: Ezzati M et al. (2004). Comparative Quantification

of Health Risks: Global and Regional Burden of Disease Attributable to Selected Major Risk Factors, Vol 2.
Geneva, World Health Organization, pp 1851–1940.
FURTHER VICTIMISATION follow-up.111,112,113 In cases where a child has

been referred on at least two occasions, risk
Experiencing violence as a young child also rises significantly.
increases the risk of further victimisation, and
an accumulation of violent experiences. This Family violence against children is believed to
reinforces the importance of recognising and be associated with increased risk of violence in
preventing violence against children as early other settings. A study in the UK found that
as possible. Similarly, child sexual abuse has children witnessing domestic violence are also
been clearly established as a risk factor for more likely to be victims of bullying,114 and
sexual victimisation in adulthood, and the risk similarly a study of elementary and middle
is compounded when it includes intercourse school-aged children in Italy showed that being
and other forms of violence.110 The extent of bullied at school was associated with witnessing
parents’ violence at home, especially for girls.115
continued victimisation in the home has only
been assessed in a few countries where regis- Children who have been sexually abused, or
ters and databases are routinely updated. In extremely neglected, or who have experienced
the UK and the USA cases where violence to violence at home, may run away or drift into
the child has been referred to official child a street life which exposes them to the risk of
protection agencies, rates of re-referral range sexual abuse or exploitation. This happens to
from between 5% and 24% within a 1–4 year boys as well as girls: according to a report from
“It could appear a feeling of guilt. The victim and even people around who don’t know
the situation could consider that the abused child is responsible for the abuse. If close people
believe this, then slowly the victim will believe the same thing.”
Girl, 11th grade, Europe, 2005 IX
Canada, almost all boys involved in prostitution disability, psychological costs or other impacts
there have been sexually abused at home.116 on a victim’s quality of life; the disruption
or discontinuation of education; and pro-
A number of studies have focused on the inter- ductivity losses in the future life of the child
generational nature of violence.117 Recent data
or young person.122 The potential financial
from an international study in Australia, Costa
burden is illustrated by data from a few indus-
Rica, the Czech Republic, Poland and the Phil-
trialised societies. The financial costs associ-
ippines indicates that the problem is common
ated with child abuse and neglect, including
across cultures and regions.118 Women in all
future lost earnings and mental health care,
countries who have experienced physical vio-
were estimated in the USA in 2001 at US$
lence from their parents in childhood are con-
siderably more likely to report physical violence 94 billion.123 In the UK, an annual cost of
from an intimate partner as an adult, support- US$ 1.2 billion has been cited for immediate
ing the notion of a life-course perspective of welfare and legal services alone.124
66 violence119 (see Figure 3.3).
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING
In the case of traditional practices, and of child

marriage, there is a consistent intergenerational TO VIOLENCE
link in that mothers (and fathers) who regard The risk of home and family violence arises
them as mandatory customs inflict them on from the interaction between the quality of
daughters and sons. The main predeterminant family relationships, and stress or pressure
of FGM is ethnic affiliation; some ethnic groups upon the family from external factors or from
carry out the practice in almost their entire pop- characteristics of family members. Some factors
ulation, whereas others living in the same area stem from the individual characteristics of the
do not do so.120 Education of girls, especially to child (e.g. stage of development, sex) and the
secondary level, can break the intergenerational
characteristics of the parent or caregiver (e.g.
link and reduce the prevalence of FGM.121
mental disorders, substance abuse). Others
derive from the family setting and the roles
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC
and relationships of people within it; these may
CONSEQUENCES
enhance vulnerability, or on the contrary, may
In addition to its negative impact on a child’s offer protection. Dysfunctional family rela-
rights, health and development, family vio- tionships and poor parent–child interactions
lence against children has economic conse- have a critical bearing on whether children
quences for families and society. These include experience violence in the home. Other factors
direct costs such as the cost of medical care derive from the environment, as in the case of
for victims, legal and social welfare services, emergency situations, but may also be related
and the placement of child victims in care. to the availability of social networks, or loss
Indirect costs include possible lasting injury or of livelihood. Of course, a negative outcome is
3
not inevitable; for example, where parent and CHILD-RELATED FACTORS
sibling relationships are good, this will provide
children with protection and foster resilience Age: At a very early age, the physical frailty
against external shocks. of the infant and state of dependence on the
mother or immediate carer is the key to vulner-
Violence is likely to result from a combination of
ability. Apart from the risks of injury or death
personal, familial, social, economic and cultural
from physical violence, infants are vulnerable
factors, and the interrelationship amongst these
factors can be difficult to disentangle. Moreover, to as a result of omission and neglect. Infants
some children are exposed to several types of are most vulnerable in the time immediately
violence from multiple sources over many years. after birth; they remain extremely vulnerable,
but become decreasingly so, throughout their
first year and early childhood (0 to 4 years).
67
FIGURE 3.3

Women’s experience of intimate partner violence after the age of 16 and its association
with childhood victimisation
60
43 43 No physical violence in childhood

40 39
One or both parents physically violent
Percentage
33
27 28
21
20
15 15
13
9 8
0
Costa Rica Czech Republic Australia Poland Philippines Switzerland
(N=820) (N=1860) (N=6378) (N=2177) (N=1917) (N=1975)
Source: Johnson H et al. (forthcoming). Violence Against Women: An International Perspective. New York, Springer.
“When the head of the household has a bad day, the dog cries.”
From an Asian proverb, Regional Consultation, South Asia
Sex: A child’s sex may also be a factor which raises ceptibility.129,130,131 For example children who
his or her risk of victimisation. Although sexual are unwanted, born prematurely or are of low
violence is frequently directed against boys, girls birth-weight or part of a multiple birth, and
are more likely to suffer such abuse. Daughters children with chronic illness or serious behav-
are more likely to be severely neglected in soci- ioural problems may be at increased risk of
eties where son preference is pronounced, while maltreatment.
in some societies sons are more likely to experi-
ence severe violence than daughters. FAMILY-RELATED FACTORS
Other characteristics: Children with disabili- Parent characteristics and socio-economic
ties are at heightened risk of violence for a vari- status: While violence in the home is found in
ety of reasons, ranging from deeply ingrained all social and economic spheres, studies from a
cultural prejudices to the higher emotional, range of different settings show that low parental
physical, economic, and social demands that a
education levels, lack of income, and household
68 child’s disability can place on his or her family.125
overcrowding increase the risk of physical and
In the USA, children with physical, sensory,
psychological violence against children.132,133,134
intellectual or mental health disabilities endure

Physically violent parents are also more likely
almost double the number of violent incidents
to be young, single and poor.135 These associa-
compared to their non-disabled peers.126 Simi-
tions are likely to be related to stress caused by
larly, the Caribbean Regional Desk Review
undertaken for the Study reported that chil- poverty, unemployment and social isolation.
dren with disabilities were at heightened risk Children living in families with these factors
for all types of violence (physical, sexual, emo- are most at risk when there is inadequate social
tional and neglect), much of it in the home.127 support and the family is not part of a strong
In some regions disabled children are viewed social network. Lack of extended family sup-
as cursed; for example in West and Central port may exacerbate existing problems.136
African such children are likely to be exposed Stress and social isolation: Studies from both
from birth to tacit or open neglect, and vio-
industrialised and developing countries show
lence may be accepted or even encouraged by
that many of the personality and behavioural
the family.128 (Violence against children with
characteristics of violent parents are related to
disabilities is also discussed at some length in
poor social functioning and diminished capacity
the chapter on violence against children in care
to cope with stress.137 Parents with poor impulse
and justice systems.)
control, low self-esteem, mental health prob-
In addition to disability, certain other char- lems, and substance abuse (alcohol and drugs)
acteristics heighten children’s risk of experi- are more likely to use physical violence against
encing violence in the home. Characteristics their children and/or to neglect them.138 Parents
that hinder parent–child attachment or make who use violence against their children may well
a child more difficult to care for can affect sus- have experienced violence as children.139
3
Research on the links between socio-economic
conditions and violence against children sug-
gest that efforts are needed to alter the under-
lying conditions that put extreme economic,
social and emotional stress on families. Greater
attention must be given to supporting families
who live in communities characterised by high
levels of unemployment, overcrowded hous-
ing, rapid population turnover and low levels
of social cohesion.
Parental loss or separation: Orphanhood,
which has increased with the HIV/AIDS pan-
demic, heightens vulnerability. A study by
World Vision in Uganda, where an estimated 69
1.7 million children have been orphaned by

AIDS, argues that the deliberate stigmatisa-
tion suffered by these children from guardians,
teachers and relatives causes psychological
harm and is itself a form of violence.140 Plac-
ing these orphans into the homes of extended
family or local community is a common and
UNICEF/HQ05-1776. Giacomo Pirozzi
preferred practice over institutionalisation

or the phenomenon of child-headed house-
holds; however, community leaders in Uganda
reported that corporal punishment was more
violent and common against orphans than
against other children in the household who
were more closely related to adult carers or to
the head of the household. In Zambia, a study
UKRAINE,2005, Sasha, 5, holding a stuffed animal, sits
by Human Rights Watch found that orphans
with his sister Nastya, 4, at a state institution in the village of
Kopylov, near Kyiv. Six months earlier, Sasha had witnessed his who were taken in by extended family members
father killing his mother. were frequently subjected to sexual violence
from uncles, stepfathers and cousins. With a
rate of around 20% cases of HIV infection in
the population, such violence can be deadly.
Girls rarely attempted to disclose the abuse:
they were too aware of their dependency, and
“Some of our parents fight in front of us, causing us a lot of pain and distress. Some of our parents
always come back home drunk and do not care for our physical, emotional and nutritional needs. Some
children are looking after their parents and siblings because their parents are not responsible.”
Child, Eastern and Southern Africa, 2005 X
that they might be silenced or lose essential tional disturbances; without intervention they
support.141 Orphanhood can also increase the may go on to be future perpetrators or victims
risk of violence in community settings. of violence.150,151
Exposure to intimate partner violence in the Since they spend more time at home, chil-
home: It is estimated that 133 to 275 million dren in the early years – when they are most
children witness violence between their par- subject to influence by external factors and
ents/carers annually on a frequent basis, usually liable to be more overwhelmed by fear – are at
fights between parents, or between their mother particular risk of witnessing intimate partner
and partner (see Table 3.2).142 Children can violence. Such children may also learn pow-
be psychologically and emotionally damaged erful lessons about aggression in interpersonal
by witnessing violence against another family relationships which they carry with them into
member.143 Evidence from a range of studies their future. Child development specialists
shows that witnessing of this violence over a suggest that hostile styles of behaviour, emo-
70 long period of time can severely affect a child’s tional regulation and the capacity for personal
well-being, personal development and social conflict resolution are shaped by parent–child
interactions both in childhood and adulthood; and inter-parental relationships.153 However,

such children may exhibit the same behavioural not all children who grow up in violent homes
and psychological disturbances as those who are suffer long-lasting consequences; given sup-
directly exposed to violence (see below).144,145,146 port, children have remarkable capacities for
Violence against women in the home often is coping, and resilience in the face of violence.
linked with violence against children; in the
USA, inter-partner violence (also known as SOCIETAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS
domestic violence) may be the most important
Legal and policy framework: Weak legal
precursor to child maltreatment fatalities.147
frameworks contribute both directly and indi-
The same association has been observed in a
variety of geographically and culturally distinct rectly to family violence against children. The
settings and countries: in China, Colombia, laws of some countries still condone, either
Egypt, India, Mexico, the Philippines, and explicitly or implicitly as a result of interpre-
South Africa a strong relationship between tation, some level of violence against children
these two forms of violence has been found.148 if it is inflicted by the child’s own parents or
In one study from India, inter-partner violence guardians as a means of behavioural correc-
in the home doubled the risk of direct violence tion. Many countries lack legal protection
against children in the household.149 Children against harmful traditional practices and child
living in circumstances of inter-partner vio- marriage, and in some countries laws against
lence among parents/caregivers in their home child sexual abuse apply only to men’s sexual
are not only at risk of physical violence them- violence against girls or may not address sexual
selves, but may suffer psychological and emo- violence against children by family members.
3
TABLE 3.2 – Estimated number of children who witness violence at home annually
ESTIMATED NUMBER OF CHILDREN

MDG REGION WITNESSING VIOLENCE IN
THE HOME*
South Asia 40.7–88 million
Western Asia 7.2–15.9 million
Sub-Saharan Africa 34.9–38.2 million
South-eastern Asia No estimate
Oceania 548,000–657,000
71
Northern Africa No estimate

Latin America and the Caribbean 11.3–25.5 million
Eastern Asia 19.8–61.4 million
Commonwealth of Independent States 900,000 to 3.6 million
Developed countries 4.6–11.3 million
Global estimate 133–275 million
*Estimates based on: UN Population Division Data for Global Population under 18 Years for 2000; Domestic Violence
Studies from 1987 to 2005; analysis conducted by the Secretariat of the United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on
Violence against Children (2005).152
Laws and policies relating to access to family children and families without economic and
planning services, alcohol availability, accept- social safety nets exacerbate family stress and
able levels of environmental toxins, access to social isolation and contribute to higher rates
mental health and substance abuse treatment, of violence against children.
and access to birth, death and marriage reg-
istration, have an indirect but substantial Authoritarianism: Where parent–child
impact on the risk of child maltreatment in relationships are excessively controlling and
homes and families. Policies regarding edu- afford a low status to children, this is likely
cation, child care, parental leave, health care, to increase violence, particularly when coupled
unemployment and social security that leave with the belief that corporal punishment or
other humiliating forms of punishment are a because of a confluence of other risk factors
necessary means of discipline. Several studies associated with the social exclusion of these
have suggested that a culture in which chil- groups. These include high rates of substance
dren are expected to submit without question abuse and alcoholism, poverty, bad housing,
to the injunctions of older family members and unemployment.
and adults in authority contribute to children’s
vulnerability.154,155 Where parents believe they PROTECTIVE FACTORS WITHIN
‘own’ children and have the right to do to them THE HOME
whatever they think best, there is resistance to
State involvement in child protection. Belief in Just as certain factors increase the likelihood
the sanctity of the family makes authorities, of family violence against children, other
neighbours and members reluctant to speak factors can reduce its likelihood. Not every
up when they know children are being victim- family with the risk factors described above
ised.156,157,158,159,160 This should not be confused becomes a violent environment for children.
72 Unfortunately, there has been little system-
with authoritative parenting, which balances
atic research on protective factors and they are
warmth and support with setting and enforc-

ing clear limits on behaviour, and blends set- not well understood. Where research has been
ting high standards with being responsive to conducted, the focus is on identifying factors
the child’s needs and developing capacities.161 that mediate the impact of violence once it has
occurred, for example those that might protect
Patriarchal attitudes: Patriarchal attitudes – a victim from developing long-term mental dis-
particularly when they perpetrate the entrenched orders or that seem to be associated with break-
inferior status of women in many cultures – are ing the cycle of violence. Factors that appear
also associated with increased risk of violence. through common sense and research to facili-
In some societies, extremely violent acts may be tate resilience include higher levels of paternal
inflicted by boys or men if the girls or women in care during childhood,162 fewer associations
question do not comply with their wishes. Seek- with substance-abusing peers, or peers engaged
ing a girl’s consent in such matters as sexual rela- in criminal activity,163 a warm and supportive
tions and marriage may not be considered neces- relationship with a non-offending parent,164
sary. Girls may also be blamed for male violence and lower levels of violence-related stress.165
against them. In these settings, male children
may be exposed to violence as punishment for Little is known about what prevents families
behaving in a manner inconsistent with stereo- from becoming violent. A few studies have
typical roles for men and women. shown that communities with strong social
cohesion, thriving social networks and neigh-
Membership in ethnic minority or indig- bourhood connections have a strong protective
enous groups: Children in ethnic minor- effect and can even lessen the risk of violence
ity groups are often at high risk of violence when other family risk factors are pres-
3
ent.166,167,168 Based on current understanding of RESPONSES TO VIOLENCE
the risk factors for violence and the evidence
of prevention strategies that are effective, it is
AGAINST CHILDREN IN
clear that families can be a powerful source THE HOME AND FAMILY
of protection and support for children. Good
parenting, strong attachment between parents Under the CRC and other human rights trea-
and children, and positive non-violent relation- ties, States have an obligation to provide a
ships with children are clear protective factors. comprehensive and multi-sectoral response to
This highlights the importance of providing all forms of violence against children in fami-
support to families to encourage these factors lies. These should comprise policies and ser-
to flourish, especially families situated in com- vices for both prevention of violence and pro-
munities with low levels of social cohesion. tection to assist child victims.
CHILD SAFETY: A PIONEERING MODEL IN JORDAN 73

The Jordan River Foundation (JRF) was set up in 1997, with the support of Her
Majesty Queen Rania Al-Abdullah, to promote the protection of Jordanian children,
strengthen the family unit, and enhance positive child–parent relationships and healthy
family dynamics. The Foundation has established itself as a pioneer in building an
Arab child safety model.
The Child Safety Programme carried out under the JRF umbrella provides awareness,
prevention and intervention services in relation to the sensitive issue of child abuse, by
addressing legal, medical, psychological educational and social needs of the child in an
integrated manner. The programme is unique to Jordan and the Arab world, and has
pioneered the opening up of a complex issue and bringing it to the awareness of the
Jordanian public and decision-makers.
The Child Safety Centre – Dar Al-Aman – set up by the Foundation is the first thera-
peutic centre in the Arab world for rehabilitating abused children and their families.
Children and families attending the centre are able to gain from a variety of services and
education programmes. Mothers are assisted with child care techniques, fathers familia-
rised with alternative means of discipline, young people instructed in conflict resolution
and basic life skills, and children empowered with techniques for self-protection.169
To date, States’ responses have focused pri- Laws on corporal punishment and
marily on child protection services or alterna- other forms of cruel or degrading
tive systems of care, rather than on prevention. punishment
Prevention and protection strategies should
be developed in tandem, balanced within the Laws on criminal assault, as has been noted
framework of an overall strategy which consid- by the Committee on the Rights of the Child,
ers issues of social policy; legal reform; pro- are seldom interpreted as prohibiting physi-
grammes and services for prevention and care; cal chastisement, corporal punishment and all
other forms of cruel or degrading punishment
and strategies to bring about changes in atti-
of children in the family. In over 70 countries,
tudes and behaviours.
the English common-law defence of ‘reason-
able’ or ‘moderate’ chastisement of children has
LEGAL REFORM
remained following periods of colonisation. In
Fewer than 20 countries have reformed their order to prohibit all corporal punishment, any
74 laws to prohibit physical chastisement in the such defences must be removed and prohibi-
family, but more have committed themselves tion of corporal punishment and other forms of
to doing so as the Study has progressed. All cruel or degrading punishment made explicit.
States have laws making assault a criminal
Between 1996 and 2006, the Committee on
offence and many Constitutions prohibit
the Rights of the Child has recommended to
cruel, inhuman or degrading punishment;
130 countries that they take steps to prohibit
many have laws which prohibit cruelty, mal-
all corporal punishment. In 2006, the Comm-
treatment or ‘abuse’ of children. But these laws
ittee adopted a General Comment – a state-
are not interpreted as prohibiting all violence ment of its authoritative interpretation of the
against children, and in many States legisla- CRC – on the right of the child to protection
tion contains justifications or defences for from corporal punishment and other degrad-
corporal punishment. Most countries prohibit ing forms of punishment.171 The Committee
incest, rape and other sexual assaults; many emphasises that the first purpose of law reform
also specify a minimum age of sexual consent to prohibit all corporal punishment within
and of marriage, although this is often below the family is preventive: “to prevent violence
the age of 18. Most countries where FGM is against children by changing attitudes and
practised now have laws against it.170 However, practice, underlining children’s right to equal
laws on violence against children are not effec- protection and providing an unambiguous
tively implemented in many places because foundation for child protection and for the
of the strength of traditional attitudes and in promotion of positive, non-violent and partici-
some cases because of the existence of religious patory forms of child-rearing.” 172
or customary legal systems.
The Committee also emphasises that the prin-
ciple of equal protection of children and adults
3
from assault, including within the family, does professional education. Laws passed to reflect
not mean that all cases of corporal punishment CRC obligations which are not linked to wide-
of children by their parents that come to light spread public education and which clash with
should lead to prosecution of parents: “The de cultural norms and accepted practices may be
minimis principle – that the law does not con- systematically ignored. Combating harmful
cern itself with trivial matters – ensures that traditional practices such as FGM, for exam-
minor assaults between adults only come to ple, cannot be achieved by legal change alone,
court in very exceptional circumstances; the even though legal systems should and must
same will be true of minor assaults on children. condemn them. Legal change must be accom-
States need to develop effective reporting and panied by education programmes directed at
referral mechanisms. While all reports of vio- officials, parents and children.
lence against children should be appropriately
investigated and their protection from signifi- In some cases, legislation exists but is insuffi-
cant harm assured, the aim should be to stop cient; imprecise or insensitive implementation
parents using violent or other cruel or degrad- of it can compound children’s victimisation 75
rather than relieve it. Some existing legislation

ing punishments through supportive and edu-
cational, not punitive, interventions.”173 is so inadequate that it penalises child victims
instead of family perpetrators; in these circum-
For legal reform to fulfil the purpose intended, stances, it may actually reinforce the possibility
advice and training will be needed for all those of violence against children. In many settings
involved in child protection systems, includ- in Africa, Asia and the Middle East, when a
ing the police, prosecuting authorities and the young girl below the age of consent or marital
courts. Guidance should emphasise that support union has been raped and become pregnant,
for the family and for constructive and non-vio- marriage to the rapist can be imposed upon
lent upbringing is vital, and that any question of her by the courts and her parents.176 Legisla-
separating a child from his or her family must tion against so-called ‘honour killings’ may
fully respect the best interests of the child. impose more lenient sentences than on other
Other areas for legal change homicides, or perpetrators may be exonerated
by traditional justice systems; and children
Some countries have introduced measures to sold into prostitution may bear the brunt of
criminalise abuse by intimate partners; mea- social disapproval or be treated as criminals.
sures which broaden the definition of rape have
been introduced, thus dispelling the notion that Preventing violence against children in the
violence among intimates is a private matter, home and family setting requires legal reform
thereby helping to shift social norms.175 to reach beyond laws directly concerned with
violence. To achieve large-scale reductions
However, legal change does not guarantee social in violence against children, legal and policy
change where it is not backed up by public and frameworks must address the underlying risk
THE SWEDISH EXPERIENCE WITH PROHIBITION OF
CORPORAL PUNISHMENT
Sweden was the first State to prohibit all corporal punishment. In 1957, a provision was
removed from the Criminal Code which excused parents who caused minor injuries in
the course of ‘discipline’. In 1979, Sweden explicitly prohibited corporal punishment
in its Parenthood and Guardianship Code: “Children … may not be subjected to cor-
poral punishment or any other humiliating treatment.”
Sweden’s experience shows that when progressive law reform is linked to comprehensive
public education, substantial changes in attitude and reductions in violence against
children can be achieved within decades. In 2000, a parliamentary committee enquired
into the experiences of parents and children with corporal punishment since the ban.
The data indicate that its use has decreased dramatically, particularly in relation to beat-
76 ing children with fists or with an implement, or ‘spanking’ them. In national parental
studies in 1980, 51% of parents said that they had used corporal punishment during the
previous year; 20 years later, in 2000, this figure had decreased to 8%.174
factors and strengthen protective factors. Fac- address the underlying community and soci-
tors such as alcohol availability, family plan- etal factors that allow violence to thrive.
ning services, pre- and post-natal care, social
To maximise effectiveness, prevention strategies
security, mental health and substance abuse
should be based on the best available scientific
treatment, birth, death and marriage registra-
evidence, aim to reduce factors contributing to
tion, and levels of environmental toxins are
risk and strengthen protective factors, include
just a few examples of important factors that mechanisms for evaluating the impact of the
are sensitive to legal and policy reform. strategy, and be carried out within a broader
framework for addressing violence against chil-
PREVENTION STRATEGIES dren. Promising strategies to prevent violence
What many do not realise, but which research against children in the home and family con-
text are many and varied, ranging from pro-
continues to show, is that a variety of inter-
grammes with a direct impact, such as parent-
ventions can prevent violence: violence against
ing training, to policies with a more indirect
children in the home and family setting can
impact, such as those governing alcohol avail-
be reduced significantly by the implementa-
ability or access to family planning services.
tion of laws, policies and programmes which
strengthen and support families, and that
3
Support for parents and families or labelling by the routine checks on moth-
ers and children through maternity services,
Maternal and child health services promoting safe pregnancy and childbirth, and
Services for reproductive and maternal and through home visits by health workers. These
child health are the first line of action to reduce give an opportunity to provide parent educa-
neglect and violence against children from tion, and to direct resources to ‘high priority’
their earliest moments of life. These services families by identifying known risk factors and
not only provide the possibility of preventing offering additional services.
unwanted pregnancies and improving access to Home visitation and
prenatal, post-natal and early childhood health parent education programmes
care, but can also help strengthen early attach-
ment and reduce the risk of parental violence Programmes focusing on family functioning,
against young children. Most countries pro- particularly on family management, problem-
vide maternity services and some have home solving, and parenting practices, have existed for
77
visitation programmes for newborns by health several decades. There is strong and consistent

or community workers/volunteers. There- evidence showing them to be effective in reduc-
fore, the early identification of parents who ing home and family violence against children,
need support can be achieved without stigma as well as other negative child health and devel-
opment outcomes. The most successful pro-
grammes address both the internal dynamics of
the family and the family’s capacity for dealing
with external demands. Caregiver education can
also pre-empt the evolution of poor parent-child
relationships, and provide a context in which to
teach parents non-violent methods of discipline.
The earlier these programmes are delivered in
UNICEF/HQ97-0211. Betty Press
the child’s life and the longer their duration, the

greater the benefits.
Home visitation involves health profession-
als, social workers or trained volunteers in the
assessment of infants and young children’s
needs and their parents’ capacity to meet those
needs, given the family’s current social and
USA, 1997, Tiffany, 10, her mother, Letisha and her
step-father, Billie, sit on a sidewalk bench in the city of Daytona
economic situation. Personalised home visits
Beach. After months of homelessness, they have decided to send aim to provide emotional support and training
Tiffany and her sister, Tonya, 13, to live with their grandmother to promote positive parental knowledge, skills
in another state. and behaviour, and to a certain extent to assess
the family. Home visits also offer an opportu- Parenting programmes are increasingly being
nity to link a family with other community implemented in middle- and low-income coun-
services as needed. tries. For example, at the instigation of the
All China Women’s Federation, over 200,000
In the USA, the value of home visits by nurses
Chinese communities organised ‘Parents’
to young first-time mothers in socio-economic
Schools’ to help people adapt to parenting in
difficulty, for the first two years of the child’s
the one-child family.181 In Eastern Europe, the
life, were evident 15 years later.177 In a ran-
Republic of Moldova is mainstreaming parent
domised trial, the benefits to the visited families
education in the primary health care system.
included a significant reduction in child abuse
and neglect, as well as reductions in maternal Health workers are trained to provide parents
alcohol/drug problems. Current evidence indi- with the knowledge and skills needed to meet
cates that the most successful home visitation the survival, growth, development and protec-
programmes focus on families with an elevated tion needs of their young children, and also
risk of violence against the child, and begin in to know when and where to go for specialised
78
pregnancy and continue to at least the second services. The initiative started in 2002; already
year of the child’s life, actively promote positive it is clear that family doctors and nurses who
health behaviours, support the family in stress attended the training programme are more
management, and address a range of issues that likely to engage in parent education. This ini-
are important to the family.178,179 Programmes tiative includes a specific focus on protecting
should be flexible in order to adjust to the children from all forms of violence, including
changing needs of families. physical punishment and other humiliating
forms of discipline.182
Parenting education, another successful and
widely used prevention strategy, can be offered In developing countries, parenting courses are
either in the context of home visitation pro- offered by community-based parents’ centres.
grammes or independently. Programmes usually For example, services offered by The Parent
educate parents about child development and Centre in Cape Town, South Africa include
aim to improve their skills for behaviour man- the following:183
agement. Parents’ and caregivers’ positive behav-
iour management skills can be improved by • Parent groups for mothers and babies,
developing an understanding of the importance mothers and toddlers, and single
of follow-through and consistency, rewarding parents
and reinforcing positive behaviour, strategically • Post-natal depression support
ignoring minor negative behaviours, giving • Training on effective discipline for
effective instructions, and implementing non- toddlers
violent consequences for misbehaviour.180 Par- • Training for parents of under-5s, under-
enting programmes should strive to strengthen 12s, and teenagers
the skills of both mothers and fathers. • Counselling for parents and caregivers
3
• Home visitation specifically to prevent in reducing the factors that engender violence
family violence against children in the home. In the UK, for example, a review
• Training for professionals and para- of day-care programmes for pre-school chil-
professionals who work with children. dren of economically disadvantaged parents
found that the effects on the mothers’ interac-
Early education and child care programmes tion with their children were positive, and that
the mothers’ gains in education or employment
Many families need help in providing not only were beneficial for their families. Long-term
basic care but also stimulation and educa- benefits to children included improved behav-
tion for their children. Early Childhood Care ioural development and school achievement,
and Development (ECCD) programmes are higher levels of employment, lower teenage
designed to achieve both of these objectives, pregnancy rates, higher socio-economic status,
and there is evidence that they can be effective and decreased criminal behaviour.187
79
TRIPLE P: POSITIVE PARENTING PROGRAMME

Since the risk factors that shape the risk of family violence occur at several levels,
some of the most effective prevention strategies involve interventions at more than one
level. An example is the Positive Parenting Programme (Triple P) originally devised in
Australia, and now also used in Canada, Germany, the Hong Kong Special Adminis-
trative Region of China, New Zealand, Singapore, Switzerland, the USA and the UK.
Triple P has been shown to be effective in promoting positive parenting behaviour and
is likely to reduce the risk of violence against children. The US Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention is currently funding an outcome evaluation study to assess the
impact of Triple P on child maltreatment.184
Level 1 of the programme is aimed at the whole population. For selected parents, two
further levels offer consultation sessions in primary care settings such as health centres.
For parents in difficulty, with mental health problems or where there may be a high risk
of violence in the family, more intense parent training programmes are available, with
8–10 sessions (level 4) or 10–16 sessions (level 5).
The core principles of Triple P are:
– Safe engaging environment for the child
– Responsive learning environment for the child
– Assertive (non-aggressive) and consistent discipline from the parent
– Reasonable expectations of the child
– Parent taking care of self.185
Support for families of children with dis- Programmes for and with children
abilities
Life-skills-based education, which enables chil-
There is little research on the effectiveness of dren to recognise and avoid risky situations, has
programmes aimed at reducing family vio- produced promising outcomes in a number of
lence against children born with disabilities. school- and community-based settings. This type
However, the Expert Consultation on Chil- of intervention usually teaches children about
dren with Disabilities held for the Study noted appropriate and inappropriate touching, saying
that promising approaches from various parts ‘no’ to an adult when they feel uncomfortable,
of the world include community-based reha- and who they can talk to if they experience vio-
bilitation and early stimulation programmes, lence. While some programmes have improved
either at centres or through home visits. children’s knowledge and skills regarding threat-
ening situations, longer-term evaluations are not
Providing short-term respite care for parents of generally available. Such programmes work best
children with disabilities can reduce stress on as part of a more comprehensive strategy, rather
80
the family as a whole, but also act as a preven- than as stand-alone programmes. (See the chap-
tive strategy against violence. Support mecha- ter on violence against children in schools and
nisms that allow parents to take a break from educational settings.)
child care, organised through religious bodies,
NGOs, or through a State agency, may help In a number of countries, stimulated by the child
prevent violence against disabled children.188 rights movement, children’s and adolescents’
FATHERING
Since 2003, Save the Children Sweden in South and Central Asia has included working
with men and boys in its regional strategy, in the belief that many males are uncom-
fortable with constructs of masculinity which tolerate violence against women and
children. Working to support alternative constructs with men and boys as partners
is now being explored in the region. Workshops on working with men and boys have
been conducted to enlist them in efforts to reduce violence against girls, boys, women
and other men. Input has been sought from the White Ribbon Campaign, the longest-
standing organisational effort among men to reject violence against women, which
today has a network in 47 countries throughout the world, including South Africa,
South Asia, New Zealand, Tonga, Brazil, Germany, and the Nordic countries. Coun-
try-based workshops have also been held, and in Bangladesh, a non-governmental
organisation (NGO) network on the issue has been formed. Increasing the focus on
the socialisation of boys is now seen as the challenge.186
3
“We are at a disadvantage because of our age. Adults don’t believe what we say when something like this
happens. That’s why we don’t say anything. I have a girlfriend whose stepfather touches her and she was
even punished when she told her mother about it”
Boy, 15, Latin America
own organisations have developed and become of programme planning and interventions with
active during the past decade. These organisa- children, child-friendly methodologies for con-
tions have enabled many of their members to sultation and action-research have been devel-
gain confidence, articulate their problems, and oped. These, coupled with counselling and
in solidarity with others, undertake actions communications skills, have also been used
designed to reduce acts of violence that have to enable children to open up to adults they
either been threatened or carried out against regard as safe about their intimate and pain-
themselves or other children. Some, such as ful experiences. In some small-scale examples,
the Girls’ Advisory Committees in Ethiopia, notably in India and Brazil, children who have
target specific problems such as child marriage been trafficked by their families and have few
(see box on next page). Although there is evi- trusting relationships with adults have organ-
dence that these school-based programmes can ised themselves to provide mutual support and
reduce the risk of childhood sexual victimisa- avoid further exposure.191
tion in the community, it is not clear whether
this embraces family-related sexual abuse.189 Child helplines are gradually becoming more 81
Child participation activities based on schools common: as already noted, discussion in con-

and community settings need to be supported, fidence with a counsellor by phone allows
as peer groups can have a major role to play in some children to report what is happening to
helping identify at-risk children and undertak- them and seek help. Helplines or hotlines have
ing proactive initiatives. been set up by various NGOs in order to help
children escape from abusive situations; they
Breaking the silence
are used in the Philippines and Cambodia by
One of the cornerstones of any strategic children experiencing violence as domestic
response must be to break down the silence in helpers in the homes of those who are not their
which most children endure episodes of physi- parents.192 (See the chapter on violence against
cal, psychological or sexual violence at home. children in the community.)
Consultations and reviews repeatedly dem-
onstrate that children – however much they Social policy
fear and dislike the violence they experience
Strong social policy is essential for supporting
– do not feel they have any place to make their
families and enabling them to thrive despite
feelings known, or they may even consider
economic, social and psychological stress.
that such feelings are ‘legitimate’. Many feel
Improvements in these areas address some of
shame or blame themselves, while others stay
silent for fear of provoking further violence, the major risk factors for family violence against
or insensitive interventions which could make children and should therefore lead to reduc-
their overall situation worse. tions in the rate of child maltreatment. Rele-
vant policies include support for employment,
Within the general trend to lay more emphasis minimum wages, rural livelihoods, equitable
on child consultation as an integral component land reform, equitable compensation in case
of forced displacement, women’s income gen- income or food supplementation for those in
eration, and equitable access to facilities such extreme need. (Social policy interventions are
as water supplies, roads and paths, transport discussed in greater detail in the chapter on
systems, drainage, and sanitation. Other social violence against children in the community.)
policies with a proven positive effect on family
Other strategies
life include access to social protection systems,
such as social security benefits for people who Although the direct impact of these interven-
suffer from disabilities or who care for chil- tions on violence against children has not been
dren with disabilities; unemployment benefits; well researched, general health initiatives at the
health insurance or free care for the indigent; community level can reduce levels of violence.
GIRLS’ ADVISORY COMMITTEES:

A CHILD-LED ACTIVITY IN RURAL ETHIOPIA
82
Primary schools are the one location in rural Ethiopia that bring together girls (and
boys) who might be vulnerable to forced early marriage. The creation of Girls’ Advi-
sory Committees (GAC) is an innovation in Ethiopian primary schools aimed at pre-
venting child marriage and other forms of gender discrimination.
The Girls’ Advisory Committee is not a club, but a school committee linked to the
Parent–Teacher Association. GACs work to create a more positive environment for
children at home and at school, by awareness-raising and other means. They vary in
composition, but include male and female students, sometimes a community member,
and a female teacher as advisor. The student members act as links between families in
the community and the school, reporting on upcoming child marriages, abductions,
teasing, harassment, and extended absence of girls from school.
Where an impending marriage of a young girl is reported, the GAC visits the parents to
attempt to dissuade them. If they refuse to listen, the GAC asks the parents to come to
the school. The teachers then ask the parents to cancel the marriage, explaining that it
is illegal. This is normally successful. Mothers are reported as saying they are glad that
their daughter has escaped the life they were forced into, but they would not be able to
protest the marriage without the backup of the school.
This example of child-led activity illustrates the necessity of an integrated approach,
whereby children’s efforts are backed up by authority figures such as schoolteachers,
and the law.190
3
For example, environmental health initia- gation and follow-up. Ideally, legal measures
tives that remove lead and other environmen- should be implemented in tandem with health
tal toxins from communities can lead to less and social support approaches. Support and
physical violence against children by reducing assistance without adequate protection can
the rate of foetal brain damage and subsequent endanger the child’s well-being and develop-
cognitive disorders such as Attention Deficit ment; but a legal focus on investigation and
Disorder (ADD) and hyperactivity, thereby protection with insufficient follow-up and par-
decreasing the number of children with high- allel treatment can lead to severe and lasting
risk characteristics. Similarly, limiting access damage both to the child and to the family.
to alcohol, for example through controlling
the number of alcohol outlets or raising prices, Research is urgently needed to identify effec-
may help prevent child maltreatment.193 Simi- tive support, help and treatment-oriented
lar efforts in developing countries could reduce approaches to child protection and how they
alcohol-related violence against children, might be implemented in both high- and low-
resource settings. Although rooted in human 83
although these measures should be considered

carefully, as they might prompt people who rights and a clear framework of legislation,
drink to switch to cheaper and less regulated child protection systems operating at commu-
home-brewed alternatives.194 nity level need to evolve in consultation with
communities. While aiming for acceptance
Although few formal evaluations have been and trust, child protection workers must be
conducted, other promising interventions made fully accountable within the context of
include providing shelters and crisis centres the overall system and its accountabilities.
for battered women and their children, train-
ing health care workers to identify and work Detection of violence against children
with adults who have experienced violence in in the family
childhood, as well as strengthening the link-
The potential for damage to the child increases
ages between mental health services, substance
with increasing frequency and severity of vic-
abuse treatment and child protection services.
timisation over time. It is therefore important
to identify violence as early as possible and
INTERVENING WHEN VIOLENCE
intervene to stop it. Health professionals have
BECOMES KNOWN
an important role in child protection because,
When violence against children is suspected or except in very remote rural areas, infants and
disclosed, action must be taken to protect the small children are usually taken to the health
children at risk. The content and legislative centre on a routine basis. In countries with
foundation of child protection services vary social service networks, they may also be seen
from country to country and often include occasionally or on a regular basis by social
mechanisms for reporting, referral, investi- workers.
These occasions and contacts provide an Treatment for victims of violence
opportunity to detect violence against children
that parents and caregivers may try to disguise Children who have experienced family vio-
as unintentional injury or illness. Given the lence have a wide range of treatment needs.
pressure on health-clinic staff, they need train- Health workers need to be trained to detect
ing and capacity-building, as well as improved cases of violence against a child, and the
facilities. Since detection is not always straight- procedures to follow in documentation and
forward, standardised guidelines and tools to reporting, as well as treatment and follow-
assist professionals with assessments are essen- up.197 In some cases, the collection of forensic
tial. Training health workers to detect and specimens may be required; whenever possible,
manage violence against children appears par- this should be done at the same time as the
ticularly promising for pre-verbal infants who physical examination. Trained professionals
cannot describe what has happened, and for all are needed for interpretation of injuries, foren-
cases where detection depends upon observa- sic examinations and forensic interviewing of
84 children. Victims of sexual violence should
tion rather than a first-person account.
be given preventive prophylaxis for sexually
In many developing country settings, commu- transmitted infections, including HIV/AIDS,

nity-based mechanisms are being established for as appropriate. Health workers have a respon-
monitoring violence in the home and the need sibility to prioritise the child’s physical health
for child protection. Most of these are in experi- and to refer the child for psychosocial support
mental stages, and structured evaluation is services and social welfare or child protection
required before clear conclusions can be drawn. services. Cases of violence detected outside the
For example, in the Philippines, UNICEF has health sector should be referred to a health
supported the establishment of 6,500 barangay worker for proper assessment and care.
(village) councils for the protection of children.
The Councils set up a database and monitoring All forms of family violence have significant
system on children, including those who are at impact on a child’s emotional health and devel-
risk or who are victims of exploitation and vio- opment; psycho-social support is therefore
lence.195 In the United Republic of Tanzania, crucial. A supportive, non-offending caregiver
an organisation called Kivulini whose primary is an important facilitator of a child’s recovery.
target is to reduce physical, emotional and sexual The most effective mental health interventions
violence in the home, works closely with leaders employ behavioural and cognitive techniques,
at the lowest structure of local Government – and work with both the child and the family.
ward executive officers and street leaders. Street Key skills for children include skills to iden-
leaders are elected by community members, and tify, process and regulate emotion; anxiety
have a right of access to people’s homes.196 management skills; skills to identify and alter
inaccurate perceptions; and problem-solving
skills. Trauma-specific cognitive behavioural
3
interventions appear to be particularly effec- enforcement), and also to services that are confi-
tive in reducing victims’ anxiety, depression, dential and will not take action except with the
sexual concerns and symptoms of PTSD.198,199 agreement of the child unless the child is per-
ceived as being at risk of death or serious injury.
Reporting by professionals
Intervention in the best interests of
When professionals such as nurses, doctors, the child
social workers and teachers identify a sus-
pected case of family violence against chil- Once a child has been identified as being in
dren, they may be required by law to report danger of family violence, a coordinated response
their suspicions to the authorities, or expected is needed to guarantee the protection of the child.
to do so irrespective of legal obligation. To be Assessment of the child and the child’s family
effective, reporting structures must always be requires input and participation from service
matched with equally well-developed struc- providers in different sectors who have had con-
tures for protection, support and treatment for tact with the child and/or family. To minimise
85
children and families. Countries with manda- the risk that a child will ‘fall through the cracks’

tory reporting laws should consider systems of a system, the various sectors with responsibili-
reforms that allow children and families access ties for child protection must share information
to confidential services where they can receive about individual cases of family violence against
support on a voluntary basis. children, as already noted. But there must also
be clear lines of responsibility for taking action,
Mandatory reporting can establish an adversar- and accountability for failures in protection.
ial relationship between families and child pro-
tection authorities, and may even deter families Some middle-income countries are experi-
from seeking formal support. However, the reluc- menting with innovative ways of building pro-
tance of professionals and the general public in tective environments for children in local com-
most parts of the world to report violence in the munities. In Serbia, Mobile Outreach Teams
home suggests that without mandatory report- for Child Protection were initially developed
ing laws applying at least to defined groups of in four municipalities in 2001 with the coop-
professionals, large numbers of children in need eration of governmental social work centres
of protection will never be identified and given and NGO mobile teams. In Montenegro, pilot
the protection they need. Whatever approach is Operational Multidisciplinary Teams were
chosen, it should present itself as a help-oriented formed in 2003, with technical assistance from
service offering public health and social support UNICEF, to provide teams of professionals
rather than as being primarily punitive. Some who would identify cases involving violence
experts urge that children and their representa- and neglect and respond in a coordinated way.
tives should have access both to services which Various protocols were adopted on collab-
they know have an obligation to report violence orative working, on communication with the
and take action (usually social services, law media, and on interviewing child victims of
A MULTISECTORAL APPROACH TO COMPREHENSIVE SERVICE
PROVISION: THE CHILD PROTECTION UNIT OF THE PHILIPPINES
GENERAL HOSPITAL
The Child Protection Unit (CPU) of the Philippines General Hospital uses a multi-
sectoral approach towards comprehensive medical and psychosocial services for mal-
treated children and their families. The aim is to prevent further maltreatment and to
start the process of healing. In 2005, the CPU cared for 972 new cases of maltreated
children, 81% of whom had been sexually abused.
From the first point of contact through a long follow-up, the CPU provides qual-
ity care using a multisectoral approach which coordinates the actions of the health,
legal and social sectors through CPU’s case management system. The CPU provides
86 legal and police services, judicial hearings, medical services, guidance and support to
the child and next of kin, as well as therapy or referral to other specialised medical
services, when necessary. The CPU also provides other social services to very poor
families, including grants for the child’s school-related costs and interest-free loans for
livelihood assistance. Parenting classes help parents manage their expectations of their
children, help them to better understand their children’s behaviour, and adjust their
methods of discipline accordingly.
Each child has a CPU case manager to coordinate all services received by the child and
the family, and to facilitate and monitor child safety placement, legal assistance and
mental health care. Case managers work with the children and families for as long as
is necessary.200
violence. The Ministry of Labour and Social has to be found between various potentially
Welfare has since adopted these protocols, and competing demands – such as the need to pro-
decided to establish teams in all Social Welfare tect the child and the wish to keep a family
Centres by 2009.201 intact. The least detrimental alternative to the
child and the least intrusive alternative for
Child protection service agencies may inves- the family should be employed, as long as the
tigate and try to substantiate reports of sus- child’s safety can be assured. Consideration
pected violence. If the reports are verified, must be given to the concerns and desires of
then the staff of the child protection services the child in all decisions about interventions,
choose the appropriate course of action. Such taking into account the context of the child’s
decisions are often difficult, since a balance developmental stage, emotional health, and
“I remember being a foster child on another reserve as a child. I had been strapped…never understood
the reasons why or what I had done wrong, I do remember the fear and pain.”
Youth leader, North America, 2005 XI
3
the healthy or unhealthy bonds between the should take precedence over temporary
child and other family members. solutions
• National solutions are generally
When alternative care is necessary preferable to those involving another
Removing a child from the family should be a country (e.g. international adoption).
last-resort intervention. Ideally, services should All forms of alternative care involve risk for the
be available to support those parents who are child, including risk of further violence, exploi-
failing to cope with the demands of parenting. tation and other violations of the child’s rights.
Only when the child appears to be at imme- It is therefore important that States register
diate risk of significant harm, the parent is and regulate all forms of alternative care, with
assessed as not responding to other interven- continuous monitoring of children’s placement
tions, or appears unable to change within the and treatment, and with the full participation
developmental time frame of the child, should of the child. (See also the chapter on violence
long-term alternatives (i.e. long-term fostering against children in care and justice systems.)
87
or adoption) be considered.

ADVOCACY AND PUBLIC
A child who is separated from the family envi- EDUCATION
ronment for his or her own best interest is
entitled to special protection and assistance; Violence against children in the home and
furthermore, States are obliged to ensure some family receives little media and research atten-
suitable form of alternative care for a child tion worldwide compared to issues such as
in these circumstances, giving due regard to commercial sexual exploitation of children, or
maintaining continuity in a child’s upbringing child labour. The media play a central role in
and to the child’s ethnic, religious, cultural shaping opinions and influencing social norms
and linguistic background (CRC article 20). that can also affect behaviour. Violence against
Alternative care can be provided both formally children in the home and family should be
– through foster-care placement (kafalah care brought into the public sphere in every region;
under Islamic law), and adoption – and infor- space must be created to discuss the issues and
mally, such as the placement of a child with to find solutions. Without raising awareness, it
the extended family. Three principles should will be difficult to achieve large-scale and last-
guide decisions about alternative forms of care ing prevention, and behavioural change.
for children: 202
An important development of recent years, and
• Family-based solutions are generally one promoted by the Study process, has been the
preferable to institutional placements involvement of children themselves in research,
• Sustainable solutions aimed at and in advocacy based on such research. Chil-
permanency in the best interests of the dren pointed out in Regional Consultations that
child, but including regular review, they normally had no opportunity to articulate
“I think child abuse happens a lot more than we think it does. Kids get beaten at home and are afraid
to tell anyone. It’s hard to stop something that happens behind closed doors.”
Child, 12, North America XII
their views and feelings about the violence they • Harmful traditional practices
had experienced at home. In all regions, NGOs • Gender-based violence
have begun to undertake participatory research • The role of men and boys in preventing
into violence against children in the family, in violence
which boys and girls are involved not only as • The effects of HIV on the
respondents but as co-researchers. Besides giving stigmatisation of children and their
children the opportunity to talk about the puni- increased vulnerability to violence.
tive behaviour of parents and other caregivers,
such exercises challenge the silence surrounding Children and adolescents have a very impor-
family violence, and contribute to the under- tant part to play in advocacy on issues that
standing of the nature and dimensions of child concern them. (See the chapter on violence
abuse and its effects. These exercises are of pri- against children in the community.)
mary importance in providing a basis for aware- Eliminating harmful traditional
ness-raising campaigns and workshops.203,204 practices
88
At every Regional Consultation, adults and Efforts to eliminate harmful traditional prac-
children alike expressed the urgent need for tices have illustrated the importance of inter-
advocacy strategies to change cultural norms in vening at multiple levels – parents and families
order to end violence against children. Outcome will find it hard to change their behaviour if
documents from the consultations and thematic
the norms and behaviour in the wider com-
working groups emphasised that advocacy should
munity do not change. Bringing an end to
target policy-makers, parents, and children, and
FGM requires clear prohibition, education and
that advocacy on the following themes would
awareness-raising within families and commu-
help prevent family violence against children:
nities, and community mobilisation (see box).
• Children’s rights, including their right Triggering changes in community knowledge,
to protection from all forms of violence beliefs, attitudes and practices is the key to
• Harmful consequences of corporal success.205 This requires an advocacy strat-
punishment and other forms of cruel or egy in which religious and community lead-
degrading punishment, and the need ers, health professionals and a variety of actors
for parents to develop positive, non- participate; persuading individual parents or
violent relationships with their children mothers is not sufficient. Where social stand-
and ways of child-rearing ing and eligibility for marriage are dependent
• Breaking the culture of silence around on girls having undergone FGM, mothers are
sexual violence in the family unlikely on an individual basis to refuse the
• Addressing traditional stigma and operation for their daughters, however terrible
prejudicial beliefs concerning inability the experience was in their own case. The deci-
to reduce the vulnerability of disabled sion needs to be made by a community as a
children to violence collective, and that community needs to know
3
TOSTAN’S APPROACH
In November 2005, representatives of 70 villages in Senegal’s northeastern region of

Matam participated in a public declaration that they were ending the practice of FGM
and forced child marriage. Matam is a very conservative region, where a few years ago
these subjects could not even have been discussed. Thousands of villagers from up to
300 km away witnessed the ceremony. Dignitaries, officials and the media were also in
attendance. Rural women, adolescents, chiefs, religious leaders and Government offi-
cials pledged their commitment. This declaration, the 19th of its kind in Senegal, is the
final stage in a programme of public education and advocacy at village level.
This programme was undertaken by the Tostan Community Empowerment Pro-
gramme, in a drive for the collective abandonment of FGM and early marriage
throughout the country. Since 1997, 1,628 communities have committed themselves
89
to abandoning these practices. The Tostan strategy consists of the formation of village

committees, setting up classes on women’s health and rights at village level, and social
mobilisation by class members. At the end of the programme, a public declaration is
made at a major ceremony. This is seen as a vital part of the process, since it marks col-
lective social endorsement of change.
An evaluation by the Population Council in 2004 found that Tostan’s programme
significantly affected the knowledge and beliefs of the people who participated in the
classes, and of those in their circles. For example, the proportion of girls aged 10 and
under who had not been cut increased from 46% to 60% among intervention partici-
pant families, but remained unchanged at 48% in the comparison group. Approval of
FGM and intent to cut girls decreased significantly, and the intention to cut among
participating women fell from nearly 75% at baseline to less than 25%. Another
encouraging finding was that knowledge about human rights increased significantly
among study participants. The proportion of women who were aware of their rights
to health, education, and a healthy environment increased from 11% to 94%, while
knowledge among men increased from 41% to 92%.208
that other communities are similarly abandon- and programme implementation. The lack of
ing the custom (see box). data has been a constant refrain throughout
the Study, and nowhere has this been more
Child marriage requires similar efforts to acute than in the home and family context,
change social and cultural norms. Up to now particularly because of the already described
the number of advocacy initiatives to influ- inhibitions to reporting, but also because of the
ence and reduce child marriages directly have lack of investment in scientific research on the
been very few. The tendency has been to regard topic. On the one hand, no effective systems of
the custom as susceptible to the wider enrol- response can be developed without proper data;
ment of girls in education, and to the legislative on the other, the development of programmatic
enforcement of marriage laws. However, more responses to children suffering violence cannot
concerted attention to women’s and girls’ rights await the development of systematic data-gath-
in marriage has led in new directions. Some ering systems where country or State capacities
programmes specifically directed at child mar- in this context are limited or under-resourced.
90 riage reduction are now underway, and targeted
advocacy against the practice is beginning.206 Ongoing data collection and analysis of offi-
For example, a campaign against child mar- cially reported cases can be useful for identify-
riage has recently been launched by civil society ing trends in service utilisation and, in some
organisations in Yemen, on the basis of research instances, prevalence. However, as these sys-
undertaken by the University of Sana’a.207 tems rely only on cases brought to the attention
of the authorities, and given that children most
Many other practices which cause violence often suffer family violence without telling
and harm to children need the benefit of expo- anyone, surveillance systems based on official
sure and campaigning as part of the efforts to records will always underestimate the extent of
prevent them. These include the sale of chil- the problem. Surveillance of officially reported
dren into sexual or other work; the stigmati- cases must be supplemented by population-
sation of disabled children, children without based surveys that document exposure to child-
families, or children orphaned by HIV/AIDS; hood violence and its lifelong consequences.
child victims of sexual abuse; children accused Similary, true understanding of fatal violence
of sorcery; children who have been dedicated against children can only be gained through
by their parents to priests and shrines. comprehensive death registration, investigation
and reporting systems (see box).
IMPROVING INFORMATION FOR
POLICY DEVELOPMENT AND ACTION Small qualitative studies and studies using
convenience sampling – of families referred to
Accurate and reliable data on the magnitude social services, for example – are important for
and consequences of family violence against documenting the problem of violence against
children are essential to evidence-based advo- children and how to manage it. However, to
cacy, policy development, resource allocation begin to understand fully the patterns of family
3
“It is time we moved beyond qualtiative explorations of violence against children. In South-East Asia,
population-based surveys are needd urgently to shed light on the full extent of violence against children.
We must invest in better research and systematic data collection on this issue.”
Dr Samlee Plianbangchang, Regional Director for South-East Asia, WHO
violence against children, studies that survey One of the important purposes of data collec-
a large subset of the general population and tion, especially in countries and regions where
which are repeated over time are necessary. home and family violence is denied or not pub-
licly debated, is advocacy. Policy-makers need
Confidential interview studies with children, to be persuaded that violence against children
parents and other close carers can also contrib- is more prevalent than they believe or care to
ute to understanding all forms of violence in admit, and that responses are urgently needed.
the home and family. There must, of course, Efforts by NGOs and international support
be ethical safeguards to ensure the necessary agencies to collect information and publish
protection of the children involved. Retrospec- analyses of children facing violence are often
tive studies, interviewing young adults about the first step towards enabling a culturally or
their childhood experiences, are also valuable, politically sensitive issue to emerge, become
but disclose nothing about what is happening locally owned up to, and taken up.
to children now, and may distort understand-
ing of experiences in early childhood when 91
some forms of violence are most common.

CHILD FATALITY REVIEW TEAMS (CFRT)
Most children who die from violence are young. About 40% are infants and 80% are
under six. The most common cause of death is head trauma, followed by blunt force
trauma to the body. It is sometimes difficult to detect how a child has died when he or
she is reported as having had ‘a fall’.
The first Child Fatality Review Team (CFRT) was formed in Los Angeles in 1978,
sponsored by the Los Angeles County Interagency Council on Child Abuse and
Neglect (ICAN). Members included the coroner, police, social services, courts, health
and public health workers. ICAN later became the National Center for Fatality Review
(NCFR) and other teams followed, some adding teachers, mental health workers and
occasionally community members. The team meets to discuss cases of young child
death where medical evidence is inconclusive; thus different types of evidence come
together, and a mystery can conceivably be solved.
By 2001, an estimated 1,000 teams existed in Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the
USA. The Philippines recently added a hospital-based model that may better fit devel-
oping countries. An international working network has begun connecting ICAN with
contacts and start-up programmes in China, Estonia, Iceland, the Islamic Republic of
Iran, Japan, Jordan, Lebanon, the Netherlands and the UK.209
IMPROVING THE KNOWLEDGE BASE IN INDIA - THE NATIONAL
STUDY ON CHILD ABUSE
India has taken a proactive approach to the issue of child protection. Initiated by the
Department of Women and Child Development in 2005, the National Study on Child
Abuse involved an enormous network around the country. One of the first major
activities undertaken was a National Level Consultation on Child Abuse, held in New
Delhi in April 2005, to discuss various issues related to project formulation, includ-
ing defining the concept of child abuse and methodology for the project, developing
instruments for data collection and identifying the various categories of respondents.
This Consultation involved experts from all over India and from various disciplines to
exchange views on the common theme of child abuse. The experts included academics,
social workers, activists, NGO representatives, teachers, researchers, police, judiciary,
representatives from funding agencies like UNICEF, Save the Children, USAID, US
92 Agency, Plan International, Catholic Relief Services, SARI Equity, etc.
The sample size of 17,500 included children (n=12500), young adults (n=2500), and
other stakeholders (n= 2500). The child respondents included children living on the
streets, working children, children in schools, children in institutional care, and chil-
dren in family groups not attending school. Part of the methodology involved focus
group discussions with children in the context of children’s workshops, through which
all indicators of various forms of abuse were elicited, and confidentiality and ethical
considerations taken into account.
From its inception, the project emerged as an advocacy and awareness opportunity,
which was extremely useful from the standpoint of a country where child abuse was
known to exist, and yet so little about the issue was discussed publicly. The participa-
tion of so many experts had a multiplier effect, in that it increased awareness and more
open discussion about the previously neglected issue of child abuse ensued. Analysis of
results are expected at the end of 2006.210
RECOMMENDATIONS to the family, Governments have obligations to

ensure that in all places – including in the home
The following recommendations are guided by – children are protected from actions consti-
the human rights obligations of Governments
tuting violence against them, and that there is
under the CRC and other instruments, and are
also based on evidence from research and exist- an effective response when violence occurs. In
ing practice. They recognise that, while the pri- addition, Governments are required to provide
mary role in childrens’ upbringing is accorded appropriate support and assistance to parents.
“In the consultations all over the world, it was as if everyone had been waiting for permission to talk
about this - waiting for violence against children not to be a secret any more.”
Karin Landgren, Chief, Child Protection, UNICEF
3
Prioritise prevention tance, including that provided in emergency
situations; and they should help to develop
1. Ensure that comprehensive systems to supportive networks through providing
prevent violence and protect children quality child care facilities and pre-school
are implemented at scale, in ways that enrichment programmes; and through
respect the whole child and their family, respite programmes for families facing
their dignity and privacy, and the devel- especially difficult circumstances; and also
opmental needs of girls and boys. Gov- by giving attention to underlying factors
ernments should ensure that response such as education, housing, employment,
systems should be coordinated, aimed at and social policies and opportunities.
prevention and early intervention, linked
to integrated services that extend across 4. Implement evidence-based advocacy
sectors – legal, education, justice, social, programmes on violence prevention. At
health, employment and other necessary the society and community level, Govern-
services. Respect for the views of the child ments should support strategies that aim to 93
in all matters and decisions which affect raise awareness of child rights, and promote

them should be assured. Governments change in social and cultural norms, gender
have the obligation to develop evidence- equity/equality, and non-discrimination.
based standards to facilitate effective and Such programmes should target Govern-
sensitive service delivery for children in all ment sector workers, including police and
parts of the country. justice system staff, educators, health work-
ers, and the private sector, as well as par-
Societal level ents and the general public. Governments
have the obligation to initiate and support
2. Assess the impact of public policies on
awareness campaigns that promote non-vio-
children and their families. Govern-
lent relationships and communication with
ments should conduct social impact assess-
children, as well as the positive involvement
ments which give particular attention to
of men and boys in family life.
the potential impact of public policies on
violence against children – especially dis- Legal measures
crimination, social and economic stress,
and other risk factors relevant to family vio- 5. Develop an explicit framework of law
lence against children. The results should and policy in which all forms of vio-
be used to prioritise economic and social lence against children within the family
safety nets which directly benefit families. are prohibited and rejected. Govern-
ments have the obligation to prohibit and
3. Increase economic and social safety nets eliminate all forms of violence against
for families. These should include family children in the home as well as in other
support centres which can provide assis- settings. This includes all harmful tradi-
tional practices, sexual violence, and all his or her best interests; the child’s identity
corporal punishment, in accordance with and privacy should be protected; confiden-
the CRC and other human rights instru- tiality should be respected; and the child
ments (see the Committee’s General Com- should not be subjected to excessive inter-
ment on corporal punishment, No. 8, June views, statements, hearings and unneces-
2006). Clear guidance and training should sary contact with the judicial process.
ensure that the law is implemented sensi-
Consideration should be given to the use
tively, in line with the best interests of the
of pre-recorded video and other testimonial
child. Legal reform should be linked with
aids, such as the use of screens or closed
advocacy and awareness-raising activities
circuit televisions, as well as to eliminating
to promote positive, non-violent relation-
unnecessary contacts with the alleged per-
ships with children.
petrator, or their defence. In particular, if
6. Ensure that family courts and other compatible with the legal system and with
94 parts of the justice system are sensi- due respect for the rights of the defence,
tive to the needs of children and their professionals should ensure that the child
families. Governments should ensure that victim of violence is protected from being
child victims of family violence are not re- unnecessarily cross-examined, that the gen-
victimised during the justice process, nor eral public and the media are excluded from
subjected to extended or drawn-out legal the courtroom during the child’s testimony,
processes. Child victims should be treated and that guardians ad litem are available to
in a caring and sensitive manner through- protect the child’s legal interests. Speedy
out the justice process, taking into account trials should also be ensured, unless delays
their personal situation and immediate are in the child’s best interests.
needs, age, gender, disability and level of Strengthen coordinated responses
maturity, and fully respecting their physi-
cal, mental and moral integrity. 7. Provide pre-natal and post-natal care,
and home visitation programmes for
In particular, Governments should ensure optimising early childhood develop-
that investigations, law enforcement, pros- ment. These measures should be aimed
ecution and judicial processes take into at building on the strengths of the family
account the special needs of the child, and the community to promote healthy
bearing in mind the Guidelines on Justice child development, and the early detection
for Child Victims and Witnesses of Crime and support of families with problems.
(ECOSOC Resolution 2005/20). In this Governments should ensure that such
regard, the child should be accompanied programmes include information on the
by a trusted adult throughout his or her importance of attachment and the physi-
involvement in the justice process, if it is in cal, emotional, and cognitive development
3
of infants and young children as well as care, and children affected by HIV/AIDS.
attention to cultural factors. Special efforts are required to understand
and respond to the differing risks which
8. Implement culturally-appropriate and may be faced by girls and boys, and to pay
gender-sensitive parenting programmes attention to the concept of masculinity
and programmes that support families and gender stereotypes on violence experi-
to provide a violence-free home. Govern- enced by girls and boys.
ments should ensure that important com-
ponents are included in these programmes Build capacity
such as: the importance of attachment
10. Build capacity among those who work
bonds between parents and their children,
with children and their families. Gov-
and increasing understanding of the physi-
ernments should ensure that professionals
cal, psychological, sexual, and cognitive
and non-professionals who work with and
development of infants, children and young
around children and their families receive 95
people in the context of social and cul-
adequate training and ongoing capacity
tural factors; expanding child-rearing and

building which includes basic information
parenting skills for fathers and mothers,
on children’s rights and the law, violence
including promoting non-violent relation-
against children, its prevention, early detec-
ships and non-violent forms of discipline,
tion and response, non-violent conflict man-
problem-solving skills, and the manage-
agement, and children’s rights. In addition,
ment of family conflicts; addressing gender
workers must have a clear understanding of
stereotypes, and emphasising the involve-
the physical, sexual, emotional and cogni-
ment of men and boys in family life. Gov-
tive development of children and young
ernments must develop such programmes
people, and the links between gender and
in compliance with human rights norms,
violence. Specific skills in communicating
and also with reference to scientific evi-
with and involving children in the decisions
dence regarding the effectiveness thereof.
affecting them should also be promoted.
9. Protect especially vulnerable children
Build information systems
in the family, and address gender issues.
Governments should ensure a focus in all 11. Implement civil registration universally,
research, prevention, and response initia- including the registration of births,
tives dealing with the family, on the situ- deaths, and marriages. Governments
ation and risks of children who are espe- should ensure free and accessible civil reg-
cially vulnerable to violence; for example, istration with free certification, and should
children with disabilities, refugee and remove penalties for late registration. The
other displaced children, children from process must be advocated widely, and
minority groups, children without parental facilitated and implemented in coopera-
tion with local government, hospitals, pro- REFERENCES
fessional and traditional birth attendants,
police, religious and community leaders, 1 UNICEF (2003). A League Table of Child Maltreatment
Deaths in Rich Nations. Innocenti Report Card, No. 5.
and other partners in order to ensure uni- Florence, UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre.
versal uptake.
2 Yoder PS et al. (2004). Female Genital Cutting in the
12. Develop a national research agenda on Demographic Health Surveys: A Critical and Comparative
Analysis. Calvertion, ORC Macro.
family violence against children. Govern-
ments should put in place a set of national 3 UNICEF (2003). Female Genital Cutting in Somalia:
Reasons for Continuation and Recommendations for
priorities for research that can supplement
Eradication. UNICEF Somalia. Cited in: UNICEF
information systems with in-depth quali- Somalia (2003). From Perception to Reality: A Study on
tative and quantitative research. Guided Child Protection in Somalia, Ch. 3. UNICEF Somalia.
by international indicators and standards, 4 Committee on the Rights of the Child (2006). General
Governments and their partners should Comment No. 8. The Right of the Child to Protection
96 strengthen information systems through from Corporal Punishment and Other Cruel or Degrading
improved surveillance of reported cases of Forms of Punishment (articles 19, 28(2) and 37, inter
family violence against children, and also alia), CRC/C/GC/8.

through population-based research which 5 UN Habitat (2006). State of the World’s Cities Report
includes estimates of the prevalence of 2006/7. Nairobi, UN Habitat. Available at: http://www.
childhood victimisation. Risk and protec- unhabitat.org/mediacentre/ documents/sowcr2006/
SOWCR%201.pdf.
tive factors related to violence can also be
assessed by retrospective studies of child- 6 UN Habitat (2006). State of the World’s Cities Report
2006/7. Nairobi, UN Habitat. Available at: http://www.
hood, and by interviewing young adults.
unhabitat.org/mediacentre/ documents/sowcr2006/
SOWCR%201.pdf.
Data should be disaggregated to make vis-
ible the scale and scope of the experiences 7 Krug EG et al. (Eds) (2002). World Report on Violence
and Health. Geneva, World Health Organization.
of girls and boys of different ages that are
related to violence and overcoming it, their 8 Molyneux M (2004). Poverty Relief Programmes and
situations, and their risk and protective the ‘New Social Policy in Latin America’: Women and
Community Carework. UNRISD Project on Gender
factors. Such efforts should include confi- and Social Policy, Mimeo, Geneva, UNRISD. Cited in:
dential interviews with the children them- UNRISD (2005). Gender Equality: Striving for Justice
selves, with special attention given to vul- in an Unequal World. United Nations Research Institute
nerable groups and their families, as well as for Social Development.
to parents and other caregivers and adults, 9 UNRISD (2005). Gender Equality: Striving for Justice
and appropriate ethical safeguards should in an Unequal World. United Nations Research Institute
be put in place. The information gathered for Social Development.
should be shared widely to inform public
policy and related action.
3
10 Asis MMB et al. (2004). When the Light of the Home 21 Dean PJ (2004). Child Homicide and Infanticide in New
is Abroad: Female Migration and the Filipino Family. Zealand. Int J Law Psychiatry, 27(4): 339–348; Romain
Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography, 25(2): 198–215. N et al. (2003). Childhood Homicide: A 1990–2000
Retrospective Study at the Institute of Legal Medicine
11 National Research Council (1993). Understanding Child
in Lausanne, Switzerland. Medicine, Science and the Law,
Abuse and Neglect. Washington DC, National Academy
43(3): 203–206; Collins KA, Nichols CA (1999).
of Sciences Press.
A Decade of Pediatric Homicide: A Retrospective Study
12 Straus MA et al. (1998). Identification of Child at the Medical University of South Carolina. American
Maltreatment with the Parent–Child Conflict Tactics Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology, 20(2):
Scales: Development and Psychometric Data for a 169–172.
National Sample of American Parents. Child Abuse &
Neglect, 22: 249–270.
13 Zununegui MV et al. (1997). Child Abuse: Socio- the UN Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against
economic Factors and Health Status. Anales Españoles de Children. Geneva, World Health Organization.
Pediatria, 47: 33–41.
23 Runyan D et al. (2002). Child Abuse and Neglect by
14 Kelly MJ (2005). The Power of Early Childhood as a Parents and Other Caregivers. In: Krug EG et al. (Eds).
Healing Force in the AIDS Crisis. Paper for Presentation World Report on Violence and Health. Geneva, World 97
to the World Forum on Early Care and Education, Health Organization, pp 59–86.

Montreal, 19 May 2005.
24 Collins KA, Nichols CA (1999). A Decade of Pediatric
15 UNICEF (2003). Africa’s Orphaned Generations. New Homicide: A Retrospective Study at the Medical
York, UNICEF.. University of South Carolina. American Journal of
16 United Nations (2000). The World’s Women: Trends and Forensic Medicine and Pathology, 20(2): 169–172.
Statistics. New York, United Nations. 25 Lyman JM et al. (2003). Epidemiology of Child
17 Boudreaux MC, Lord WD (2005). Combating Child Homicide in Jefferson County, Alabama. Child Abuse &
Homicide: Preventive Policing for the New Millennium. Neglect, 27(9): 1063–1073.
Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20(4): 380–387. 26 Romain NK et al. (2003). Childhood Homicide:
18 Finkelhor D, Berliner L (1995). Research on the A 1990–2000 Retrospective Study at the Institute of
Treatment of Sexually Abused Children: A Review Legal Medicine in Lausanne, Switzerland. Medicine,
and Recommendations. Journal of the Academy of Child Science and the Law, 43(3): 203–206.
Adolescent Psychiatry, 34: 1408–1423. 27 Moskowitz HD et al. (2005). Relationships of US Youth
19 Boudreaux MC, Lord WD (2005). Combating Child Homicide Victims and Their Offenders, 1976–1999.
Homicide: Preventive Policing for the New Millennium. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 159(4):
Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20(4): 380–387. 356–361.
20 UNICEF (2003). Innocenti Report Card No. 5: A League 28 Dean PJ (2004). Child Homicide and Infanticide
Table of Child Maltreatment Deaths in Rich Nations. in New Zealand. International Journal of Law and
UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, Florence. Psychiatry, 27(4): 339–348.
29 Moskowitz HD et al. (2005). Relationships of US Youth
Homicide Victims and Their Offenders, 1976–1999.
Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 159(4):
356–361.
30 George S (1995). Female Infanticide in Tamil-Nadu, 38 Durrant JE (2005). Corporal Punishment: Prevalence,
India: From Recognition Back to Denial? Reproductive Predictors and Implications for Child Behaviour and
Health Matters, 10: 124–132. Cited in: Naved RT (2003). Development. In: Hart SN (Ed) (2005). Eliminating
A Situation Analysis of Violence against Women in South Corporal Punishment. Paris, UNESCO.
Asia. In: Violence against Women in South Asia: A Regional 39 Kim D-H (2000). Children’s Experience of Violence in
Analysis. Bangkok, Asian Forum of Parliamentarians on China and Korea: A Transcultural Study. Child Abuse
Population and Development/Kathmandu, UNFPA. & Neglect, 18: 155–166. Cited in: Durrant JE (2005).
31 Stephenson R et al. (2006). Child Maltreatment among Corporal Punishment: Prevalence, Predictors and
School Children in Kurdistan Province, Iran. Child Implications for Child Behaviour and Development. In:
Abuse & Neglect, 30: 231–245. Hart SN (Ed) (2005). Eliminating Corporal Punishment.
Paris, UNESCO.
32 Hahm HC, Guterman NB (2001). The Emerging
Problem of Physical Child Abuse in South Korea. Child 40 Habasch R (2005). Physical and Humiliating Punishment
Maltreatment, 6(2): 169–179. of Children in Yemen. Save the Children Sweden. Cited
in: International Save the Children Alliance (2005).
33 May-Chalal C, Cawson P (2005). Measuring Child
Ending Physical and Humiliating Punishment of Children.
Maltreatment in the United Kingdom: A Study of the
Making It Happen, Part 2. Global Submission to the UN
Prevalence of Child Abuse and Neglect. Child Abuse &
98 Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Children.
Neglect, 29: 969–984.
Stockholm, Save the Children Sweden.

41 International Save the Children Alliance (2005). Ending
Physical and Humiliating Punishment of Children.
Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Children.
42 UNICEF (2001). Young Voices Opinion Survey of
Children and Young People in Europe and Central Asia.
Geneva, UNICEF.
alia), CRC/C/GC/8. 43 Dong M et al. (2004). The Interrelatedness of Multiple
Forms of Childhood Abuse, Neglect, and Household
36 Durrant JE (2003). Maternal Beliefs about physical Dysfunction. Child Abuse & Neglect, 28(7): 771–784.
punishment in Sweden and Canada. Journal of
Comparative Family Studies, 34:586-604. Cited in: 44 Government of India (2005). India Country Report on
Durrant JE (2005). Corporal Punishment: Prevalence, Violence against Children. New Delhi, Department of
Predictors and Implications for Child Behaviour and Women and Child Development, Ministry of Human
Development. In: Hart SN (Ed) (2005). Eliminating Resource Development, Government of India.
Corporal Punishment. Paris, UNESCO. 45 Klasen S, Wink C (2003). Missing Women: Revisiting
37 Lehman BA (1989). Making a Case against Spanking. the Debate. Feminist Economics, 9(2–3): 263–299.
The Washington Post, 23 March 1989. Cited in: Straus 46 Helander E (1999). Prejudice and Dignity: An Introduction
MA, Mathur AK (1996). Social Change and Trends in to Community-based Rehabilitation, 2nd Edition. New
Approval of Corporal Punishment by Parents from 1968 to York, United Nations Development Programme. Cited
1994. In: Frehsee D et al. (Eds). Violence against Children. in: United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
Berlin and New York, Walter de Gruyter, pp 91–105. against Children (2005). Summary Report of the Thematic
Meeting on Violence against Children with Disabilities.
28 July 2005, New York.
3
47 UNICEF (2002). UNICEF 2002 China Annual Report. 59 Queen Sofia Centre for the Study of Violence (2003).
UNICEF China. Child Abuse in Spain 1997/1998: A Statistical Report
Based on Field Research. Valencia, Queen Sofia Centre.
Due to Violence against Children. Background Paper to 60 UNICEF (2003). From Perception to Reality: A Study on
the UN Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Child Protection in Somalia. UNICEF Somalia, Ch. 3.
Children. Geneva, World Health Organization.
61 Naved RT (2003). A Situation Analysis of Violence
49 Finkelhor D (1994). The International Epidemiology against Women in South Asia. In: AFPPD/UNFPA
of Child Sexual Abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 18(5): (2003). Violence against Women in South Asia: A Regional
409–417. Analysis. AFPPD/UNFPA.
50 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence 62 AFPPD/UNFPA (2003). Violence against Women in
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: South South Asia: A Regional Analysis. AFPPD/UNFPA.
Asia. Available at: www.violencestudy.org/r27. Cited in: United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on
51 Haj-Yahi MM, Tamish S (2001). The Rates of Child Violence against Children (2005) Regional Desk Review:
Sexual Abuse and Its Psychological Consequences as South Asia. Available at: www.violencestudy.org/r27.
Revealed by a Study among Palestinian University 63 Irinnews (2002). Special Report on Elections, 3 October
Students. Child Abuse & Neglect, 25(10): 1303–1327. 2002. Cited in: Home Office (2004). Pakistan Country 99
Report. United Kingdom, Country Information &

52 Finkelhor D (1994). The International Epidemiology
of Child Sexual Abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 18(5): Policy Unit, Immigration & Nationality Directorate
409–417. Home Office.
53 Andrews G et al. (2004). Child Sexual Abuse. In: Ezzati 64 Wainwright M (2006). Honour Murders Leave
M et al. (2004). Comparative Quantification of Health Thousands of Women Living in Fear. The Guardian, 21
Risks: Global and Regional Burden of Disease Attributable July 2006.
to Selected Major Risk Factors, Vol. 2. Geneva, World 65 Wainwright M (2006). Honour Murders Leave
Health Organization, pp 1851–1940. Thousands of Women Living in Fear. The Guardian, 21
54 WHO (2005). WHO Multi-country Study on Women’s July 2006.
Health and Domestic Violence against Women. Geneva, 66 Bangladesh Human Rights Commission (2001). Acid
World Health Organization. and Trauma Victims. Available at: http://www.bhrcbd.
55 Jewkes R et al. (2002). Rape of Girls in South Africa. org/victims.htm.
Lancet, 359(9303): 319–320. 67 Farouk S (2005). Violence against Women: A Statistical
56 Browne KD et al. (2002). Child Abuse and Neglect Overview, Challenges and Gaps in Data Collection and
in Romanian Families: A National Prevalence Study. Methodology and Approaches for Overcoming Them.
Denmark, World Health Organization Regional Office Expert Paper prepared for Expert Group Meeting of the
for Europe. UN Division for the Advancement of Women. 11–14
April, 2005, Geneva.
57 Haj-Yahi MM, Tamish S (2001). The Rates of Child
Sexual Abuse and Its Psychological Consequences as 68 UNICEF (2001). Early Marriage, Child Spouses.
Revealed by a Study among Palestinian University Innocenti Digest, No. 7. Florence, UNICEF Innocenti
Students. Child Abuse & Neglect, 25(10): 1303–1327. Research Centre.
58 Tang CS (2002). Childhood Experience of Sexual Abuse

among Hong Kong Chinese College Students. Child
Abuse & Neglect, 26(1): 23–37.
69 Outtara M et al. (1998). Forced Marriage, Forced 80 Naved RT (2003). A Situation Analysis of Violence
Sex: The Perils of Childhood for Girls. Gender and against Women in South Asia. In: Violence against
Development, 6(3). Cited in: UNICEF (2001). Early Women in South Asia: A Regional Analysis. Bangkok,
Marriage, Child Spouses. Innocenti Digest, No. 7. Asian Forum of Parliamentarians on Population and
Florence, UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre. Development/Kathmandu, UNFPA.
70 UNICEF (2001). Early Marriage, Child Spouses. 81 NCTPE (1998). Baseline Survey on Harmful Traditional
Innocenti Digest, No. 7. Florence, UNICEF Innocenti Practices in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa, National Committee
Research Centre. on Harmful Traditional Practices.
71 Forum on Marriage and the Rights of Women and Girls 82 WHO (2000). Female Genital Mutilation, Factsheet No
(2003). Early Marriage and Poverty: Exploring the Links 241. Geneva, World Health Organization.
for Policy and Programme Development. London, Forum 83 UNICEF (2005). Changing a Harmful Social
on Marriage and the Rights of Women and Girls/IPPF. Convention: Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting.
72 UNICEF (2001). Early Marriage, Child Spouses. Innocenti Digest, No. 12. Florence, UNICEF Innocenti
Innocenti Digest, No. 7. Florence, UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre.
Research Centre. 84 UNICEF (2003). Female Genital Cutting in Somalia:
100 73 Erulkar A et al. (2004). The Experience of Adolescence in Reasons for Continuation and Recommendations for
Rural Amhara Region of Ethiopia. Accra, The Population Eradication. UNICEF Somalia. Cited in: UNICEF
Council. Somalia (2003). From Perception to Reality: A Study on

Child Protection in Somalia. UNICEF Somalia, Ch. 3.
74 Kishor S, Johnson K (2004). Profiling Domestic Violence:
A Multi-Country Study. Calverton, ORC Macro. 85 UNICEF Somalia (2003). From Perception to Reality:
A Study on Child Protection in Somalia. UNICEF
75 Marcus R (1993). Violence against Women in Bangladesh, Somalia, Ch. 3.
Pakistan, Egypt, Sudan, Senegal and Yemen. Report
prepared for Special Programme WID, Netherlands 86 UNICEF (2005). Changing a Harmful Social
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (DGIS). Brighton, Institute Convention: Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting.
Innocenti Digest, No. 12. Florence, UNICEF Innocenti
of Development Studies.
Research Centre.
76 Minnesota Advocates for Human Rights (1998).
87 UNICEF (2005). Changing a Harmful Social
Domestic Violence in Nepal. Minnesota Advocates for
Convention: Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting.
Human Rights, MN.
77 Marcus R (1993). Violence against Women in Bangladesh, Research Centre.
Pakistan, Egypt, Sudan, Senegal and Yemen. Report
88 Stanley YP et al. (2004). Female Genital Cutting in
prepared for Special Programme WID, Netherlands
the Demographic and Health Surveys: A Critical and
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (DGIS). Brighton, Institute
Comparative Analysis. DHS Comparative Reports, No.
of Development Studies.
7. Calverton, ORC Macro. Cited in: United Nations
78 Fernandez F (1997). Domestic Violence by Extended Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Children
Family Members in India. Interplay of Gender and (2005). Regional Desk Review: West and Central Africa.
Generation. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 12(3): Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27.
433–455.
89 Dube SR et al. (2002). Exposure to Abuse, Neglect, and
79 Panda KP (2004). Domestic Violence against Women in Household Dysfunction among Adults Who Witnessed
Kerala, Discussion Paper No. 86. Thiruvananthapuram, Intimate Partner Violence as Children: Implications for
Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Health and Social Services. Violence and Victims, 17(1):
Development, Centre for Development Studies. 3–17.
3
90 International Save the Children Alliance (2005). Ending 99 Felitti VJ et al. (1998). The Relationship of Adult
Physical and Humiliating Punishment of Children. Health Status to Childhood Abuse and Household
Making It Happen, Part 1. Global Submission to the UN Dysfunction. American Journal of Preventive Medicine,
Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Children. 14: 245–258.
100 Dube SR et al. (2005). Long-term Consequences of
91 Runyan D et al. (2002). Child Abuse and Neglect by Childhood Sexual Abuse by Gender of Victim. American
Parents and Other Caregivers. In: Krug EG et al. (Eds). Journal of Preventive Medicine, 28(5): 430–438.
World Report on Violence and Health. Geneva, World
101 Dong MRF et al. (2004). The Interrelatedness of
Health Organization, pp 59–86.
Multiple Forms of Childhood Abuse, Neglect, and
92 International Save the Children Alliance (2005). Household Dysfunction. Child Abuse & Neglect, 28(7):
Ending Physical and Humiliating Punishment of Children. 771–784.
102 Turner HA et al. (2006). The Effect of Lifetime
Victimisation on the Mental Health of Children and
Adolescents. Social Science and Medicine, 62(1): 13–27.
93 Crockenburg S (1987). Predictors and Correlates of
103 Andrews G et al. (2004). Child Sexual Abuse. In: Ezzati
Anger towards and Punitive Control of Toddlers by
M et al. (2004). Comparative Quantification of Health 101
Adolescent Mothers. Child Development, 58: 964–975.
Risks: Global and Regional Burden of Disease Attributable

Cited in: Durrant JE (2005). Corporal Punishment:
to Selected Major Risk Factors, Vol. 2. Geneva, World
Prevalence, Predictors and Implications for Child
Behaviour and Development. In: Hart SN (Ed) (2005).
Eliminating Corporal Punishment. Paris, UNESCO. 104 Turner HA, Finkelhor D (1996). Corporal Punishment
as a Stressor Among Youth. Journal of Marriage and
94 Perry BD (2001). The Neurodevelopmental Impact
the Family, 58: 155–166. Cited in: Durrant JE (2005).
of Violence in Childhood. In: Schetky D, Benedek
Corporal Punishment: Prevalence, Predictors and
EP (Eds). Textbook of Child and Adolescent Forensic
Implications for Child Behaviour and Development. In:
Psychiatry. Washington DC, American Psychiatric Press,
Hart SN (Ed) (2005). Eliminating Corporal Punishment.
pp 221–238.
Paris, UNESCO.
95 Evans E et al. (2005). Suicidal Phenomena and Abuse in
105 Thompson R et al. (2005). Suicidal Ideation among
Adolescents: A Review of Epidemiological Studies. Child
8-Year-olds Who Are Maltreated and At Risk: Findings
from the LONGSCAN Studies. Child Maltreatment,
96 Thompson R et al. (2005). Suicidal Ideation among 10(1): 26–36.
8-Year-olds Who Are Maltreated and At Risk: Findings
106 Evans E et al. (2005). Suicidal Phenomena and Abuse in
from the LONGSCAN Studies. Child Maltreatment,
Adolescents: A Review of Epidemiological Studies. Child
10(1): 26–36.
97 Hamilton CE, Browne KD (1998). The Repeat
107 Csorba J et al. (2001). Family and School-related
Victimization of Children. Aggression and Violent
Stresses in Depressed Hungarian Children. European
Behavior, 3: 47–60.
Psychiatry, 16: 18–26.
98 Analysis provided to the Study by the WHO Multi-
country Study on Women’s Health and Domestic
Violence against Women (2006). Geneva, World Health
Organization.
108 Lau JTF et al (1999). Prevalence and Correlates of 117 Ertem IO et al. (2000). Intergenerational Continuity
Physical Abuse in Hong Kong Chinese Adolescents: of Child Physical Abuse: How Good is the Evidence?
A Population-based Approach. Child Abuse & Neglect, Lancet, 356 (9232): 814–819.
23: 549–57. Cited in: Durrant JE (2005). Corporal
118 Johnson H et al. (forthcoming). Violence against Women:
Punishment: Prevalence, Predictors and Implications
An International Perspective. New York, Springer.
for Child Behaviour and Development. In: Hart SN
(Ed) (2005). Eliminating Corporal Punishment. Paris, 119 Williams LM (2003). Understanding Child Abuse and
UNESCO. Violence against Women: A Life Course Perspective.
Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18(4): 441–451.
109 MacMillan HL et al. (1999). Slapping and Spanking in
Childhood and Its Association with Lifetime Prevalence 120 UNICEF (2005). Changing a Harmful Social
of Psychiatric Disorders in a General Population Sample. Convention: Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting.
Canadian Medical Association Journal, 16: 805–809. Innocenti Digest, No. 12. Florence, UNICEF Innocenti
Cited in: Durrant JE (2005). Corporal Punishment: Research Centre.
Prevalence, Predictors and Implications for Child 121 Stanley YP et al. (2004). Female Genital Cutting in
Behaviour and Development. In: Hart SN (Ed) (2005). the Demographic and Health Surveys: A Critical and
Eliminating Corporal Punishment. Paris, UNESCO. Comparative Analysis. DHS Comparative Reports, No.
102 110 Classen CC et al. (2005). Sexual Revictimisation: A 7. Calverton, ORC Macro. Cited in: UNICEF (2005).
Review of the Empirical Literature. Trauma Violence and Changing a Harmful Social Convention: Female Genital
Abuse, 6(2): 103–129. Mutilation/Cutting. Innocenti Digest, No. 12. Florence,

UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre.
111 Fryer G, Miyoshi T (1994). A Survival Analysis of the
Revictimization of Children: The Case of Colorado. 122 Waters H et al. (2004). The Economic Dimensions
Child Abuse & Neglect, 18(12): 1063–1071. of Interpersonal Violence. Geneva, World Health
Organization.
112 Creighton SJ (1992). Child Abuse Trends in England and
Wales 1988–1990: And an Overview from 1973–1990. 123 Fromm S (2001). Total Estimates of Cost of Child Abuse
London, NSPCC. and Neglect in the United States – Statistical Evidence.
Chicago, Prevent Child Abuse America.
113 Hamilton CE, Browne KD (1999). Recurrent
Maltreatment During Childhood: A Survey of Referrals 124 National Commission of Inquiry into the Prevention of
to Police Child Protection Units in England. Child Child Abuse (1996). Childhood Matters: The Report of
Maltreatment, 4(4): 275–286. the National Commission of Inquiry into the Prevention of
Child Abuse, Vol. 1. London, Her Majesty’s Stationery
114 Bradshaw J, Mayhew E (Eds). The Well-being of Children
Office. Cited in: Runyan D et al. (2002). Child Abuse
in the UK, 2nd Edition. London, The University of
and Neglect by Parents and Other Caregivers. In: Krug
York/Save the Children UK.
EG et al. (Eds). World Report on Violence and Health.
115 Baldry A (2003). Bullying in Schools and Exposure Geneva, World Health Organization, pp 59–86.
to Domestic Violence. Child Abuse & Neglect, 27(7):
125 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
713–732.
against Children (2005). Summary Report of the
116 International Save the Children Alliance (2005). 10 Thematic Meeting on Violence against Children with
Essential Learning Points: Listen and Speak Out against Disabilities, 28 July 2005, New York. Available at:
Sexual Abuse of Girls and Boys. Global Submission to http://www.violencestudy.org/r180.
126 American Academy of Pediatrics (2001). Assessment of
Children. Oslo, Save the Children.
Maltreatment of Children with Disabilities. Pediatrics,
108(2): 508–552.
3
127 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence 139 Ertem IO et al. (2000). Intergenerational Continuity
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: the of Child Physical Abuse: How Good Is the Evidence?
Caribbean. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27. Lancet, 356 (9232): 814–819.
128 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence 140 World Vision (2005). Violence against Children Affected
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: West and by HIV/AIDS: A Case Study of Uganda. A contribution
Central Africa. Available at: http://www.violencestudy. to the UN Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
org/r27. against Children. Nairobi, World Vision International–
Africa Office.
129 Wolfe DA (1999). Child Abuse: Implications for
Child Development and Psychopathology, 2nd Edition. 141 Human Rights Watch (2002). Suffering in Silence:
Thousand Oaks, Sage. The Links Between Human Rights Abuses and HIV
Transmission to Girls in Zambia. New York, Human
130 Leventhal JM (1996). Twenty Years Later: We Do Know
Rights Watch.
How to Prevent Child Abuse and Neglect. Child Abuse
& Neglect, 20: 647–653. 142 The Body Shop/UNICEF (2006). Behind Closed Doors.
The Impact of Domestic Violence on Children. London,
131 National Research Council (1993). Understanding Child
The Body Shop International Plc.
Abuse and Neglect. Washington DC, National Academy
of Sciences Press. 143 Edleson JL (1996). Children’s Witnessing of Domestic 103
Violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14 (8): 839–

132 Sariola H, Uutela A (1992). The Prevalence and Context
870.
of Family Violence against Children in Finland. Child
Abuse & Neglect, 16: 823–832. 144 McClosky LA et al. (1995). The Effect of Systematic
Family Violence on Children’s Mental Health. Child
133 Zununegui MV et al. (1997). Child Abuse:
Development, 66: 1239–1261. Cited in: Krug EG et
Socioeconomic Factors and Health Status. Anales
al. (Eds) (2002). World Report on Violence and Health.
Españoles de Pediatria, 47: 33–41.
Geneva, World Health Organization.
134 Turner HA et al. (2006). The Effect of Lifetime
145 Dube SR et al. (2002). Exposure to Abuse, Neglect, and
Victimisation on the Mental Health of Children and
Household Dysfunction among Adults Who Witnessed
Adolescents. Social Science & Medicine, 62(1): 13–27.
Intimate Partner Violence as Children: Implications for
135 Runyan D et al. (2002). Child Abuse and Neglect by Health and Social Services. Violence and Victims, 17(1):
Parents and Other Caregivers. In: Krug EG et al. (Eds). 3–17.
146 UNICEF (2005). Submission to the United Nations
136 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence UNICEF New Zealand.
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: South
147 Family Violence Prevention Fund (2006). Programs:
Asia. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27.
Children and Domestic Violence. Family Violence
137 Sidebotham P, Golding J (2001). Child Maltreatment Prevention Fund. Available at: http://endabuse.org/
in the ‘Children of the Nineties’: A Longitudinal Study programs/children/.
of Parental Risk Factors. Child Abuse & Neglect, 25:
148 Runyan D et al. (2002). Child Abuse and Neglect by
1177–1200.
Parents and Other Caregivers. In: Krug EG et al. (Eds).
138 Klevens J et al. (2000). Risk Factors and the Context of World Report on Violence and Health. Geneva, World
Men Who Physically Abuse in Bogota, Colombia. Child Health Organization, pp 59–86.
Abuse & Neglect, 24: 323–332.
149 Hunter WM et al. (2000). Risk Factors for Severe Child 160 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
Discipline Practices in Rural India. Journal of Paediatric against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: Middle
Psychology, 25: 435–447. East and North Africa. Available at: http://www.
violencestudy.org/r27.
Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Children. 161 Luster T et al. (2004). Family Advocates’ Perspectives
UNICEF New Zealand. on the Early Academic Success of Children Born to Low-
income Adolescent Mothers. Family Relations, 53: 68–77.
151 The Body Shop/UNICEF (2006). Behind Closed Doors.
The Impact of Domestic Violence on Children. London, 162 Fergusson DM, Lynskey MT (1997). Physical
The Body Shop International Plc. Punishment/Maltreatment During Childhood and
Adjustment in Young Adulthood. Child Abuse & Neglect,
152 The Body Shop/UNICEF (2006). Behind Closed Doors.
21 (7): 617–630.
The Impact of Domestic Violence on Children. London,
The Body Shop International Plc. 163 Fergusson DM, Lynskey MT (1997). Physical
Punishment/Maltreatment During Childhood and
153 Ehrensaft MK et al. (2004). Clinically Abusive
Adjustment in Young Adulthood. Child Abuse & Neglect,
Relationships in an Unselected Birth Cohort: Men’s and
21 (7): 617–630.
Women’s Participation and Developmental Antecedents.
104 Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113(2): 258–271. 164 Spaccarelli S, Kim S (1995). Resilience Criteria and
Factors Associated with Resilience in Sexually Abused
154 Naved RT (2003). A Situation Analysis of Violence

Girls. Child Abuse & Neglect, 19: 1171–1182.
against Women in South Asia. In: Violence against
Women in South Asia: A Regional Analysis. Bangkok, 165 Spaccarelli S, Kim S (1995). Resilience Criteria and
Asian Forum of Parliamentarians on Population and Factors Associated with Resilience in Sexually Abused
Development/Kathmandu, UNFPA. Girls. Child Abuse & Neglect, 19: 1171–1182.
155 Lalor K (2004). Child Sexual Abuse in Sub-Saharan 166 Hunter R et al. (1978). Antecedents of Child Abuse and
Africa: A Literature Review. Child Abuse & Neglect, Neglect in Premature Infants: A Prospective Study in a
28(4): 439–460. Newborn Intensive Care Unit. Pediatrics, 61: 629–635.
156 Haj-Yahi MM, Tamish S (2001). The Rates of Child 167 Korbin J et al. (2000). Neighborhood Views on the
Sexual Abuse and Its Psychological Consequences as Definition and Etiology of Child Maltreatment. Child
Revealed By a Study among Palestinian University Abuse & Neglect, 24(12):1509–1527.
Students. Child Abuse & Neglect, 25: 1303–1327. 168 Runyan D et al. (2002). Child Abuse and Neglect by
Parents and Other Caregivers. In: Krug EG et al. (Eds).
157 Chen J et al. (2004). Child Sexual Abuse in China: A
Study of Adolescents in Four Provinces. Child Abuse &
Neglect, 28(11): 1171–1186.
169 WHO (2003). Violence and Health. Brief Report on the
Situation of Violence and Health in Jordan. World Health
Organization.
170 UNICEF (2005). Changing a Harmful Social
Convention: Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting.
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: East Asia
and the Pacific. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.
Research Centre.
org/r27.
3
171 Committee on the Rights of the Child (2006). General 180 Saunders BEL et al. (Eds) (2004). Child Physical and
Comment No. 8. The Right of the Child to Protection Sexual Abuse: Guidelines for Treatment. Revised Report:
from Corporal Punishment and Other Cruel or Degrading April 26, 2004. Charleston, SC, USA. National Crime
Forms of Punishment (articles 19, 28(2) and 37, inter Victims Research and Treatment Center.
alia), CRC/C/GC/8.
181 UNICEF (2003). Meeting Basic Learning Needs. New
172 Committee on the Rights of the Child (2006). General York, Consultative Group on ECCD, UNICEF. Cited
Comment No. 8. The Right of the Child to Protection in: Black M (1996). Children First: The Story of UNICEF
from Corporal Punishment and Other Cruel or Degrading Past and Present. New York, New York and Oxford
Forms of Punishment (articles 19, 28(2) and 37, inter University Press.
182 UNICEF (2004). Moldova Annual Report 2004.
173 Committee on the Rights of the Child (2006). General UNICEF Moldova. Cited in: United Nations Secretary-
Comment No. 8. The Right of the Child to Protection General’s Study on Violence against Children (2005).
from Corporal Punishment and Other Cruel or Degrading Violence in the Home and Family. Regional Desk
Forms of Punishment (articles 19, 28(2) and 37, inter Review: Europe and Central Asia. Available at: www.
alia), CRC/C/GC/8. violencestudy.org/r27.
174 International Save the Children Alliance (2005). Ending 183 Butchart A, Hendricks G (2000). The Parent Centre.
Physical and Humiliating Punishment of Children. 105
In: Butchart A (Ed). Behind the Mask: Getting to Grips

Making It Happen, Part 1. Global Submission to the UN with Crime and Violence in South Africa. Pretoria, HSRC
Study on Violence against Children. Stockholm, Save Publishers.
the Children Sweden.
184 CDC (2006). Child Maltreatment: CDC Activities.
175 Heise L, Garcia-Moreno C (2002). Violence by Atlanta, National Center for Injury Prevention and
intimate partners. In: Krug EG et al. (Eds). World Control. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/ncipc/
Report on Violence and Health. Geneva, World Health factsheets/cmactivities.htm.
Organization.
185 Hoath F, Sanders M (2002). A Feasibility Study
176 UNICEF (2001). Early Marriage, Child Spouses. of Enhanced Group Triple P – Positive Parenting
Innocenti Digest, No. 7. Florence, UNICEF Innocenti Programme for Parents of Children with Attention
Research Centre. Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Behaviour Change,
177 Olds DL et al. (1999). Prenatal and Infancy Home 19(4): 191–206.
Visitation by Nurses: Recent Findings. Future of 186 Karlsson L, Karkara R (2006). How to End Violence.
Children, 9(1): 44–65. CRIN Newsletter, No. 19. Child Rights Information
178 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2003). Network.
First Reports Evaluating the Effectiveness of Strategies 187 Zoritch B et al. (2000). Day Care for Pre-school
for Preventing Violence: Early Childhood Home Children. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 3:
Visitation. Findings from the Task Force on Community CD000564.
Preventive Services. MMWR, 52: 1–9.
179 Holzer PJ et al. (2006). The Effectiveness of Parent against Children (2005). Summary Report of the
Education and Home Visitation Child Maltreatment Thematic Meeting on Violence against Children with
Prevention Programmes. Child Abuse Prevention Issues, Disabilities, 28 July 2005, New York. Available at:
No. 24. Australian Institute of Family Studies. www.violencestudy.org/r180.
189 Gibson LE, Leitenberg H (2000). Child Sexual Abuse 200 WHO/ISPCAN (2006). Preventing Child Maltreatment:
Prevention Programmes: Do They Decrease the A Guide to Taking Action and Generating Evidence.
Occurrence of Child Sexual Abuse? Child Abuse & Geneva, World Health Organization/International
Neglect, 24(9): 1115–1125. Society for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect.
190 Gurevich R, Gero T (2005). Using Schools to Reduce the 201 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
Incidence of Early Marriage among Girls: A Case Study against Children (2005). Violence in the Home and
from Ethiopia. Paper by World Learning Ethiopia, Family. Regional Desk Review: Europe and Central Asia.
presented at Early Marriage Technical Consultation, Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27.
IPPF Kenya, October 2005, Nairobi. 202 UNICEF/Inter-parliamentary Union (2004). Handbook
191 International Save the Children Alliance (2005). 10 on Child Protection. Inter-parliamentary Union.
Essential Learning Points: Listen and Speak Out against 203 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
Sexual Abuse of Girls and Boys. Global Submission to against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: South
the UN Study on Violence against Children. Oslo, Asia. Available at: www.violencestudy.org/r27.
Save the Children.
204 Save the Children (2004). So You Want to Involve Children
192 Anti-Slavery International (2005). Child Domestic in Research? A Toolkit Supporting Children’s Meaningful
Workers: A Handbook on Good Practice in Programme and Ethical Participation in Research Relating to Violence
106
Interventions. London, Anti-Slavery International. against Children. Stockholm, Save the Children Sweden.
193 Markowitz S, Grossman M (1998). Alcohol Regulation 205 UNICEF (2005). Changing a Harmful Social
and Domestic Violence towards Children. Contemporary Convention: Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting.
Economic Policy, XVI: 309–320. Innocenti Digest, No. 12. Florence, UNICEF Innocenti
194 Room R et al (2003). Alcohol in Developing Societies: A Research Centre.
Public Health Approach. Helsinki, Finnish Foundation 206 Forum on Marriage and the Rights of Women and
for Alcohol Studies/Geneva, World Health Organization. Girls/IPPF (forthcoming). Taking Action to End Child
195 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence Marriage A Guide for Advocacy by Programmers and
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: East Asia Activists. London, Forum on Marriage and the Rights of
and the Pacific. Available at: http://www.violencestudy. Women and Girls/IPPF.
org/r27. 207 Forum on Marriage and the Rights of Women and Girls
196 Anti-Slavery International (2005). Child Domestic and IPPF (forthcoming). Taking Action to End Child
Workers: A Handbook on Good Practice in Programme Marriage A Guide for Advocacy by Programmers and
Interventions. London, Anti-Slavery International. Activists. London, Forum on Marriage and the Rights of
Women and Girls/IPPF.
197 WHO (2003). Guidelines for Medico-legal Care for
Victims of Sexual Violence. Geneva, World Health 208 Diop NJ et al. (2004). The Tostan Programme:
Organization. Evaluation of a Community-based Education Programme
in Senegal. Population Council, GTZ/Tostan.
198 Saunders BEL et al. (Eds) (2004). Child Physical and
Sexual Abuse: Guidelines for Treatment. Revised Report: 209 WHO/ISPCAN (2006). Preventing Child Maltreatment:
April 26, 2004. Charleston, SC, USA. National Crime A Guide to Taking Action and Generating Evidence.
Victims Research and Treatment Center. Geneva, World Health Organization and International
Society for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect.
199 Cohen JA et al. (2005). Treating Sexually Abused
Children: 1-Year Follow-up of a Randomised Controlled 210 Kacker L (2006). National Level Study on Child Abuse.
Trial. Child Abuse & Neglect, 29: 135–145. Submission to the UN Secretary-General’s Study on
Violence against Children. India.
3
X United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
QUOTES against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review:
I International Save the Children Alliance (2005). Ending Eastern and Southern Africa, p 1. Available at: www.
Physical and Humiliating Punishment of Children. violencestudy.org/r27
Making It Happen. Part 2. Global submission to the UN XI United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Children. against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: North
Stockholm, Save the Children Sweden, p 78. America, p 10. Available at: www.violencestudy.org/r27.
II Save the Children Alliance (2005). 10 Essential Learning XII United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
Points: Listen and Speak Out against Sexual Abuse of Girls against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: North
and Boys. Global Submission by the International Save America, p 19. Available at: www.violencestudy.org/r27.
Study on Violence against Children. Oslo, Save the
Children Norway, p 54.
III Naker D (2005). Violence against Children: The Voices of
Ugandan Children and Adults. Raising Voices and Save
the Children Uganda, p 21.
107
IV United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence

against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: North
America, p 7. Available at: www.violencestudy.org/r27.
V International Save the Children Alliance (2005).
Voices of Girls and Boys to end Violence against Children
in South and Central Asia. In preparation of UN
Kathmandu, Save the Children Sweden Regional
Programme for South and Central Asia, p 49.
VI Erulkar A et al. (2004). The experience of adolescence in
rural Amhara region of Ethiopia. Accra, The Population
Council.
VII UNICEF (2003). Somali children and youth: Challenging
the past and building the future. UNICEF Somalia.
VIII L’Observatoire des droits de l’enfant de la région océan
indien (2006). La violence contre les enfants dans la région
de l’océan indien. Annual Report of the Observatoire des
droits de l’enfant de la région océan indien. Mauritius,
l’Observatoire des droits de l’enfant de la région océan
indien, p 29.
IX International Save the Children Alliance (2005).
10 Essential Learning Points: Listen and Speak out against
Sexual Abuse of Girls and Boys. Global Submission to
Children. Oslo, Save the Children, p 66.
UNICEF/HQ06-0881. Mariella Furrer
Sudan, 2006, Children outside their classroom at Comboni Primary School in Rumbek, in Southern Sudan.
4
IN SCHOOLS AND EDUCATIONAL SETTINGS
Introduction 111
Forms of violence in schools 116
Physical and psychological punishment 116
Links to discrimination and gender-based violence 118 109
Sexual and gender-based violence 118
VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN IN SCHOOLS AND EDUCATIONAL SETTINGS

HIV and sexual violence 120
Bullying 121
Fighting, physical assault, and gangs 123
Homicide and serious injury 126
Weapons in schools 126
Impacts of violence at school 128
Health impacts 128
Social impacts 129
Educational impacts 130
Risk factors 131
Resilience and other protective factors 131
Systematic response to patterns of violence 132
Children who are vulnerable to violence 133
The special situation of girls 135
Responses to violence against children in schools and
educational settings 136
Laws and law enforcement 139
Rights-based school policies and programmes 141
Leadership and policy development 142
Supporting school staff 143
The participation of children 144
Working with parents and communities 145
Constructive child discipline 148
Bullying: prevention and intervention 148
Sexual and gender-based violence: prevention and intervention 149
Curriculum: What should be taught and how? 150
Creating safe and welcoming physical spaces 151
110 Research and evaluation 152
Recommendations 153
References 157
4
“To avoid violence we need to be listened to, we need economic,
work and educational opportunities. We need the chance to improve our quality
of life and have the right to live in a violence free environment.”
Adolescent boys, Latin America I
INTRODUCTION The public image of violence in schools has

been coloured by the media’s focus on extreme
Children spend more time in the care of adults events, such as school shootings; the targeting
in pre-schools, schools, vocational training of schools for attacks and mass kidnappings.
centres and other places of learning than they However, such events are very rare. More
do anywhere else outside of their homes. Like
common are forms of violence that go unre-
parents, the adults who oversee, manage and
ported and may be so tolerated and perhaps so
staff these places have a duty to provide safe
and nurturing environments that support actively condoned by the public and by offi-
and promote children’s education and devel- cial policy and law that they are not deemed
opment. They also have a duty to make sure worthy of study, discussion or debate.
such development prepares children for life as
Where the social and physical environment of
responsible adults, guided by values of non-
the community is hostile, the school environ-
violence, gender equality, non-discrimination,
tolerance and mutual respect. These are the ment is unlikely to be spared. The levels and 111
patterns of violence in schools often reflect the

values that Governments embrace when they
ratify the Convention on the Rights of the levels and patterns of violence in countries,
Child (CRC) and other international human communities and families. These, in turn,
rights conventions, along with obligations to reflect prevailing political and socio-economic
protect children from all forms of violence, in conditions, social attitudes, cultural traditions
schools and elsewhere, including providing a and values, and laws and law enforcement.
clear framework of law prohibiting and deter- Where it is legal, considered acceptable and
ring all forms of violence, and taking all other perhaps even commendable for men to control
necessary measures to prevent violence. women, and the wealthy or privileged to con-
Violence in schools can be prevented and must trol the poor and disadvantaged, and parents
not be tolerated. The reality for many mil- to control children through violence and the
lions of children is that schools (used hereafter threat of violence, then it is likely to be legal,
as the generic term for all education settings considered acceptable and perhaps even com-
for children) expose them to violence and, in mendable for both adults and children to use
so doing, children are denied of their rights, similar methods in schools.4,5,6 By being vic-
including to education. In all of the Regional tims, perpetrators and witnesses of violence,
Consultations conducted for the Study, and in children learn that violence is an acceptable
many of the reports received, children attested way for the strong and aggressive to get what
to the impact of violence on their ability to get they want from the comparatively weak, pas-
to and from school, to learn effectively while sive or peaceful.
in school, and to remain in school long enough
to reap the benefits of education.1,2,3
Schools are uniquely placed to break the pat- sages are that males should be tough, generally
terns of violence by giving children, their and sexually assertive and ready for life in a
parents and communities the knowledge and rough-and-tumble world but females should
skills to communicate, negotiate and resolve be passive, sheltered, and unassertive, particu-
conflicts in more constructive ways. However, larly sexually. These stereotypes often make
patterns of violence are often entrenched in schools unsafe and uncomfortable for girls
school culture, sometimes as a matter of policy and are prominent among the reasons why, in
supported and promoted by certain theories some countries girls, particularly during ado-
about childhood development and learning. lescence, are less likely to attend school than
adolescent boys. 7,8,9
Whether perpetrated by adults or children,
almost all violence in schools reflects a ‘hidden Ensuring access to quality education for all
curriculum’ that promotes gender inequal- children is integral to the Millenium Develop-
ity and stereotyping. For example, boys taunt ment Goals, and the related efforts detailed in
112 each other about their lack of masculinity and the Dakar Framework for Action.10,11,12 To do
harass girls with verbal and physical gestures this, schools must provide a safe and welcom-
that are sexual in nature. Corporal punishing environment for girls and boys, which is
ment of boys is more frequent and harsh than free of the threat of violence (see box).
corporal punishment of girls. Sexual aggres-
sion by male teachers and boys is often dis-
missed as ‘just boys being boys’, while girls are
blamed for ‘asking for it’. The implicit mes-
EDUCATION FOR ALL AND THE MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS
In April 2000, the World Education Forum in Dakar, Senegal, adopted the Dakar
Framework for Action to achieve six Education for All (EFA) goals.13,14,15 In September
2000, the Millennium Declaration established two of the EFA goals as being two of
the eight Millennium Development Goals. Goal 2 states that, by 2015, all children
should have access to free and compulsory primary education of good quality. Goal 3 is
to, by 2005, achieve gender equality in primary and secondary education and, by 2015,
achieve gender equality in all levels of education. These two goals constitute a specific
timetable for achieving “the right of the child to education … progressively and on the
basis of equal opportunity” required by the CRC.
4
Reflecting article 13 of the International Covenant on Economic and Social Rights

which enshrines the right of everyone to education, article 28 of the Convention on
the Rights of the Child (CRC) recognises “the right of the child to education … with
a view to achieving this right progressively and on the basis of equal opportunity.” The
first paragraph of article 28 lists States parties’ obligations, which include making pri-
mary education compulsory and free for all, encouraging the development of different
forms of secondary education that will be free or financially assisted in case of need,
and making higher education accessible to all on the basis of their capacity. Article 28
(2) states that: “States parties shall take all appropriate measures to ensure that school
discipline is administered in a manner consistent with the child’s human dignity and
in conformity with the present Convention.” Conformity with the CRC requires, for
example, protecting the child against “all forms of physical or mental violence, injury 113
or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation, including sexual

abuse” (article 19) and from “cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment”
(article 37).
Article 29 of the CRC addresses the aims of the child’s education. Paragraph 29 (1.b)
calls for “development of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms” and
paragraph 29 (1.d) calls for “preparation of the child for responsible life in a free soci-
ety, in the spirit of understanding, peace, tolerance, equality of sexes, and friendship
among all peoples, ethnic, national and religious groups and persons of indigenous
origin.” In 2001, the Committee on the Rights of the Child issued General Comment
No. 1 on the aims of education (CRC/GC/2001/1), emphasising that the education
process itself should be based on and promote the rights guaranteed by the Conven-
tion. This means that States parties should take measures to ensure that all schools
respect, for example, the child’s rights to non-discrimination (article 2), to freedom of
expression (article 13), and to protection from all forms of sexual abuse and exploita-
tion (article 34). States must also ensure that children are fully protected from expo-
sure to bullying and other forms of violence by other students. The Committee has
noted that failure to protect students from such forms of violence could deny children
their right to education (articles 28 and 29).16
>>>
“I have seen the harsh behaviour of teachers in schools and colleges. Every day there are severe
punishments by teachers, so we remain very afraid in class. The teacher often makes a student stand up
in class, scolds him with ugly words and teases him for being naughty or for not learning the lessons.
It is very shameful as well as painful.”
Boy, 17, South and Central Asia, 2005 II
General Comment No. 1 also states that: “…Children do not lose their human rights
by virtue of passing through the school gates. Thus, for example, education must be
provided in a way that respects the inherent dignity of the child, enables the child to
express his or her views freely in accordance with article 12(1) and to participate in
school life. Education must also be provided in a way that respects the strict limits on
discipline reflected in article 28(2) and promotes non-violence in school. The Com-
mittee has repeatedly made clear in its concluding observations that the use of corporal
punishment does not respect the inherent dignity of the child nor the strict limits on
school discipline…”17
The Committee has reflected this interpretation in its concluding observations on
States parties’ reports under the CRC, recommending that they should prohibit all
114
corporal punishment. In June 2006 the Committee adopted its General Comment No.
8 on the right of the child to protection from corporal punishment and other cruel or
degrading forms of punishment (articles 19, 28(2) and 37, inter alia; CRC/C/GC/8).
The Committee states that the purpose of the General Comment is “to highlight the
obligation of all States parties to move quickly to prohibit and eliminate all corporal
punishment and all other cruel or degrading forms of punishment of children and to
outline the legislative and other awareness-raising and educational measures that States
must take.”
The Committee comments: “Addressing the widespread acceptance or tolerance of
corporal punishment of children and eliminating it, in the family, schools and other
settings, is not only an obligation of States parties under the CRC. It is also a key strat-
egy for reducing and preventing all forms of violence in societies.”18
4
order, and hardening the unseasoned child
to the difficult, brutal and abrasive world.
In Europe and North America, the idea of
universal education, paid for by the State or
subsidised by the State, to equip children for
UNICEF/HQ02-0650. Alejandro Balaguer
the working world, for their civic and family

responsibilities and for their personal fulfil-
ment did not emerge until the mid-19th cen-
tury, when the industrial revolution was well
advanced. From then until well into the 20th
century, beating, humiliation and isolation
were routinely used as methods of teaching
and discipline.
PERU, 2002, Two boys do arithmetic using calculators and Since the 1990s, the global economy and the 115
coloured blocks in a school in the village of Los Angeles in the economies of many nations have been expe-

north-eastern department of San Martín in the Amazon.
riencing unprecedented rates of expansion.
The industrialised nations have moved into
an era where knowledge-based industries are
BACKGROUND AND predominant and where economies benefit
CONTEXT from all the workers they can get, if those
workers are well-educated and flexible, ready
Historically, many cultures have had hierar- to absorb new knowledge, adjust to new tech-
chical social structures where those higher nology, move from job to job and place to
up have controlled those lower down through place, and work with people of many differ-
violence and threat of violence. These struc- ent backgrounds. It is now widely recognised
tures and practices have extended to families that everyone loses when people are excluded
and the relations between men and women on the basis of gender, race, religious belief
and between parents and their children. They and other factors unrelated to their capability
have also extended to schools and the relations and potential. It is also widely recognised that
between school staff and children. the free-enquiry-and-personal-growth model
is one that best serves everyone’s interests and
In both families and schools, corporal punish- that it requires safe and nurturing school envi-
ment and other forms of cruel or degrading ronments.
punishment have been widely favoured meth-
ods of ‘discipline’ perceived as ‘taming’ the
unruly child, training the presumptuous child
to take his or her ‘proper place’ in the social
“The teacher slapped the students that skipped his lesson because they wanted to go to the library to do
some research. The noise was really loud in the corridor. I witnessed the scene and was scared. I still
cannot forget the sound of the slaps on their face.”
Student, 16, Indian Ocean subregion, 2006 III
There are still countries where many leaders, FORMS OF VIOLENCE IN SCHOOLS
educators and parents believe that education
which teaches children to question and think The forms of violence found in schools are
for themselves brings children into conflict both physical and psychological, and usually
with the established customs upon which the occur together. Forms perpetrated by teach-
family and community have been based for ers and other school staff, with or without the
generations.19 overt or tacit approval of education ministries
and other authorities that oversee schools
Change in disciplinary practices in schools has include corporal punishment and other cruel
been especially slow in some countries where and humiliating forms of punishment or treat-
resources for education are severely stretched at ment, sexual and gender-based violence, and
the same time as education systems are being bullying.
asked to absorb ever-increasing numbers of
school-goers. Laws are gradually improving 20 Forms of violence perpetrated by children
116 but even where laws ban corporal punish- include bullying, sexual and gender-based vio-
ment they are not always effectively enforced lence, schoolyard fighting, gang violence, and
and often not initially supported by prevailing assault with weapons. Technology provides a
social attitudes. Prohibition of corporal pun- new medium for bullying using the Internet and
ishment needs to be accompanied by effective mobile phones, and has given rise to new terms
initial and in-service training in behaviour such as ‘cyber-bully’ and ‘cyber-bullying’.
management and school organisation which
Physical and psychological
respect children’s rights. punishment
NATURE AND EXTENT The Committee on the Rights of the Child

defines ‘corporal’ or ‘physical’ punishment as
OF THE PROBLEM any punishment in which physical force is used
While the status of every country’s progress and intended to cause some degree of pain or
toward abolition of corporal punishment in discomfort, however light. Most involves hit-
homes, schools and penal systems has been ting (‘smacking’, ‘slapping’, ‘spanking’) chil-
mapped, research and analysis pertaining dren, with the hand or with an implement.
to other forms of violence in schools is not But it can also involve, for example, kicking,
nearly so far advanced. 21 Most studies have shaking or throwing children, scratching,
looked at one or, at most, two forms of school pinching, biting, pulling hair or boxing ears,
violence and not at the multiple dimensions forcing children to stay in uncomfortable
of that violence and the links between school positions, burning, scalding or forced inges-
violence and phenomena outside of schools, tion (for example, washing children’s mouths
such as violence in families and society as a out with soap or forcing them to swallow hot
whole. spices). 22
“She [the teacher] knows she is doing wrong, but she feels impunity.
She will go unpunished and she knows this.”
Girl, 15, Europe, 2005 IV
4
In the view of the Committee, corporal pun- even in countries such as China where they
ishment is invariably degrading. In addition to have been in place for many years.27 In Cam-
the physical aspects defined above, there are eroon, a 1998 law bans corporal punishment
many other non-physical forms of punishment in schools but a study covering four of Camer-
which are also cruel and degrading and thus oon’s provinces, published two years after the
incompatible with the CRC. These include, for ban, found teachers made no secret of using
example, punishment which belittles, humili- it for “cheekiness, disobedience and academic
ates, denigrates, scapegoats, threatens, scares or mistakes” and 97% of students reported that
ridicules the child. Corporal punishment, and they had been physically punished. 28 The con-
other forms of cruel or degrading punishment sequences of non-enforcement can be serious.
used by school heads and teachers, were fre-
Other forms of cruel or degrading punishment,
quently brought to the attention of the Study
not involving physical violence, have been much
by children during all nine Regional Consulta-
less studied. The Children’s Consultations
tions. The Children’s Consultation in Slovenia informing the Study revealed that other forms
headed its list of messages to be taken forward 117
of humiliation are very much on the minds

to the Europe and Central Asia Regional Con- of children and lodged in the minds of many
sultation with: “That there should be a prohi- adults with painful memories of how they or
bition of every kind of violence that happens in their classmates were humiliated by the words
schools in every country and … schools should and actions of school heads and teachers.
be happy places in which children are eager to
learn.”23 Similar messages came from children Cases have been reported of the use of corpo-
all over the world. ral punishment for reasons entirely beyond a
child’s control, such as failure of parents to pay
The key set of studies on corporal punish- school fees, 29 and also for academic failure or
ment 24 and a series of regional reports devel- to correct misbehaviour. In many situations,
oped for the Study25 demonstrate a clear trend it is not easy to disentangle these two motiva-
away from corporal punishment in schools in tions. Studies in Egypt,30 Lesotho31 and Togo,32
all regions, most notably in Europe. Of the and from Indian Ocean Island nations33 show
223 States and dependent territories tracked that corporal punishment is widely used to
by the Global Initiative to End All Corporal punish unsatisfactory academic performance,
Punishment of Children, 106 now have laws as elsewhere. Studies of seven Middle East-
banning corporal punishment in all schools ern and North African countries reported
and another seven have laws banning it in some that one-third of students said they had
parts of the country, for example where prov- been caned because their class or school had
inces of a federal State have their own laws, or not done well on examinations.34 Collective
in some schools, such as only those funded by punishment for unsatisfactory performance of
the State.26 However, laws banning corporal a whole class or whole school was also com-
punishment are often not effectively enforced, monly reported.
Links to discrimination and gender- burned or stabbed. The percentage of male
based violence students (26.9%) who had experienced one or
more of those forms was more than 2.5 times
There is evidence to suggest that corporal the percentage of female students (10.1%) who
punishment in schools is sometimes admin- had done so.39
istered with greater severity or frequency
to children from groups that are subject to School heads and teachers may apply corporal
stigma and discrimination in the whole of punishment and other forms of cruel or degrad-
society. In India, the 1998 Public Report on ing punishment in different ways, according
Basic Education (PROBE) found that higher to the sex of the child, and by so doing convey
caste teachers were inclined to humiliate chil- messages about what is expected of children
dren from Dalit (‘untouchables’, or the lowest and adults of each sex. In Botswana, for exam-
of the four castes) and other lower castes by ple, no male teacher but the head teacher can
labelling them as dull and incapable of being administer corporal punishment to a girl; and
118 educated.35 In the 23 states of the USA where in primary schools, boys can be beaten on the
corporal punishment in schools is still lawful, buttocks but girls only on the backs of their
African-American children are more often vic- calves and palms of their hands. Boys and
tims than others.36 Refugee children in Angola, girls may also be punished for different mis-
Zambia and South Africa also feel singled out demeanours so that, for example, a boy might
for corporal punishment.37 be punished for failure to perform an athletic
feat in a physical education class whereas a
In general, boys experience more frequent and girl might be punished for rowdy and ‘unla-
more severe corporal punishment than girls dylike behaviour’ that might be forgiven in a
but girls are far from immune. Surveys have boy. The fact that there are explicit or implicit
found that in Egypt, 80% of schoolboys and gender policies applying to corporal punish-
67% of schoolgirls had experienced corporal ment suggests that any strategies to eliminate
punishment in schools; in Barbados, 95% of corporal punishment should address gender
interviewed boys and 92% of interviewed girls differences, too.40
said they had experienced caning or flogging
Sexual and gender-based violence
in school.38 A survey covering 3,577 students
in six provinces of China found that 17.5% Gender-based violence stems from gender
had experienced one or more forms of corporal inequality, stereotypes and socially imposed
punishment by teachers before they were 16 roles. Sexual violence, including sexual harass-
years old; 15% had been hit, kicked or oth- ment towards girls may be motivated by the
erwise punished without the use of an object; desire to punish or humiliate girls because of
7% had been beaten with an object; 0.4% had their sex or sexuality, or by sexual interest and
been locked up in a small place, or tied up bravado. It also serves to intimidate, humili-
with ropes or chains; 0.1% had been choked, ate and diminish girls. This is demonstrated by
4
“Violence against children has incalculable costs to present and future generations and it undermines
human development. We recognize that virtually all forms of violence are linked to entrenched gender
roles and inequalities, and that the violation of the rights of children is linked to the status of women.”
The African Declaration on Violence against Girls, 2006 V
the widespread practice of blaming girls who In Europe and North America, revelation of
are victims of rape, and that where gender dis- the widespread sexual abuse of boys by male
crimination is an unquestioned norm, blaming teachers (often clerics) in church-run schools
girls may extend to almost any kind of sexual has only occurred since the 1990s in the pres-
harassment, assault or exploitation. ence of better protections against, and systems
of, reporting abuse – often decades after the
Studies suggest that sexual harassment of abuse took place. Previously, children who
schoolgirls is common throughout the world, were sexually assaulted or exploited by teach-
to varying degrees by teachers themselves as ers were too ashamed to tell anyone what had
well as by students, and that it may be par- happened, knowing that their stories would not
ticularly common and extreme in places where be believed or that, if believed, they would be
other forms of school violence are also preva-
blamed for attracting the sexual attention of
lent.41,42,43,44,45 Teachers often see the sexual
other males. A recent study found that nearly
harassment among students – most often girls
4,400 priests (4% of all priests ministering
– as a normal part of school life, and there- 119
during that period) had been accused of sexu-
fore ignore it. Under these circumstances
ally abusing nearly 10,700 children, in acts that

it is difficult for students to report it. In the
took place between 1950 and 2002, and that
Middle East, sexual harassment of girls is not
the vast majority of the children were boys.49
commonly reported, perhaps because girls are
commonly separated from boys in schools, Harmful cultural stereotypes that demean
or also perhaps because girls are reluctant to children because of their sex or their known
speak out. or suspected sexuality create environments in
which children can be abused with impunity,
Until recently, there was almost no public dis-
including by adults in positions of trust and
cussion of sexual abuse of schoolgirls in Japan
authority such as clerics in religious schools.
and victims rarely came forward. Their shame
In 2004, Pakistan’s Minister of State for Reli-
was profound and they knew that if they
gious Affairs stunned the nation by reporting
talked about what had happened, their reputa-
that, so far that year, 500 complaints of sexual
tions would have been tainted for the rest of
abuse by clerics in religious schools had been
their lives.46 Similar attitudes are still common
registered and that, in the previous year, 2,000
in many countries. A study in Ethiopia, for
complaints had been registered, although there
example, found that students attributed the
had been no successful prosecutions so far.50, 51
sexual harassment of girls to the way the girls
dressed and not to boys’ attitudes toward
girls.47 In West and Central Africa, teachers
justified sexual exploitation of female students
by saying that their clothes and behaviour
were provocative, and that the teachers were
far from home and in sexual need.48
HIV and sexual violence regions), the Regional Consultation held for the
Study identified sexual harassment and abuse
In sub-Saharan African countries, the aver- by students and teachers, usually male, against
age rate of HIV prevalence among girls and female students as major problems. Participants
young women 15 to 24 years old is now three
of the Consultation attested to cases of teach-
times higher than the average rate among
ers promising higher grades in exchange for
boys and young men of that age.52 Sexual vio-
sex with girls, and also that girls who become
lence is increasingly recognised, although still
pregnant as a result of sexual abuse by teachers
under-studied, as an important factor in these
increases. or students are often expelled from school. In
some countries, marriage of a pregnant girl to
An analysis of data from the Global School- her abuser may absolve him of legal responsi-
Based Student Health Survey (GSHS) found bility, increasing the risks of forced marriage.
that in Namibia, 19% of both boys and girls
answered ‘yes’ when asked if they had “ever been A study conducted by UNICEF found that
120 such sexual abuse was common in all countries
physically forced to have sex.” In Swaziland, 9%
of boys and 10% of girls said ‘yes’; in Uganda, of West and Central Africa, and that Minis-
13% of boys and 25% of girls; in Zambia, 30% tries of Education were aware of it and con-
of boys and 31% of girls; in Zimbabwe, 11% sidered it to be one of the main reasons why
of boys and 14% of girls.53 In 1999, research girls drop out of school.58 A Human Rights
based on a sample of 10,000 schoolgirls in Watch study found that sexual harassment
Kenya found that one-third were sexually active and abuse of girls by teachers and students
and that, of those, 40% said their first encoun- in South African schools was widespread and
ter was forced, usually by a male student.54 that girls were raped in school toilets, empty
More recent research in Burkina Faso, Ghana, classrooms, dormitories and hostels.59 In a
Malawi, and Uganda found, however, that recent survey in Ghana, 6% of schoolgirls
forced sex and vulnerability to HIV infection said teachers had blackmailed them, threaten-
were more prevalent among married adolescents ing to give them lower grades if they refused
than among unmarried adolescents.55 In many to have sexual relations. Two-thirds of them
sub-Saharan African countries, the majority of had not reported the incidents due to feelings
adolescent girls are not in school and between of shame, advice that they should be toler-
one-quarter and one-half of them are married, ant, and their belief that no action would be
often to much older men.56 In Ethiopia, girls
taken against the culprits. A small percentage
often see attendance at school as a way to avoid
of boys had experienced sexual harassment,
early and unwanted marriage.57
too. Of the boys, 24% admitted they had par-
Forced sex is a risk factor for HIV/AIDS. This ticipated in rape, including gang rape. Of the
is a growing concern in the context of schools girls, 14% said they had been raped by boys
In Eastern and Southern Africa (as in other close to them.60
“I took a folder, wrote down dates and times every time I was harassed. I took it down to the principal.
He said, ‘Son you have too much time on your hands to worry about these folders.
4
I have more important things to do than to worry for what happened two weeks ago’. I told him,
‘I wanted to give you an idea of what goes on, the day-to-day harassment.
’ He took the folder away from me and threw it in the trash.”
Student, North America, bullied for allegedly being gay, 2005 VI
Elsewhere, more general studies into sexual schools to children’s well-being, and a increas-
abuse have found that teachers are among those ing body of literature examining its causes,
who sexually coerce or abuse children and young prevalence and impacts on both victims and
people. In one such study, 6% of more than perpetrators.66,67 Although bullying is a world-
2,000 college students in the Hong Kong Special wide problem, the literature pertains mostly
Administrative Region of China said they had to the industrialised world. Emerging from
been abused before they turned 17. Eleven was Scandinavia in the 1970s and then from the
the average age at which the abuse had occurred UK, Japan, Australia, and the USA, this body
and teachers were the abusers in 7% of all cases, of literature has analysed the characteristics
although family members or family friends of bullies and victims, and the range of per-
were more commonly identified as abusers.61 sonal and social risk factors that contribute
A UNICEF study covering Nepal found that to bullying. It has also broadened the defini-
9% of children had experienced severe sexual tion of bullying to include more subtle and
abuse (kissing of sensitive parts, oral sex and complex forms of psychological violence,
penetration), and that 18% of the perpetrators and extended analysis beyond examining the 121
were teachers.62 In a submission to this Study,

characteristics of bullies and victims to look-
the International Rescue Committee reported
ing at their upbringing and their family and
that sexual abuse against girls is a significant
social environments, including school envi-
problem in refugee schools where the teachers
ronments. Bullying is also distinguished from
are male.63 The Regional Consultation in Latin
America reported that girls in the Dominican other forms of violence because it represents
Republic, Honduras, Guatemala, Mexico and a pattern of behaviour rather than an isolated
Panama Nicaragua experience sexual coercion event. The literature also reveals how almost
from teachers, sometimes with threats that their all bullying is sexual or gender-based. This has
grades will suffer if they do not cooperate.64 changed the way bullying is perceived, so that
responses also target the pattern.
On the positive side, the Regional Consulta-
tion in Eastern and Southern Africa found Bullying that targets the child’s sex
that countries are responding with changes in or sexuality
law, policy and practice. In South Africa and Teachers and other children commonly put
Zambia, for example, ‘defilement’ of under-age pressure on children to make them conform to
girls is treated as a serious offence by courts of cultural values and social attitudes that define
law, and may result in sentences of up to life what it means to be ‘masculine’ or ‘feminine’.
imprisonment, while pregnant girls are given a A widespread method is to use words suggest-
leave of absence from school.65 ing that a boy is acting like a girl or may be gay,
and that a girl is acting like a boy or may be
Bullying
lesbian. Such words may be used jokingly, but
Since the 1970s, there has been growing rec- nevertheless convey the message that it would
ognition of the threat posed by bullying in be very bad or wrong if it were true. Such jibes
may be used maliciously, to punish or bully past two months, with the percentage ranging
children because they are ‘too effeminate’, ‘too from 15% in Sweden to 64% in Lithuania (see
masculine’, or known or suspected to be gay Figure 4.1).72 Recent surveys done in devel-
or lesbian, or else just different in other disap- oping countries as part of the ongoing GSHS
proved ways. found similarly wide-ranging percentages of
children saying that they had been bullied
When boys call girls ‘sluts’, ‘lesbians’ or simi-
within the past 30 days (see Figure 4.2).73
lar terms that question girls’ sexual morals or
The differing ‘past two months’ and ‘past
sexuality, they may be expressing resentment
30 days’ time-frames mean that the findings
of girls in general or anger, frustration or jeal-
are not strictly comparable but even where
ousy. A study in South Africa found that girls
time-frames are the same, country compari-
who complained of being sexually harassed
sons should be made with caution because
or abused by male students were often called
the reported incidence of bullying tends to
lesbians.68 Similarly, boys may be called gay if
they show too much respect for girls and do increase as specialists in education and child-
122
not participate in other boys’ sexual harass- hood development make the public more
ment of girls. aware of the issue.74
Bullying of known, suspected or alleged gay The 2001/02 HBSC survey found that bully-
and lesbian students can take the form of ing decreased as children grew older and that,
taunts, obscene notes or graffiti, unwelcome while similar percentages of boys and girls said
sexual advances, and mock rapes and can lead they had been bullied, more boys admitted
to brutal physical attacks. Though such bul- to bullying others. While bullying within sex
lying is known to be common in many coun- groups is common, when it occurs across sex
tries, most of the literature on the subject groups girls are much more likely to be bullied
pertains to Europe and North America.69,70 by boys than vice versa.75 Recent studies sug-
In many countries, homosexual activity is gest that around half of all children involved
a criminal offence or, at least, highly stig- in bullying are both victims and perpetrators,
matised with the result that bullying and and that they are the most troubled of all chil-
other forms of violence towards these groups dren involved in bullying.76
receives little official attention, and are driven
Bullying is just beginning to emerge as an issue
underground.71
in the Philippines, Thailand and other coun-
The extent of bullying tries of the East Asia and the Pacific region.
The 2001/02 Health Behaviour in School- In a survey in the Lao People’s Democratic
aged Children (HBSC) survey in developed Republic, 98% of girls and 100% of boys
and transitional countries in Central and said they had witnessed bullying in schools
Eastern Europe found that 35% of schoolchil- and, while the precise nature or seriousness
dren said they had been bullied within the of the bullying was not clear, the victims were
Schools, that are supposed to be “places of learning, turned out to be a nightmare because there is
violence and it is unbearable.”
Child, Eastern and Southern Africa, 2005 VII
4
mainly girls or children from ethnic minori- to remain anonymous, it allows for quick dis-
ties.77 A study among primary school students tribution and replication of messages, and it
in the fourth grade in the Republic of Korea can turn masses of children into bystanders or
concluded that bullying is common in schools witnesses of non-physical bullying of a highly
and arises from social conditions and bullies’ malicious nature as perpetrators hide behind
emotional problems.78 Reports from South their anonymity.
Asia indicated severe discrimination in the
classroom, amounting to abuse and exclusion, How schools fail to discourage bullying
Strong leadership, an ethos of caring, and
against children from minorities or low castes.
clear and consistently enforced policies can
A consultation on violence in schools held
reduce the incidence and severity of violence
through UNICEF’s Voices of Youth forum
in schools of all kinds and even prevent it from
also confirmed the widespread experience of
happening. Unfortunately, most schools apply
bullying in schools in the Middle East and
quick-fix solutions or deal with the problem
North Africa, and led to calls from children
superficially. They may expel perpetrators 123
to stop it.79
rather than attempt to change their behaviour,

The most common forms of bullying are which only transfers the problem to another
verbal and, if left unchecked, verbal bully- school or the wider community. They may
ing can lead to extreme violence. Some of the include anti-violence material in non-compul-
recent impetus for studies of bullying came sory courses or ad hoc lessons, but it is usually
from the notorious school shootings in the insufficient to impart the knowledge and skills
USA and Canada during the late 1990s. One teachers and students need to understand and
investigation found that an inability to cope prevent violence.85
with social ridicule and personal rejection
School bullying usually occurs when no teach-
may have fuelled those outbursts.80 A study in
ers are present and when student bystanders
Israel found that bullies’ feelings of suffering,
neither intervene nor inform teachers or other
humiliation and anger often explain why they
school staff. A Canadian study found that in
move from verbal to physical violence.81
57% of cases where bystanders intervened the
The Internet and mobile phones have pro- bullying stopped.86 North American children
vided new opportunities for bullying through participating in Children’s Forums held as part
e-mails, online chat lines, personal web pages, of this Study suggested turning bystanders into
text messages, and transmission of images.82,83 defenders through peer support schemes.
A survey of students in Canada found that Fighting, physical assault, and gangs
boys confessed to cyber-bullying more often
than girls, and were also more frequently the Fighting generally involves conflict generall
victims of cyber-bullying.84 Unique aspects of involves two or more people where it is not easy
cyber-bullying are that it allows perpetrators to make distinctions between perpetrators and
FIGURE 4.1
The percentage of children aged 11, 13 and 15 years who reported

having been bullied within the past couple of months
64
Lithuania (N=5630) 65
Portugal (N=2919) 44
56
45
Latvia (N=3442) 52
48
Ukraine (N=4038) 50
41
Austria (N=4440) 48
42
Estonia (N=3979) 47
39
Switzerland (N=4652) 42
Greenland (N=832) 46
41
35
Russia (N=8026) 40
30
Belgium (N=10556) 40
124 Germany (N=5582) 34
40
37
Canada (N=4331) 38
33
USA (N=4956) 36
Norway (N=4955) 30
35
France (N=8103) 36
34
Poland (N=6351) 27
33
United Kingdom (N=14122) 32
32
27
Netherlands (N=4230) 32
Denmark (N=4646) 32
31
25
Italy (N=4353) 31
25
Former Yugoslav Rep. of Macedonia (N=4145) 31
Malta (N=1945) 18
30
Ireland (N=2830) 24
29
21
Croatia (N=4384) 28
25
Spain (N=5785) 27
21
Finland (N=5336) 27
23
Greece (N=3788) 26 Females
24
Hungary (N=4145) 23
23 Males
Slovenia (N=3936) 22
15
Czech Republic (N=4970) 17
15
Sweden (N=3828) 15
0 20 40 60 80 100
Source: Analysis of data from the Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children: a WHO Cross-National Study 2001/2
(http://www.hbsc.org) and Currie C et al. (2001). Health Behaviour in School-aged Children: A WHO Cross-National study.
Research Protocol for the 2001/2002 Survey. Edinburgh, Child and Adolescent Health Research Unit, University of Edinburgh.
4
FIGURE 4.2
The percentage of children aged 13–15 who had been

bullied at least once within the last 30 days
67
Zambia (N=2257)
63
51
Zimbabwe (Harare) (N=1997) 60
57
Kenya (N=3691) 57
48
Namibia (N=6367) 57
52
Botswana (N=2197) 53
Uganda (N=3215)
41 125
50

42
Chile (Metropolitan Region) (N=2111) 50
43
Jordan (N=2457) 50
38
Swaziland (N=7341) 43
38
Guyana (N=1212) 43
29
Lebanon (N=5115) 39
36
Venezuela (Lara) (N=2166) 37
37
Females
Philippines (N=7338) 36
Males
37
Oman (N=2979)
35
17
United Arab Emirates (N=15790) 25
17
China (Beijing) (N=2348) 23
0 20 40 60 80
Percentage
Source: Analysis provided to the Study by the Global School-Based Student Health Survey:
The World Health Organization (http://www.who.int/chp/gshs or http://www.cdc.gov/gshs)
for surveys conducted in 2003-5
“Two kids were fighting and one of them pulled out a gun…because there were too many people around
them…he didn’t do anything, but I think he would have shot him if there was no one around.”
Boy, 11, North America, 2005 VIII
victims. Bullying can lead to fighting, with or schools, and accounts for only a tiny propor-
without weapons. Physical assault can occur tion of criminal violence in the whole of soci-
as a separate phenomenon, as in the case of ety. Media attention to extreme events such as
an attack by one person on another driven by knifings or shootings in schools has created a
inflamed feelings of anger or jealousy. It may distorted impression of the prevalence of such
also be driven by general feelings of rage, frus- violence, but it has also prompted enquiry into
tration or humiliation unprovoked by anything the connections between violence in schools
the victim may have done, as in the case of vio- and criminal violence by juveniles and adults
lent sexual assault and random shootings. outside schools.
Analysis of data from the 2001/02 HBSC The testimony of children, parents, teachers
survey revealed that anywhere from 25% of and others during the Children’s Forums and
school-aged children in Finland to 49% of Regional Consultations held as part of this
school-aged children in Lithuania had engaged Study suggests that extreme violence in schools
126 in physical fights during the past 12 months needs to be studied more thoroughly. A study
and that physical fights were far more common in Jamaica found that 61% of students had
among boys than girls (see Figure 4.3).87 Anal- witnessed acts of violence at school, 29% of
ysis of data from more recent surveys done as those acts had caused injuries, and that many
part of the GSHS suggests that, in develop- children felt unsafe in schools.91 In Jamaica,
ing countries, fighting is more common, and the homicide rate was 55 per 100,000 in 2004,
girls from developing countries are more likely and 25% of those arrested for all violent crimes
to participate in it than girls in developed and were school-aged children, mainly boys. Most
transitional countries (see Figure 4.3).88 of those crimes took place away from schools;
however, a separate study has concluded that
Boys tend to engage in physical fighting and crimes that did occur in schools were due to
assault against each other as they seek to live up factors in wider Jamaican society, suggesting
to stereotypes of males as being powerful and the need for comprehensive solutions.92
strong.89 Students at a Kenyan university were
asked to record their ‘Memories of Childhood Weapons in schools
Violence’. What they recalled most vividly was A recent nationwide study in the USA found
violence by teachers, but they described bully- that from 3% to 10% of students carried weap-
ing and fighting among children in ways that ons on school property, while 12% to 25%
suggested they were barely worthy of recollec- carried weapons outside school. The same
tion and just accepted parts of school culture.90 study found that 13% of students had been
Homicide and serious injury involved in fights on school property at least
once in the previous year and 33% had been
Homicide and assault resulting in serious involved in fights outside school. The study
physical injury– is comparatively rare in found that 5% of all students had stayed away
4
FIGURE 4.3
The percentage of children aged 11, 13 and 15 years old who reported
having been in a physical fight within the last 12 months
*Source: Analysis of data from the
Health Behaviour in School-Aged
China (Beijing) (N=2348)* 6
26 Children: a WHO Cross-National
Finland (N=5363)** 13
23
37 Study 2001/2 (http://www.hbsc.org)
Swaziland (N=7341)* 37
Uganda (N=3215)* 32
39
and Currie C et al. (2001) Health
Former Yugoslav Rep. of Macedonia (N=4147)** 15 Behaviour in School-aged Children:
40
Germany (N=5610)** 16
40 A WHO Cross-National study.
Greenland (N=853)** 24
43
Zimbabwe (Harare) (N=1997)* 31
45 Research Protocol for the 2001/2002
Venezuela (Lara) (N=2166)* 12
16
45 Survey. Edinburgh: Child and
Switzerland (N=4660)** 46
Guyana (N=1212)* 23
47
Adolescent Health Research Unit,
35
Oman (N=2979)* 47 University of Edinburgh. Surveyed
Canada (N=4310)** 24
48 students aged 13-15.
USA (N=4923)** 25
Sweden (N=3810)** 20
48 127
50
Zambia (N=2257)* 56

22 50 **Source: Analysis provided to the
Netherlands (N=4213)** 50
Kenya (N=3691)* 46 51 Study by the Global School-Based
Philippines (N=7338)* 51 Student Health Survey: The World
20 51
Portugal (N=2901)** 53
Denmark (N=4630)** 24 Health Organization (http://www.
54
France (N=8140)** 21
54 who.int/chp/gshs or http://www.cdc.
Botswana (N=2197)* 42
Chile (Metropolitan Region) (N=2111)* 26
54 gov/gshs) for surveys conducted in
55
Norway (N=4937)** 19
55
2003-5. Surveyed students aged 11,
Spain (N=5802)** 27
55 13 and 15.
Ireland (N=2857)** 24
56
Italy (N=4355)** 21
57
Croatia (N=4390)** 18 Females
58
Namibia (N=6367)* 45
58 Males
United Kingdom (N=14297)** 28
58
United Arab Emirates (N=15790)* 29
58
Austria (N=4449)** 20
58
Slovenia (N=3935)** 24
58
Malta (N=1961)** 24
59
Greece (N=3789)** 29
60
Poland (N=6359)** 18
60
Belgium (N=10511)** 28
61
Latvia (N=3450)** 19
62
Ukraine (N=4050)** 18
63
Estonia (N=3977)** 32
64
Hungary (N=4132)** 32
65
Lebanon (N=5115)* 28
65
Russia (N=8028)** 22
65
Jordan (N=2457)* 29
66
Lithuania (N=5639)** 31
67
Czech Republic (N=4978)** 27
69
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Percentage
from school for at least one of the previous allel growth in gang violence in and outside
30 days because they were worried about their schools.99 (See the chapter on violence against
safety.93 In the USA, some research has sug- children in the community.)
gested that in schools where boys are carry-
ing weapons, girls are also more likely to carry IMPACTS OF VIOLENCE
weapons.94
AT SCHOOL
Studies from Canada suggest weapon-carrying
This section outlines the possible impacts of
in schools is as common in Canada as it is in
violence at school. However, it is important to
the USA.95 An analysis of school suspensions
note that these consequences are not inevitable.
in Nova Scotia found that around half were
In fact, they are largely preventable and can be
due to carrying a weapon. Whether weapon-
significantly reduced by effective interventions,
carrying is a rising or decreasing phenomenon
which are discussed in subsequent sections.
in North American schools is a subject of
128 debate. The same is true of Western European
HEALTH IMPACTS
schools, though evidence suggests that physi-
cal violence of all kinds has remained fairly Violence in school can have a physical impact,
constant.96 In other regions, weapons are often cause psychological distress, permanent physi-
associated with gang violence. cal disability and long-term physical or mental
ill-health. Physical impacts are the most obvi-
The development of peer groups is a natural
ous and may include mild or serious wounds,
part of school life, but gangs also develop in
bruises, fractures, and deaths by homicide or
the school environment. These groups are dis-
suicide. Sexual assault may lead to unwanted
tinguished from other peer groups by more
and early pregnancy and sexually transmit-
formal structures and rituals. Gang violence
ted infections, including HIV/AIDS.100 The
in schools would appear to be most prevalent
psychological impacts may include immedi-
in places where violence in the whole of soci-
ate impairment of emotional development and
ety is common. Participants in the Caribbean
long-term mental distress and ill-health, which
Regional Consultation for this Study reported
can contribute to physical ill-health as well.
that gangs, gang violence outside schools and
gang violence in schools have all grown in par- A number of studies have shown correlations
allel. These participants reported that gang between corporal punishment and poor mental
violence in schools includes severe beatings, health.101 While most have focused on corpo-
stabbings and shootings, and tends to be more ral punishment within families, some have
severe than other forms of violence in schools focused on corporal punishment in schools.
because it is associated with trafficking of illicit One European study on personal histories of
drugs.97,98 Participants in the Latin American depressed children found that corporal pun-
Regional Consultation reported similar par- ishment in schools was the strongest past pre-
4
“Tolerance of violence against children is a major obstacle to health and development in Europe. We
cannot afford to let this violence continue unchallenged; we must act now to change the conditions that
lead to the victimization of children.”
Dr Marc Danzon, Regional Director for Europe, WHO
dictor of their current depression.102 It is now physical and mental health, especially if that
recognised that peer violence among school- violence is repeated or severe, and if victims
children also has significant impacts on both lack adequate support.103,104
A study of bullying in 28 European countries
FIGURE 4.4 found that physical symptoms of being bullied
included headache, stomachache, backache,
The percentage of children reporting to and dizziness, while psychological symptoms
have a ‘high life satisfaction’ and included bad temper and feeling nervous,
‘excellent health’ among children aged lonely and helpless. The same study found
11, 13 and 15 years that, according to children’s own reports, the
50
more often they had been bullied, the more
symptoms of ill-health they had. This ‘dose–
response’ relationship was similar in boys and
girls.105 An analysis of data from 30 industri- 129
40 40
High Life Satisfaction alised and transitional countries covered by

36 Excellent Health the HBSC study found that children who said
they were bullies or the victims of bullying
30 29 were significantly less likely than other chil-
27
dren to say that they enjoyed ‘excellent health’
and a ‘very satisfied life’ (see Figure 4.4).106
Children who said they were both bullies and
20
victims of bullying were the least likely of all
to say they enjoyed either of these things.
10 SOCIAL IMPACTS
Studies from many different countries confirm
that the social impacts of corporal punishment
0 N=75507 N=73785 N=77884 N=74227 and all other forms of violence against chil-
Neither bullied nor Bullied or bully others dren at school are invariably negative. A recent
bully others
study in Cameroon, for example, found that
Source: Analysis of data from the Health Behaviour in corporal punishment in home and school is
School-Aged Children: a WHO Cross-National Study likely to block the development of social skills.
2001/2 (http://www.hbsc.org) and Currie C et al. (2001). Victims of corporal punishment are likely to
Health Behaviour in School-aged Children: A WHO
Cross-National study. Research Protocol for the 2001/2002
become passive and overly cautious, and to
Survey. Edinburgh, Child and Adolescent Health Research fear free expression of their ideas and feelings
Unit, University of Edinburgh. while, at the same time, they may become per-
petrators of psychological violence.107
“I didn’t go back to school for one month after I came forward. Everything reminds me,
wearing my school uniform reminds me of what happened. I have dreams. He is in the classroom
laughing at me. I sometimes have to pass down the hall where his classroom was.
I thought I could see him, still there. I was scared he’ ll still be there.”
Girl, South Africa, 2001 IX
Some research suggests that children who are lower marks than other children.114 There also
physically punished are less likely than other appears to be a relationship between bullying,
children to internalise moral values. They are absence of bonding with other children, and
less inclined to resist temptation, to engage in absenteeism.115
altruistic behaviour, to empathise with others
or to exercise moral judgement of any kind.108 An analysis of data collected by the Trends in
International Mathematics and Science Study
They are more inclined to engage in disorderly
(TIMSS) focused on eighth and ninth grade
and aggressive conduct such as hitting their sib-
maths and science students in 49 countries,
lings, parents, schoolmates and boyfriends or
and found that in schools where there was a
girlfriends.109 And they may become adults who
heavy emphasis on competition and large gaps
use corporal punishment against their own chil-
between high and low scorers, students were
dren, and so pass on the habits of violence.110
more likely to engage in violence against each
North American and European studies suggest other.116 Another analysis of the same data found
130 that school bullying, whether the children are no strong relationship between this violence in
victims or perpetrators or both, can be a predic- schools and the patterns of violence or lack of
tor of future anti-social and criminal behaviour, social integration in the wider society.117
including intimate partner violence, involve-
A number of studies in South Asia indicate that
ment in fights and self-destructive behaviour
violence at school, notably corporal punish-
such as smoking and drinking to excess.111,112 ment, leads to students dropping out of school.
A study in Nepal, where harsh corporal pun-
EDUCATIONAL IMPACTS ishment is routine, found that 14% of school
In the Regional Consultations for this Study, dropouts can be attributed to fear of teachers.118
physical and psychological punishment, verbal A Save the Children submission to this Study
abuse, bullying and sexual violence in schools found that children in South Asian countries
were unanimous in their opinion that corpo-
were repeatedly reported as reasons for absen-
ral punishment is a major reason why children
teeism, dropping-out and lack of motivation
drop out of school. They also said that regular
for academic achievement. In a Save the Chil-
beatings result in a loss of interest in studies,
dren submission to the Study, children from
and a drop in academic performance.119
Bangladesh said that physical and cruel or
degrading punishment affected their school Studies have found that, in South Africa, vic-
performance and that they valued kind and tims of sexual violence are greeted with such
comforting teachers who explained rather than hostility after they report the violence that
drilled.113 The educational impacts of bullying they leave schools for periods of time, change
have been less well researched than other psy- schools or quit schools entirely, while the teach-
chological and social impacts, but it is known ers or students accused of abusing them remain
that both victims and perpetrators tend to get in place.120,121,122,123 In most African, Asian and
4
Caribbean countries, pregnancy resulting from abuse, harsh, lax or inconsistent discipline, or
sexual assault and coercion often forces girls to poor parental monitoring.
quit school and miss out on opportunities for
education and compromises their future. A study in the USA interviewed 1,467 children
from 12 to 17 years old about experiences of vic-
timisation over time. The study suggested that
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING some children may be ‘poly-victims’ (victims
TO VIOLENCE of different types of violence), who reported,
for example, corporal punishment by parents,
RISK FACTORS sexual abuse by a relative, physical assault by
Risk factors make it more likely that a child a peer, and bullying by peers in school. Persis-
will be a victim or perpetrator of violence in tence of poly-victimisation was associated with
schools, while protective factors make it less the child scoring high on anger and aggres-
likely. Both individual and external characteris- sion scales, family problems, and having expe-
tics (including beyond the school), are relevant rienced recent life adversities. Having more 131
friends was associated with decreased levels of

to increasing or decreasing the likelihood that a
child will be involved in school violence or seri- violence.130
ously harmed by it when it occurs.124,125,126 Violence in schools tends to be less about iso-
lated incidents and more about patterns of vio-
Research on risk factors for violence against
lence. Without proper systems in place, these
children specific to schools is lacking for the
patterns become normalised and can escalate.
full range of international contexts, and tends
No single factor or combination of factors
to focus on peer violence. In general, research
protects children from violence. Risk factors
from mainly industrialised countries suggests
do not operate in isolation, and their impact
that influences tend to change with develop-
can be mediated by protective factors. The
mental stage: for example, the influence of
concept of resilience involves a number of pro-
family is stronger for young children, while
tective factors, and has emerged in the litera-
the influence of peers is stronger for adoles- ture as important in preventing violence and a
cents.127 Consistently emerging from research number of other risk behaviours.
as significant risk factors specific to schools
are poor academic performance, high absen-
RESILIENCE AND OTHER
teeism, leaving school early, and unstructured
PROTECTIVE FACTORS
free time.128,129 In addition, many of the factors
identified in research about other aspects of life A child’s resilience can be defined as the child’s
are also likely to be relevant to schools – for capacity “to cope successfully with everyday
example, pro-violence attitudes, risk-taking, challenges including life transitions, times of
weak social ties, affiliation with anti-social cumulative stress and significant adversity or
peers, poor parent–child relationships, drug risk. Typically, resilient children are recog-
“If they [kids] are beaten at home, they are going to beat, that is, if their parents ill-treat
them or don’t talk to them, kids will beat others because they are beaten.
They are going to drag with them what they see at home. This is the basis of violence.”
Adolescent girls, Latin America, 2005 X
nised by their high self-esteem, internal locus Many of the protective factors identified in
of control, optimism and clear aspirations, other settings are also relevant to the school
achievement and goal-orientation, reflection environment, although research across inter-
and problem-solving capacity, healthy com- national contexts is lacking. For example, rela-
munication patterns, and the capacity to seek tionships with caring and mentoring adults
out mentoring adult relationships.”131 appear to promote resilience through model-
ling of pro-social behaviour, providing guid-
Schools can play a critical role in building ance, and offering protection – all of which
children’s resilience and feelings of well-being, good teachers do on a daily basis.136. Having
which have also been linked to the reduced the perception that clear sanctions will follow
likelihood of being victimised.132 Adults and transgressions at school is also protective,
peers in children’s families and communities underlining the importance of having clear
begin building, or failing to build, children’s codes of conduct and making sure they are
resilience from birth. Good parenting in stable enforced. In addition, schools can promote the
132 family units is critical. The power of early development of strong peer group and social
parent–child bonds established within warm
bonds to build resilience, as well as build

and supportive family relationships, along with empathy, conflict management skills and criti-
high levels of parental care during early child- cal thinking.137,138
hood, are important in building resilience.133
But even when families or communities fail, SYSTEMATIC RESPONSE
schools can compensate, especially when they TO PATTERNS OF VIOLENCE
provide strong support from the early years.
Schools can also provide bridges between While support from their families and peers
children and their families and communities, is critical to making children less vulnerable
helping families and communities to under- to violence in schools, an increasing body of
stand how they affect children and to acquire research confirms that the systematic attention
the skills to become more supportive. to the behaviour of the school heads, teachers
and other school staff is also critical. If they
Studies from Australia suggest the impor- engage in abusive behaviour and show dis-
tance of comprehensive and whole of school respect for the rights, comfort and safety of
approaches in reducing risk factors and increas- others, then children will follow their exam-
ing protective factors simultaneously. Support ple. Many North American studies have found
from teachers, parents and other adults has a direct correlation between their lack of firm
been identified as important, as well as having intervention and the prevalence of violence
supportive peers and belonging to support- among children.139 A study in Yemen found
ive pro-social groups. Such a whole of school the same correlation.140 Studies in Botswana
approach has also shown improvements in stu- and Ghana have found that when teachers tol-
dent mental health.134,135 erate sex segregation and tension between the
“I am disabled and I hate children {who} tell me so.”
Child, of 8-10 years, South Asia, 2005 XI
4
sexes, they help to sustain cultures of bullying in a manner acceptable to adults is more likely
and sexual and gender-based violence.141 to be administered by threats, slaps and other
physical means.144 As early as pre-school age,
In the Americas, South Africa and places children develop attitudes to others, includ-
of violent civil conflict such as Nepal and ing discriminatory attitudes, and these tend
Sierra Leone, however, much of the violence to become more pronounced during primary
among children in schools enters from the school, perhaps evolving into bullying (or being
violent world surrounding the schools. Social
victimised). There may also be gender-based
upheaval and displacement combined with low
violence of a verbal nature at early ages, and it
academic achievement may lead to students
may evolve until, towards or after puberty, it
becoming violent. In the Occuppied Palestin-
becomes threats of physical violence. Simon’s
ian Territory and Algeria, boys who transfer
story illustrates how each child’s experience of
from other schools and repeat grades are more
violence is unique but changes over the years
prone to violence than their peers.142
(see box).
133
There is evidence to suggest that fierce peer
Individual characteristics of the child can also

competition, gender-based violence and gang
increase vulnerability. According to North
violence within schools are all, to some extent,
American researchers, children with disabili-
related to the stresses that go with moderni-
ties and learning difficulties are often targeted
sation and industrialisation. These phenom-
for exclusion, discrimination and bullying.146
ena are all more commonly reported from the
Children with speech defects or whose move-
urban areas of industrialised or rapidly indus-
ments are affected by conditions such as mul-
trialising countries than from rural areas of
tiple dystrophy are also frequent targets of bul-
less developed countries. Country responses
to questionnaires distributed to Governments lying. Much of the evidence, however, derives
by this Study indicate that countries in rap- from schools for children with special needs.
idly industrialising regions, such as East Asia, Schools with explicit policies of integration
are just beginning to become concerned about and inclusion tend to focus more on reducing
bullying and other forms of violence among stigma, discrimination and bullying of these
children.143 children, although conclusive evidence is not
yet available.147 Data from developing countries
are sparse, but a study from South Asia found
CHILDREN WHO ARE VULNERABLE
TO VIOLENCE that children with disabilities are sometimes
referred to by their disability as if it were their
Children’s vulnerability to violence changes name.148 Studies covering seven countries in
as they grow older. During infancy and young the Middle East and North Africa found that
childhood the child’s cognitive ability is less children with learning difficulties were at high
developed and activity level is high, so train- risk of being both the victims and perpetrators
ing to avoid danger and self-harm or to behave of bullying inside and outside schools.149
SIMON’S STORY: A CASE STUDY ON A CHILD’S LIFE-
CYCLE AND VIOLENCE IN SCHOOLS
Day-care centre: “I hated the girls and used to tease them.”

“My mother enrolled me in a nursery school. Immediately I became rational, I preoccupied
my mind with constructive things, (like) building my own toy cars as I had learnt from
other children. I hated the girls and used to tease them. On seeing me, they would run away
because I could beat one for no reason. A Catholic sister came to our nursery to teach. She
introduced common games like hiding and seeking, songs in which we played together with
the girls. Surprisingly, I came to love all the girls and even sang songs praising their names
and comparing them to roses.”
Middle primary school: “We always anticipated being beaten for the slightest
error.”
134 “Sometimes we were beaten for having dirty collars on our shirts, (or) long nails. The punish-
ment was very severe. (It is impossible for) the shirt of an active standard 4, 5, 6 student to
be sparkling white at 4 p.m. unless the boy/girl is sick. My maths teacher in class eight made
us kneel on a Saturday for 2 hours for failing a sum. We could be told to kneel on pebbles.”
Upper primary school: “Students had to speak English all the time to avoid teach-
ers’ wrath.”
“In my fourth year in my primary school, there was a declaration that all students of upper
level (4–8) had to be speaking English. On speaking mother tongue, one’s name was writ-
ten down by the class prefect and the list of those who spoke Kiswahili or mother tongue
forwarded to teachers. A meeting was called and those appearing on the list punished by
receiving six strokes of the cane for class 4 pupils, 7 for class 5 and 10 for class 6 to 8. The
teachers stood in a row and each could whip you with all his might. Surprisingly, no female
teacher could join the male teachers nor be around. Tears could be shed and all forms of
struggle and screams. There was nothing but fear and hatred.”145
“My classmates knew my parents had died, they caused problems for me. I was segregated. I was known
as ‘The Son of AIDS’ and ‘TASO Child.’ The kids wouldn’t want to sit next to me.”
Boy, receiving assistance with school fees from the AIDS Service Organization, 2004 XII
4
‘Outsider’ children, including those who are dance is already low. 153,154 In Africa, children
refugees or from indigenous minorities, are orphaned or otherwise affected by HIV and
especially likely to be excluded, discriminated AIDS may suffer stigma in school while they
against and bullied. Evidence from Australia are also shouldering extra burdens of grief,
suggests that Aboriginal students are more poverty and sibling care. A recent Human
likely to be recipients of verbal abuse from Rights Watch report into the impact of HIV
teachers and from non-Aboriginal peers than and AIDS on affected children’s access to edu-
the others.150 In Botswana, research by authori- cation in Kenya, South Africa, and Uganda,
ties has found that the dropout rates of Basarwa documents how stigma in school leads to
(or San) children are unusually high, and that taunting, and makes it difficult for children
they drop out largely because of prejudice and to communicate with their teachers about ill-
bullying, though also because the corporal ness in the family.155 Within the context of
punishment meted out in schools is alien to silence and shame that surrounds HIV infec-
their culture.151 Children from nomadic com- tion, the fear of stigma, discrimination and
135
munities may miss formal schooling altogether possibly violence can lead to HIV-infected and

or else be excluded, discriminated against, or affected children withdrawing from school or
bullied. being excluded, as reported not only in South-
ern Africa but elsewhere, including Bolivia, El
In South Asia, children from official castes and Salvador, Ghana, Haiti, India and Nepal.156
indigenous tribes suffer from exclusion, dis-
crimination and bullying in schools. In Latin The special situation of girls
America, as elsewhere, indigenous children are
frequently banned from wearing traditional In many places, there are local schools for
clothing and hairstyles.152 In industrialised young children, but children have to leave
countries, children of minorities or those who home for boarding schools, or to live with rel-
wear faith-related garments, such as a hijab atives for the higher primary grades and sec-
or burka, also face discrimination by State or ondary school. This is often the case in regions
educational authorities. Such discrimination where populations are scattered through rural
may be called a form of psychological violence areas, perhaps in mountains or other hard-to-
insofar as it conveys the message that children access locations. Parents fear that their girls
are somehow less worthy because they are dif- may be assaulted on the way there or back, on
ferent, and that what makes them different the road, or in crowded buses. A World Educa-
must be suppressed. tion study in Peru found that as the distance
a girl travels to school increases, so does her
Orphaned children are more likely to drop out chance of being molested. The risks of sexual
of school or to repeat grades, and the contrast harassment, rape and unintended pregnancy
between the attendance of orphans and non- keep many Peruvian girls home and increase
orphans is greatest in countries where atten- absenteeism, grade repetition and dropout.157
“As my father could not go to pick up my sister from school one day, she had to come home alone.
On the way home four boys touched her but she could not talk to her father about that.
But she told me, and even I could not tell father.”
Boy, South Asia, 2005 VIII
The EFA campaign has shone a spotlight

on the fact that girls still have less access to
schooling than boys in most developing coun-
tries, that the discrepancy increases sharply
after the primary grades, and that there is a
strong correlation between low levels of edu-
cation for girls and women and low levels of
national development. 158,159
In some societies with low levels of girls’ educa-
tion, the seclusion of girls at home after puberty
is still common, and the same is true of early
marriage, for example, in many parts of South
Asia and the Middle East. Even where seclu-
136 sion is not practised, research shows that par-
ents fear for their girls’ sexual safety in school.
In sub-Saharan Africa, this fear is exacerbated

by fear of HIV infection. In 2001, a Human

Rights Watch study on gender-based violence
in schools found alarming levels of sexual vio-
lence against schoolgirls, and a frightening
degree of tolerance and collusion by teachers.160
Such evidence all too often results in pressure
on girls to leave school.161
RESPONSES TO VIOLENCE AZERBAIJAN, 2004, Two children from an ‘ internat’

(boarding school) in the town of Sheki.
AGAINST CHILDREN
IN SCHOOLS AND
accepting them for whom they are,
EDUCATIONAL SETTINGS respecting their rights and helping them
In the many children’s forums, Regional Con- to express themselves constructively and
sultations and submissions that contributed to develop their full potential.
to this Study, clear messages came from the • They want teachers and other school
world’s children: staff to help them get along with each
other and to develop the habits of
• They want the violence to stop. mutual respect and empathy that will
• They want teachers and other school see them through lives of constructive
staff to give them firm guidance while citizenship.
4
AT A GLANCE: CHILDREN OUT OF SCHOOL
• 115 million or 18% of children of primary school age were not in school in
2001/02. Of these, 61.3 million (53%) were girls, 45 million (39%) were in
sub-Saharan Africa and 42 million (36%) were in South Asia. Most likely to
be out of school were children in West and Central Africa (45.3%), Eastern
and Southern Africa (38.5%), South Asia (26%) and the Middle East and
North Africa (18.7%) and in all of these regions girls were more likely to be
out of school than boys. The greatest disparity between boys and girls was in
the Middle East and North Africa, where 15.4% of boys but 22.1% of girls
were out of school.
• Boys and young men still have far better chances of going to school than
girls and young women. Of the 86 developing countries for which data are
available, 50% have achieved gender parity (where a girl’s chances of going to 137
school are equal to a boy’s) in primary education but only 20% have achieved

gender parity in secondary education and 5% in tertiary education.162
• In much of the world, secondary schooling is a luxury. Gross enrolment in
secondary education (number of children and adults of any age in secondary
school as a percentage of the number of children of official age for secondary
school) is less than 40% in many countries in sub-Saharan Africa, South and
West Asia, East Asia and Pacific, and North Africa and Middle East and less
than 60% in many other countries in these regions and in Latin America and
the Caribbean.163
• They want their parents and other ress toward violence-free schools. There is now
adults outside schools to play widespread and rapidly growing awareness of
constructive roles in their education, violence in schools and of the harm it is doing
promoting and supporting violence-free to children and to all of society. Many coun-
schools and giving them violence-free tries in all regions are taking action to counter
homes and communities.164 that violence, and there is mounting evidence
to suggest which approaches work best.
The many contributions to this Study have also
shown that there is good reason for hope that Unfortunately, there are no simple or single
the dreams of these children can and will be strategy solutions. To be effective, it is important
realised, if only countries will commit them- that approaches address overall prevention, for
selves to accelerating and sustaining their prog- example through life skills-based education, as
well as early intervention when problems arise, on recognition that all children have equal rights
and safe and supervised activities and facilities to education in settings that are free of violence,
for children and young people.165 and that one of the functions of education is
to produce adults imbued with the non-violent
This Study has concluded that the most effec- values and practises.
tive approaches to countering violence in schools
are tailored to the unique circumstances of the The overall approach can be called ‘rights-
schools in question, but that they also have key based’ and ‘child-friendly’. It is consistent with
elements in common. Specifically, they are based the CRC, other international conventions on
THE UNITED NATIONS GIRLS’ EDUCATION INITIATIVE (UNGEI) ROLE

IN PROMOTING GIRLS’ PARTICIPATION
In 2000, UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan showed his strong commitment to girls’

138 education by launching the United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative (UNGEI), a part-
nership for girls’ education and gender equality. It is emerging as an effective strategy for
the prevention of violence against girls. In countries where UNGEI is established, part-
ners work together to strengthen interventions that promote girls’ access to quality educa-
tion. Interventions which include those that accelerate and encourage the participation
of girls and boys in their own empowerment. For example, the Girls’ Education Move-
ment (GEM) operates in Botswana, Lesotho, Kenya, Uganda, South Africa, the United
Republic of Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe as an important aspect of UNGEI. When
GEM was launched in 2001, it was conceptualised as a pan-African education initiative
through which girls would become leaders in the transformation of Africa and agents in
the decision-making processes concerning their educational chances. In Uganda, GEM
is very active in making sure that orphans and other vulnerable children access school,
and work with local authorities and traditional leaders to address the issue of early mar-
riage. In Botswana, GEM has done a baseline study on safety in schools which is being
edited for publication. In South Africa, GEM works through Public–Private Partnerships
to support the education of girls in mathematics, science and technology and, sponsored
by UNICEF, has a number of different activities for ensuring that the voices of girls and
young women are heard, particularly in relation to policy-making. Girls’ Parliaments,
sponsored by GEM, in conjunction with the National Department of Education in South
Africa, have offered girls the opportunity to contribute to policy-making around issues
of sexual violence in schools. The first Girls’ Parliament in South Africa took place in
2003. It is worth noting that GEM in South Africa has also developed posters addressing
gender violence, and a chat line for girls to speak out.168
4
human rights and the EFA goals, and widely LAWS AND LAW ENFORCEMENT
endorsed by international organisations. Most
importantly, it answers children and young International conventions, regional agreements
adults around the world who say they want the and national laws that address corporal pun-
ishment, sexual harassment and assault, and
violence to stop.
other forms of violence are essential steps in the
The basic principles of a rights-based child- movement toward violence-free schools. Experi-
friendly school are that it should be166,167: ence has shown, however, that many countries
are slow to meet their international and regional
1. Proactively inclusive. The school seeks obligations and slow to enforce their own laws.
out and enables the participation of all
children of both sexes, and especially those Since the UN General Assembly adopted the
who are different ethnically, culturally, CRC in 1989, a substantial number of coun-
linguistically, socio-economically and in tries have taken steps to ban corporal punish-
their abilities or disabilities. ment in schools, even though they have often
139
been lax in enforcing their laws. High-level

2. Academically effective and relevant. It courts in many regions and countries includ-
meets children’s needs for life and liveli- ing Namibia (Supreme Court, 1991), South
hood knowledge, attitudes and skills. Africa (Constitutional Court, 2000) and in
the courts of various parts of federal coun-
3. Gender-sensitive. It creates environments tries – for example, Delhi, India (Delhi High
that foster gender equality, and it meets Court, 2000), and Canada (Supreme Court,
the needs for knowledge, attitudes and 2004)169 – have condemned corporal punish-
skills that ensure gender equality. ment in schools and required its prohibition.
4. Healthy and protective. It promotes and The Committee on the Rights of the Child
protects children’s emotional, psychologi- notes in its recent General Comment No.
cal and physical well-being by providing a 8: “Where, despite prohibition and positive
healthy and protective educational climate. education and training programmes, cases of
corporal punishment come to light outside
5. Engaged with the family and the com- the family home – in schools, other institu-
munity. It seeks out and enables the par- tions and forms of alternative care for example
ticipation of children’s families and the – prosecution may be a reasonable response.”
community in the development and imple- 170
The threat to the perpetrator of other dis-
mentation of all aspects of school policies ciplinary action or dismissal should also act as
and programmes, including those designed a clear deterrent. It is essential that the pro-
to protect children from harm and to teach hibition of all corporal punishment and other
children to appreciate the rights of other cruel or degrading punishment, and the sanc-
children to the same protection. tions that may be imposed if it is inflicted,
should be well disseminated to children and place and these often apply to educational
to all those working with or for children in all workplaces, such as schools, and may serve to
settings. Monitoring disciplinary systems and protect both teachers and students. In South
the treatment of children must be part of the Africa, for example, the Promotion of Equality
sustained supervision of all institutions and and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act 4
placements. Children and their representatives (2000), defines harassment as “unwanted con-
in all such placements should have immedi- duct which is persistent or serious and demeans,
ate and confidential access to child-sensitive humiliates or creates a hostile or intimidating
advice, advocacy and complaints procedures environment or is calculated to induce submis-
and ultimately to courts where necessary, and sion ... and which is related to sex, gender or
legal assistance. In institutions, there should sexual orientation.” The Government of South
be a requirement to report and to review any Africa has taken steps to make the investiga-
violent incidents. tion of alleged rapes more sensitive to the con-
cerns of victims and, therefore, more likely to
140 Many countries have laws or, at least, policies result in successful prosecutions. In addition,
that prevent sexual harassment in the work- South Africa’s Department of Education has
SOUTH AFRICA’S GUIDELINES TO STOPPING TEACHERS FROM

SEXUALLY ABUSING STUDENTS
In 2000, South Africa’s Department of Education issued guidelines noting the preva-
lence of sexual abuse of students by teachers and the consequent high risk of HIV trans-
mission. The guidelines explain the law and the consequences of violating the law:
– Educators must not have sexual relations with learners. It is against the law,
even if the learner consents. Such action transgresses the code of conduct for
educators, who are in a position of trust.
– Strict disciplinary action will be taken against any educator who has sex with a
learner.
– Sex that is demanded by an educator without consent is rape, which is a serious
crime, and the educator will be charged. If an educator has sex with a girl or
boy who is under 16 years, he or she will be charged with statutory rape and
may face a penalty of life imprisonment.
– If you are aware of a colleague who is having sexual relations with a learner,
you must report them to the principal or higher educational authorities, and
if the boy or girl is under 16, to the police. If you do not do so you may be
charged with being an accessory to rape.172
4
TWO COUNTRIES WHERE NATIONAL COMMITTEES
DEVELOP AND ENFORCE ANTI-VIOLENCE MEASURES
The Republic of Korea’s Act on the Prevention of School Violence requires that a new
plan for preventing school violence be drawn up every five years. A National Com-
mittee has responsibility for coordinating and monitoring implementation of the plan
and for overseeing the five-year reviews and updates. Every school is required to hold
regular sessions to review their contributions to the implementation of the plan, and to
recommend whatever actions may be called for within the school or beyond.
In Cyprus, the Ministry of Education requires all schools to establish committees to
address needs for “prevention and confrontation of violence in the family and school
environment.” These committees are empowered to receive and investigate complaints
of violence before passing them on to the appropriate authorities.174
141

issued special guidelines applying to sexual RIGHTS-BASED SCHOOL POLICIES
relations between students and teachers in AND PROGRAMMES
schools (see box).171
A large number and variety of policies and pro-
Under-reporting of all forms of violence is a grammes to counter school-based violence have
chronic problem in most countries. Reasons been introduced in all regions of the world.
include lack of confidence in the capacity of Only a few of these have been rigorously eval-
authorities to intervene in constructive ways, uated – and mostly in industrialised countries
and fear of repercussions to victims and their – but the results are encouraging, and show
families and even to perpetrators, since so that effective solutions exist, although they are
much violence occurs within circles of people not widely implemented.
who know each other.
UNESCO has found promising anti-school-
Government responses to the questionnaire violence programmes in eight countries –Aus-
sent out as part of the Study173 show that a few tralia, France, Israel, Japan, Northern Ireland,
countries have reformed laws and improved Norway, South Africa and the USA. These
law enforcement to address school violence in programmes are well-regarded by administra-
more holistic ways, as part of broader efforts tors, teachers, students and parents and show
to promote and support rights-based child- early indications of being effective in reducing
friendly education for all children (see box). violence in schools. A small body of research
evaluating these programmes indicates that
they not only reduce violence, but help students
develop better social skills, higher self-esteem A growing body of research has considered
and a greater sense of personal control over schools as social systems and sought to iden-
their lives, and also help students attain higher tify parts of the systems that might be changed
levels of academic achievement.175 to reduce violence. The conclusion has been
that effective school leaders (e.g. the heads
During the past 10 years, profound concern of education authorities and of individual
about violence in North American schools has schools) can go a long way toward improving
led to considerable research and experimenta- the quality of school life by working with the
tion with different interventions, and there is other stakeholders to develop and implement
now a large body of literature documenting policies governing the conduct and discipline
and evaluating different approaches.176,177 As of teachers and students and building com-
a result, there is now evidence of approaches munity confidence in schools.178,179 A study of
that work in Canada and the USA. Similar schools in Botswana and Ghana found that the
research and experimentation is underway in most common feature of safe and high-achiev-
142 many other countries and, where there are ing schools is strong management.180
evaluations, they are demonstrating that these
countries are finding approaches that work, A review of programmes to address violence
too. There is no reason to doubt that, with the in Latin American and Caribbean schools
will and resources (often minimal), any coun- pointed to the importance of building positive
try, community or school can find effective attitudes and behaviours from as early an age
ways of reducing violence in schools. as possible, sustaining the effort to build those
values right through school, and doing this
The following discussion focuses on particular through such means as giving students oppor-
areas of intervention and provides examples tunities to participate in making the deci-
of promising practices from all regions of the sions that shape their school environments.181
world. Ensuring such continuity calls for action by
authorities that oversee all schools, whether at
LEADERSHIP AND POLICY national, district or local level.
DEVELOPMENT
A longitudinal study in Norway has found a
causal link between good classroom manage-
Policies to tackle school violence should recog-
ment techniques and reduced peer violence.182
nise that schools are, above all, places of learn-
In addition, the curriculum should promote
ing and can play an important role in equal- the values of social equality, tolerance toward
ising power and eliminating abuses of power. diversity and non-violent means of resolving
Schools can be guided by the highest human conflicts.
rights standards in everything they do, and use
alternative, non-violent methods of communi- What happens outside the classroom is also
cation, negotiation and conflict resolution. critical. Education authorities should pro-
“If teachers talk badly to us, if they do not take care about what they say and do not respect us,
how do you expect us to respect them? They are not good role models for us.”
Student, Indian Ocean subregion, 2006 XIV
4
vide guidance and support to school heads recruiting the best candidates, and then offer
and teachers, helping them shape the climate them insufficient pre- and in-service train-
outside the classroom by changing the way in ing, low salaries and poor working conditions,
which the school is managed. Codes of conduct often in overcrowded and ill-equipped schools
should be developed and enforced through and classrooms. In most countries, teachers
processes that give a voice to every stakeholder, are already overburdened, but they are under
for example through student councils and par- increasing pressure to take on more responsi-
ents’ associations. The climate thus created bility for addressing violence in their schools,
within the school can spill over into the wider though they often lack the training and exper-
community when, for example, students carry tise for this added responsibility. If, despite all
home the values and habits they learn in school this, schools attract good teachers, they then
and then carry them through their lives, into have difficulty retaining them.
their workplaces, relationships, and so on.
All of these factors should be taken into
account when assessing needs to change 143
SUPPORTING SCHOOL STAFF
the way teaching candidates are recruited,

There are almost 43 million teachers at the pri- trained, and supported. Teachers cannot carry
mary and secondary school levels around the the whole burden, so any assessment of their
world, in addition to an unknown number of needs should look at ways in which educa-
teachers in pre-schools and other educational tion authorities, school heads and other school
settings, and their potential to act as role staff, parents and communities may be under-
models is immense.183 Teachers are among any mining teachers’ work, and at ways in which
country’s most important agents of social devel- they could be doing more to support it.
opment and change, since they make essential
contributions to the emotional and cognitive Most Governments that responded to the Study
development of current generations of children questionnaire184 reported that they, NGOs or
and thus to future generations of mature and partnerships between the two were supporting
responsible citizens. Even when children are teacher training programmes that addressed
subject to violence in their homes and commu- violence. However, this training was often not
nities, teachers can provide them with models continuous, systematic and sustainable. Most
of non-violence from a very early age. of the training programmes addressed preven-
tion and protection; some addressed rehabili-
Good teacher recruitment and training should tation of victims or offenders; only a few coun-
be at the very root of any country’s long-term tries mentioned redress (Gambia, Nigeria, the
and comprehensive strategy to reduce vio- Seychelles, Singapore, Switzerland, and Thai-
lence, not just in schools but in the whole of land), penalties (Cameroon, Singapore, Sri
society. In reality, however, many countries Lanka, Switzerland, and Thailand), methods
undervalue teachers, pay little attention to for educating students in violence prevention
IN CROATIA, A CAMPAIGN FOR ‘SAFE AND ENABLING’ SCHOOLS
ACHIEVES EARLY RESULTS
In the spring of 2004, after broad consultations with Government ministries, civil soci-
ety organisations and others, UNICEF launched a five-phase campaign ‘For a Safe and
Enabling School Environment’ in Croatia. Before the launch, a national survey cover-
ing students, parents and teachers established baseline data on violence in schools. The
campaign was scheduled to last for 18 months. After 12 months, an evaluation found
that it was surpassing expectations.
More than 4,500 teachers, twice the number targeted, had received training in non-
violent methods of teaching, discipline and intervention in violence among children.
The campaign had covered 121 schools including more than 60,000 children, 20%
more than targeted, and this had been achieved with 15% less than the projected
144 budget. More than 92% of Croatian citizens had become aware of the campaign, while
more than 80% of funding was now coming from individual donors and corporations
within Croatia. Most importantly, there had been significant decreases in some forms
of violence and increased awareness of others. For example, children and teachers were
better able to recognise all forms of bullying and better prepared to stop it. More than
80% of students knew the rules against school violence, and knew of an adult they
could turn to for help.
There were, however, challenges ahead. Teachers felt they were more competent to
deal with violence but, while students felt safer, they still did not consider that schools
provided them with enough protection against violence. The evaluation concluded that
there was need for more parent involvement and for the strengthening of peer support
for non-violence among students.185
and protection (Bulgaria, Estonia, Indonesia, THE PARTICIPATION OF CHILDREN

the Netherlands), or methods for integrat-
ing human rights and non-violence into the Involving children in developing and imple-
school curriculum (Brazil and the Seychelles). menting programmes is important in build-
While these efforts are all moving in the right ing personal knowledge, attitudes and skills,
direction, clearly more radical and sustained ensuring programme relevance and ownership,
improvements in teacher training for non-vio- and ultimately in improving programme out-
lence are needed. comes.186,187 A study by the United Kingdom
Department for International Development
4
CHILD RIGHTS CLUBS EMPOWER ZAMBIA’S SCHOOLCHILDREN
The Zambia Civic Education Association (ZCEA) works to promote and protect chil-
dren’s rights through civic education. Through its Child Participation Programme, it
supports Child Rights Clubs that empower children by raising their awareness of their
rights under the CRC, the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child,
and other instruments. At least 300 Child Rights Clubs in primary and secondary
schools operate throughout Zambia.195
covering Bangladesh, Kenya, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Exploratory studies and experience in all regions
Uganda, and Zambia found that teaching envi- have identified benefits, some unexpected, of
ronments that put children at the centre of the involving children in the development and
learning experience, so that teachers listen to implementation of programmes to address 145
their concerns and needs, are more likely to violence in schools.192 Children can provide a

address violence effectively than other schools.188 comprehensive snapshot of their experience of
Another international study by World Vision violence in their schools, thus giving staff infor-
found that, in communities where children mation they need to take action. Involving chil-
participate in discussing and addressing vio- dren serves as effective intervention in itself, in
lence, discussion is more open and more likely that it helps to heal children through the disclo-
to result in specific strategies.189 sure of experiences and sharing of feelings, and
it teaches the staff about children’s experiences
Save the Children has had a number of first- and feelings, and this in turn changes staff atti-
hand experiences working with partners in the tudes and behaviours.193,194
establishment and support of child-led organisa-
tions and initiatives whereby children hold adult WORKING WITH PARENTS
decision-makers and caregivers accountable, AND COMMUNITIES
and work with them on addressing school vio-
lence.190 Research in the USA suggests that the Many countries have a tradition of involv-
best initiatives tend to be those in which students ing parents and communities in school life.
and teachers work together on developing and In North America, there is a long tradition
implementing strategies to make schools safe for of Parent–Teachers’ Associations (PTAs).
everyone. Peer mediation and peer counselling, Typically, these have branches in every public
for example, are more effective when students school within a community, plus an umbrella
and teachers work together in developing and PTA covering the whole community, and they
assessing appropriate mediation and counselling enable parents’ rights to monitor schools and
methods.191 intervene as they see fit. In the USA, the Safe
Schools Coalition of Washington was set up communities get involved in addressing the
out of concern about violence against gays and full range of violence issues in schools. Where
lesbians in Seattle schools, but it and similar such involvement is not already taking place,
Safe Schools Coalitions in a number of other there may be existing mechanisms for secur-
states now serve as public–private partnerships ing that involvement. In Lesotho, the United
through which many Government organisa- Republic of Tanzania and a number of other
tions and NGOs collaborate to address vio- sub-Saharan African countries, for example,
lence and other safety issues in schools.196 there are now local committees that involve a
Many other countries have similar organisa- broad range of stakeholders in addressing the
tions through which parents and community- full range of issues related to HIV and AIDS.
based organisations address a wide range of Mexico City, Nepal, and Kenya provide exam-
issues in schools, in collaboration with educa- ples of what major cities or whole countries
tion authorities, school heads and teachers.197 can do to involve parents and communities
(see boxes).
146 Elsewhere in this section, a number of exam-
ples are given of ways in which parents and
IN MEXICO CITY – ‘COMBATING VIOLENCE:

EDUCATION FOR PEACE’ PROJECT
In Mexico City, social inequalities, poverty and other factors have contributed to
increasing violence in homes, schools and the whole city, and school violence has been
linked to high rates of early dropout. Currently, more than 1,500 of the city’s schools
and 450,000 of the city’s students are participating in a project called “Combating
Violence: Education for Peace – For Me, You, and the Entire World.” The project con-
sists of training workshops that build the capacity of school administrators, teachers,
students and parents to resolve conflicts in a non-violent manner. Follow-up in schools
aims to ensure that the lessons have been absorbed and put into practice, and to pro-
vide support to individuals charged with the responsibility for continuing to build the
capacity of each school’s population to resolve conflicts peacefully. The project owes its
launch and success to leadership and enthusiastic support from the Secretary of Educa-
tion and, mostly importantly, from school heads. The hope, now, is that the project
will become a permanent programme after the city’s next general elections.198
4
IN NEPAL – GIRLS TAKING ACTION TO END SEXUAL HARASSMENT
In Surkhet, Nepal, Save the Children has supported girls as they educate men and boys
and make their schools and community safer. Boys and male adults (including educa-
tion officials and village leaders) were unaware that girls perceived their ‘innocent teas-
ing’ as sexual harassment and discrimination until the girls mapped the places where
they felt unsafe. By examining and discussing the maps, males were able to recognise
that these were the places where girls were regularly subject to such teasing. In addi-
tion, the girls have developed networks throughout the village and district, with links
to girls’ groups in other villages, local police, teachers’ and women’s groups, and the
district child welfare committee.199
IN KENYA – ‘BE A CHAMPION FOR CHILDREN’ CAMPAIGN

147
In the spring of 2006, a campaign to stop violence against children was launched in

Kenya, with support from UNICEF. The campaign called upon families, schools, faith-
based organisations, the private sector, the mass media and all other elements of Kenyan
society to collaborate (with financial and other support) in efforts to ensure that every
home, school and community in the nation was committed to stopping violence against
children. The campaign aims to rally everyone against violence and to empower them
with information about what they can do to help create environments in which all
Kenyan children can reach their potential. It has also raised funds to support:
• A core package of child protection services for the most vulnerable
communities.
• Hotlines where both children and adult victims of violence can call for help.
• Safe houses for those who need to escape violence in their homes.
• Training for counsellors to help victims and also to help families and other
perpetrators of violence break their patterns of violent behaviour.
• Training for teachers, health workers and police in how to reduce violence and
intervene when it occurs.
• School-based programmes and youth programmes to reduce violence.
• Publicity to raise awareness and mobilise ever greater commitment.200
CONSTRUCTIVE CHILD DISCIPLINE BULLYING: PREVENTION AND
INTERVENTION
The rights-based, child-centred approach
requires that there be codes of conduct accepted With its Olweus Bullying Prevention Pro-
by all members of the school community, estab- gramme, Norway has been a pioneer in efforts
lishing moral and social reference points and to stop bullying in schools. Monitoring of
emphasising the values that underpin them, four cohorts of 600–700 elementary school
including the values inherent in the CRC and students each found that, within two years,
in other human rights conventions. Discipline the programme had reduced bullying by 50%
should aim at positive reinforcement, construc- or more. It also had reduced rates of truancy,
tive criticism, clear guidance and instruction. theft, vandalism and other antisocial behav-
Except in extreme cases it should not promote iour, and the reductions were consistent across
measures that may impede a child’s cognitive genders and grades.204 The Olweus approach
and emotional development. has been tried and proven to work in several
other countries, including Australia, Germany
148 Recent research on disciplinary regimes has
and the USA.205 It has not been tried in non-
made a distinction between what are termed
industrialised countries, mainly because bully-

pro-active and reactive regimes. Those that are
ing has not risen to prominence as a matter of
pro-active focus on prevention, and are gener-
public concern in these countries.
ally based on careful research into what works,
and they establish a legal framework, clear poli- The Olweus approach has achieved a consider-
cies, clear rules of conduct and mechanisms for able degree of success and also identified impor-
enforcement. Those that are reactive are often tant issues requiring ongoing attention, such
based on ill-informed ‘blanket statements’ or as, the need to build the commitment of stake-
assertions, and call for ‘zero tolerance’ and holders, to sustain leadership over time, and
harsh punishments. They often involve sus- to monitor and understand motivations and
pending or expelling children, which only dis- interlinking causes of violence while address-
places the problem to another school or to the ing all forms of violence at school. Introduc-
wider community while doing little to help the ing a human rights framework into bullying
child. Such measures contravene a child’s right prevention programmes can also meet these
to education. Firm but fair discipline can cor- challenges.206 (see box).
rect unacceptable behaviour without resorting
to violence.201 The consensus among leading For children who are at high risk of bullying,
educationalists is that reactive regimes are whether as victims or offenders, it may be desir-
ineffective in the long term.202 In this context, able to provide intensive one-on-one strategies
UNESCO has outlined basic principles which that involve home visits, counselling and skills
should govern school discipline of children development for both children and parents.
which emphasise constructive criticism, clear
guidance and instruction as well as the prin-
ciples of the CRC.203
4
KEY ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE, RIGHTS-BASED AND CHILD-CENTRED
ANTI-BULLYING PROGRAMMES
While anti-bullying programmes may vary widely in specific details, the most effective
programmes are rights-based and child-centred. Common characteristics include:
• They involve children at an early age, before their attitudes and behaviours
become fixed in permanent patterns.
• Schools involve all key stakeholders and focus on prevention of violence –
heads, teachers, students, parents and the wider community – in development,
implementation and monitoring.
• There is a leadership group that sustains momentum and initiates adjustments
in the light of changing circumstances.
• There are educational components that increase the knowledge and improve
the skills of all key stakeholders; and components are integrated into the 149
regular curriculum, so that children learn about human rights and develop the

skills to communicate and resolve conflicts in a non-violent manner.
• There is increased monitoring of student behaviour, with thoughtful attention
paid to how students relate to each other, especially when there is evidence that
bullying may be taking place.
• There are mechanisms for reporting, intervention, recovery of victims and
rehabilitation of offenders.
• Interventions are consistent, so there can be no perception of negligence or
unfairness.207,208
SEXUAL AND GENDER-BASED providing children with an understanding of

VIOLENCE: PREVENTION the issues, attitudes, and a grasp of the skills to
AND INTERVENTION avoid it or cope with violence when it occurs.
The whole school climate should welcome girls The concern that sexual coercion and abuse put
and all children who may be considered dif- girls and young women at extremely high risk
ferent because of their known, suspected or of HIV infection has given rise to many differ-
alleged sexuality. Schools should be safe and ent responses globally, especially in Southern
comfortable places, and all children encour- Africa. Some of the initiatives by international
aged to take full advantage of all opportuni- NGOs extend beyond schools. For example,
ties for cognitive and emotional development. ActionAid’s ‘Stepping Stones’ training pro-
To do this, sexual and gender-based underpin- gramme aims to prevent HIV transmission
nings of violence must be addressed directly, and, in doing so, addresses related sexual and
“Curriculum is far more than what is taught.”
Mary Joy Pigozzi, Director, Division for the Promotion of Quality Education, UNESCO XV
gender-based violence in hundreds of com- CURRICULUM: WHAT SHOULD

munities in Africa, Asia, Latin America and BE TAUGHT AND HOW?
the Caribbean.209 Parallel workshops are held
for males and females in order to provide safe The curriculum, teaching methods and the
and supportive environments in which both whole school climate should teach, illustrate
can feel comfortable talking about sensitive and reinforce the principles of gender equality,
human rights and non-violence and the skills
issues, but participants from male and female
to apply these principles in day-to-day life.
workshops also come together periodically to
They should also serve to increase children’s
share concerns and insights. Themes include
resilience, so they can cope with violence and
“why do we behave as we do” and “how can
recover when it occurs.
we change.” Results have included safer sexual
behaviour, reduced domestic violence, more Traditionally, school curriculum has been very
sharing of household tasks by men, improved ‘content’ focussed (what), with less attention
communications between couples and parents paid to learning skills and processes (how),
150
and children, especially about sensitive issues such as inquiry, problem-solving, and decision-
that pertain to sexual health. making. There is increasing recognition that,

in a rapidly changing world, it is necessary to
In Ethiopia, communities have taken the ini- teach children the how of constructive human
tiative in establishing Girls’ Education Advi- behaviour so that they can protect themselves
sory Committees (GEACs) that address the from harm, and take action to avoid harm to
whole problem of providing girls with access others. This kind of education is often called
to education of a high standard. GEACs have ‘life skills-based education’.
established Girls’ Clubs that serve as safe places
for girls to talk, encourage them to report Life skills-based education should be part of a
problems about harassment and abuse. Other package that includes education on the prin-
GEAC initiatives include disciplinary com- ciples of gender equality, human rights and
mittees to hold teachers accountable, ‘police’ non-violence and how and why these principles
to protect girls on their way to and from have evolved and can be put into practice.211,212
school; constructing separate latrines for girls; This may involve dealing with highly personal
insisting on female teachers in schools; train- and sensitive issues relating to the unique char-
ing boys and girls on how to treat each other acteristics of each child, that child’s family
respectfully; providing counselling for girls in background, religious and cultural traditions,
safe places; and enlisting religious and clan and subjects that were once considered taboo
leaders to stop abductions and child marriages. in discussions involving children. Dealing with
As a result, in one primary school the dropout such issues requires development not only of the
rate for girls fell from 57% to 19%.210 curriculum but of appropriate teaching meth-
ods. This involves going beyond traditional rote
learning to encouraging children to ask ques-
4
tions, including of their teachers, to relate their tary schools in Canada and the USA found
own experiences, and to express their own feel- that it had decreased aggressive behaviour and
ings and ideas as part of the learning process. For increased positive social behaviour in class-
example, in South Africa, the Curriculum 2005 rooms, playgrounds and cafeterias.215
programme emphasises flexible teaching meth-
ods that encourage and accommodate children’s Some sensitive issues might best be addressed
active participation in learning experiences and in a wider context. When asked their opin-
helps them develop critical thinking skills.213 ion about how best to address sexual abuse,
for example, children in Canada, Columbia,
From 1998 to 2004, the Special Rappor- Bangladesh, Brazil, Mozambique, Nepal,
teur on the Right to Education collaborated Nicaragua, Romania, Rwanda, South Africa,
with UNESCO to produce the Manual on Spain, Syria, and Uganda said that the subject
Rights-based Education: Global Human Rights of sexual abuse should be raised in the con-
Requirements Made Simple.214 It states that the text of learning about children’s rights and
child has both a right to education and rights child protection, rather than singled out on 151
in education. This means that schools have to its own.216,217 A feature of effective life skills-

protect the rights of their students, and also based education is that the teaching and learn-
teach them how to respect the rights of others. ing methods are interactive and allow children
The rights-based approach to education makes to share their ideas. Effective life skills educa-
education the very foundation of the long- tion often involves children in addressing real
term campaign against violence of all kinds, issues in their own schools and contributing to
including violence against children. Children the development of policies and programmes.
raised in schools free of violence and taught
to respect the rights of everyone to live in vio- CREATING SAFE AND WELCOMING
lence-free environments are the best hope for a PHYSICAL SPACES
violence-free future.
A number of studies have asked children to
In the USA, for example, an NGO called The map danger or safety zones in their schools
Committee for Children has developed three and school playgrounds and these have pin-
sets of curricula – Second Step, Steps to Respect pointed areas where girls feel unsafe, such as
and Talking about Touching – designed to give areas where boys congregate or where male
children the knowledge and skills necessary teachers who sexually harass them have their
to prevent bullying, sexual abuse and other classrooms.218,219,220 A study of a high school
forms of violence. These sets aim to help chil- in Durban, South Africa, found that its spaces
dren stand up for themselves, talk rather than were extremely gendered. There were many
fight, and think about issues from others’ per- private spaces for boys, where they were left
spectives. A 1997 assessment of the impacts alone and transgressions such as smoking were
of Second Step in more than 10,000 elemen- tolerated, and for male teachers, who declared
“When children grow up they keep what was done to them in mind and in the end they also do the same
to those younger than them, especially at school. Some people become mentally disturbed.”
Boy, 14, Eastern and Southern Africa, 2005 XVI
their spaces strictly off limits to female teach- local and district school authorities and some
ers and girls. The only private spaces for girls national school authorities. Since such data are
were the toilets, and their privacy was com- essential in order to evaluate interventions and
promised by missing doors. Female teachers whether they are contributing to reductions in
found it difficult to find spaces that were not violence, it is highly recommended that dis-
policed, or intruded upon, by males.221 trict school authorities develop their capacity
to collect, analyse and report data for monitor-
Where a school is not welcoming or visually ing and evaluation purposes.
appealing, it is more difficult to build staff
morale and help children develop a positive Agreed standards, universally accepted defini-
outlook towards learning. Improving schools tions and classifications of different forms of
does not necessarily require significant expen- violence in schools are needed, but local issues
diture of money, and can be done also as an should be integrated into these as well. There
extra-curricular activity involving school staff, are models for such definitions and classifica-
152 students, parents and others in the community. tions, including the International Classification
In low-income areas of rural India, for exam- of External Causes of Injury.223 There are also
ple, staff and students have worked together to Injury Surveillance Guidelines that would help
redecorate classrooms and develop school gar- any education authority at national, district or
dens using the simplest of materials at hand, at school level, to develop its own definitions
though they have found that this works best and classifications and, also, simple forms
when schools are secured and protected from and mechanisms for gathering, analysing and
vandalism.222 reporting data.224
The most widely applied instruments for gath-
RESEARCH AND EVALUATION ering global and national data on violence in
schools are the GSHS,225 covering an increas-
All functioning education systems have mech-
ing number of developing countries, and the
anism that gather data, down to the individual
HBSC study, covering mostly industrialised
school level, and many have regular inspec-
countries and some transitional countries.226
tions that provide additional opportunities for
Other existing instruments are Demographic
gathering data. The quantity and quality of
and Health Surveys and similar surveys peri-
this data vary widely, however, and rarely pro-
odically undertaken by ministries of health
vide sufficient basis for making even the most
(and other sectors) in order to determine, for
approximate estimates of the prevalence of
example, the prevalence of HIV infection and
different forms of violence in schools and how behaviour that may contribute to infection.
the prevalence may be increasing or decreas-
ing over time. One reason for this is that most Monitoring and evaluation will help to iden-
schools have no staff trained in data collec- tify which interventions work best and how
tion and analysis, and the same is true of most interventions might be improved. Also needed
4
RECOMMENDATIONS
Education is a key agent of change capable of
breaking the cycle of violence, not just against
children but among adults, too. It can encour-
age children to learn self-respect, respect for
others and how to express their feelings and
negotiate for what they want without resort to
physical or psychological violence.
The following recommendations are intended
to support Governments, education authori-
ties, school heads, teachers, students, parents
and communities as they seek to create non-
violent schools. The recommendations are 153
guided by the UN Convention on the Rights
UNICEF 101-0155. Dan Bhayi

of the Child, and informed by Regional Con-
sultations for the Study, expert inputs, public
submissions, and an evidence-based under-
standing of the causes of violence and its
prevention, including its virtually universal
link with gender. The recommendations are
IRAQ,2003, Children at Youth House in the Adhamiya designed to ensure that education methods,
neighborhood, Baghdad. curricula, programmes and services uphold
the norms established by the CRC, and that
are more in-depth studies into particular their design and implementation are consis-
forms of violence and the links between differ- tent with social and cultural diversity, as well
ent forms of violence, their risk and protective as economic and practical realities.
factors, and the effectiveness of intervention Prioritise prevention
programmes.
1. Ensure universal access to violence-
free learning environments, where the
rights of all children are respected and
promoted. Consistent with the global call
for ‘Education for All’ (i.e. EFA), Govern-
ments must ensure that primary and sec-
ondary schools are rights-based, and offer
safe and healthy, gender-sensitive, inclu-
sive, and effective learning environments 5. Give special attention to vulnerable
for girls and boys. Promoting non-violence groups. Governments must implement
in and beyond the school should be a clear specific strategies to ensure that the special
goal with policies and well-publicised pro- needs of vulnerable children are addressed,
cedures for enforcement. and that discrimination in particular is
stopped. Staff must understand and be able
2. Prohibit violence in schools. Govern- to systematically respond to the situation
ments have the obligation to explicitly pro- and particular risks experienced by minor-
hibit violence against children by law, and ity groups, children with disabilities, chil-
to ensure the implementation of related dren without parental care or affected by
policies and procedures at the school level HIV, or children reintegrating into school
– specifically putting a stop to corpo- communities such as refugee and displaced
ral punishment and other humiliating or children, or former child soldiers.
degrading treatment, bullying and other
154 sexual and gender-based violence. 6. Provide safe physical spaces. Govern-
ments should ensure that safe physical
3. Prevent violence in schools with spe- spaces are provided to ensure that both girls
cific programmes which address the and boys have equal access to facilities and
whole school environment. Governments can participate fully in school life. Schools
should implement violence prevention pro- must have adequate toilet facilities for girls
grammes comprehensively across the edu- and boys. All facilities must be clean and
cation setting for all staff and students, safe, accessible by girls and boys, and free of
while being sensitive to the special needs of negative interference from the community.
vulnerable children. Build capacity
4. Prioritise attention to gender issues and 7. Establish and implement codes of con-
their links with violence. Governments duct reflecting child rights principles.
must acknowledge the pervasive impact Clear codes of conduct reflecting child
of entrenched gender stereotypes on the rights principles, which are harmonised
nature of violence in and around schools. with the law, should be established and pro-
Male students, staff and community mem- moted widely for all staff, students and their
bers, must be actively encouraged as stra- families and communities. It is the Govern-
tegic partners and allies; and along with ment’s responsibility to put in place mecha-
female students, staff and community nisms and protocols to ensure that schools
members, must be provided with oppor- have trained and trusted adults, within or
tunities to increase their understanding of independent of the school, to whom stu-
how to stop gender discrimination and its dents can safely and confidentially report
violent manifestations. incidents of violence and receive advice.
“There is new awareness about the prevalence of violence against children in Africa, and its effects,
4
both on those who experience it, and on the society at large. We need to translate this awaremess
into prevention, based on successful strategies from this and other regions.
To delay this response is to betray the trust invested in us to protect the vulnerable.”
Dr Luis G. Sambo, Regional Director for Africa, WHO
8. Ensure that school heads and teachers respect, equity, non-discrimination, and
use non-violent teaching and learning non-violent conflict resolution.
strategies and disciplinary measures.
Governments should ensure that teaching 11. Implement life skills education to enable
and learning strategies and disciplinary students to build personal skills. Govern-
measures are used that are not based on ments should ensure that rights-based life
fear, threat, humiliation or physical force. skills programmes for non-violence should
All school staff should be trained and be promoted in the curriculum through
supported in the use of non-violent and subjects such as peace education, citizen-
respectful classroom management strate- ship education, anti-bullying, human
gies, as well as specific skills to prevent pat- rights education, and conflict resolution
terns of bullying and other gender-based and mediation; with emphasis placed on
violence and to respond to it effectively. child rights and positive values such as
diversity and tolerance, and on skills such
9. Listen to students and encourage paras problem-solving, social and effective 155
ticipation. Governments and their part- communication, in order to enable girls

ners should actively promote and sup- and boys to overcome entrenched gender
port the involvement of students in the biases and to prevent and deal with vio-
design, development, implementation, and lence and harassment, including sexual
monitoring of policies and programmes, harassment.
including through access to confidential
complaints or reporting mechanisms. Par- 12. Promote school–community partner-
ticipatory, gender-sensitive, and inclusive ships, and present schools as a resource
school management structures should be to the community. Governments should
promoted and students should be equipped acknowledge the school as a community
with the necessary skills and given oppor- resource and facilitate closer school–com-
tunities to be involved, with special atten- munity linkages to address violence in and
tion given to the participation of vulner- around schools, involving students, staff,
able children. parents and other partners such as police,
health services, social services, faith-based
Strengthen knowledge and skills for non- groups, community recreation groups, and
violence cultural groups.
10. Revise the curriculum to model non- Build information systems
violence and gender equity. Govern-
ments should ensure that the curriculum, 13. Strengthen data collection systems on
textbooks and teaching methods promote all forms of violence against girls and
child rights, support diversity and indige- boys. Data collected should ensure that
nous knowledge, and emphasise tolerance, the views of students and potential stu-
dents are considered along with those of
teachers, parents, and the wider commu-
nity, with a special focus on the experi-
ences of vulnerable children. Governments
should ensure that the information yielded
should be disaggregated by age and sex at
a minimum, and should be incorporated
into existing education management infor-
mation systems established at local, district
and national levels.
14. Develop a national research agenda on
violence in and around schools. Govern-
ments should put in place a set of national
156 priorities for research that can supplement
data collection systems (described above)
with in-depth qualitative and quantitative

research that is ethical and child-centred.
Data must be disaggregated to make vis-
ible the scale and scope of the experiences
of girls and boys of different ages related
to violence and overcoming it, their situ-
ations, and to make their risk and protec-
tive factors more evident.
4
9 Leach F et al. (2003). An Investigative Study of the
REFERENCES Abuse of Girls in African Schools. Education Research
1 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence Report No. 54, London, Education Department, United
against Children (2005). Regional Consultation Outcome Kingdom Department for International Development.
Reports. Available at http://www.violencestudy.org/r27. 10 World Education Forum (2000). The Dakar Framework
2 Wood K, Jewkes R (2001). ‘Dangerous’ Love: for Action. Paris, UNESCO.
Reflections on Violence among Xhosa 11 United Nations (2000). United Nations Millennium
Township Youth. In: Morrell R (Ed). Declaration. (Adopted by the 55th Session of the General
Changing Men in Southern Africa. London, University Assembly.) New York, United Nations.
of Natal Press, Pietermaritzburg and Zed Press, pp
12 UNESCO (2005). Education For All Global Monitoring
317–336.
Report 2005. Paris, UNESCO.
3 Leach F et al. (2003). An Investigative Study of the Abuse
of Girls in African Schools. 13 World Education Forum (2000). The Dakar Framework
Education Research Report No 54. London, Education for Action. Paris, UNESCO.
Department, United Kingdom 14 United Nations (2000). United Nations Millennium
Department for International Development Declaration. (Adopted by the 55th Session of the General 157

4 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence Assembly.) New York, United Nations.
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: South 15 UNESCO (2005). Education For All Global Monitoring
Asia. Available at: Report 2005. Paris, UNESCO.
16 Committee on the Rights of the Child (2001). Day of
5 Wood K, Jewkes R (2001). ‘Dangerous’ Love: General Discussion on Violence against Children within
Reflections on Violence among Xhosa the Family and in Schools. CRC/C/111, para 679 (b).
Township Youth. In: Morrell R (Ed).
Changing Men in Southern Africa. London,
General Comment No. 1. The Aims of Education, CRC/
University of Natal Press, Pietermaritzburg and Zed
GC/2001/1, para 8.
Press, pp 317–336.
6 Leach F et al. (2003). An Investigative Study of the Abuse
of Girls in African Schools.
Education Research Report No. 54, London, Education
Department, United Kingdom
alia), CRC/C/GC/8.
Department for International Development.
19 WorldVision (2005). Strongim Pikinini, Strongim Laef
B’ long Famili: Enabling Children to Reach their Full
against Children (2005). Regional Consultation Outcome
Potential. A contribution to the United Nations Study
Reports. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27.
on Violence against Children. Milton Keynes, World
8 Wood K, Jewkes R (2001). ‘Dangerous’ Love: Vision International.
Reflections on Violence Among Xhosa
20 Global Initiative to End all Corporal Punishment of
Township Youth. In: Morrell R (Ed). Changing Men in
Children (2006). Global Summary of the Legal Status of
Southern Africa. London,
Corporal Punishment of Children. 28 June 2006.
University of Natal Press, Pietermaritzburg and Zed
Press, pp 317–336.
21 Launched in 2001, the Global Initiative to End All 30 Youssef RM et al. (1998). Children Experiencing
Corporal Punishment of Children has the support Violence (II): Prevalence and Determinants of Corporal
of UNICEF, UNESCO, the former UN High Punishment in Schools. Child Abuse & Neglect, 22:
Commissioner for Human Rights Mary Robinson, and 975–985.
many prominent international and national leaders and
31 Monyooe LA (1993). Perspective Reports of Corporal
organisations concerned with the rights, safety, health
Punishment by Pupils in Lesotho Schools. Psychological
and general well-being of children. Its home page with
Reports, 73: 515–518.
status status reports on all countries is available at:
www.endcorporalpunishment.org 32 Plan Togo (2006). Suffering to Succeed? Violence and
Abuse in Schools in Togo. Lome, Plan Togo.
Comment No. 8. The Right of the Child to Protection 33 L’Observatoire des droits de l’enfant de la région océan
from Corporal Punishment and Other Cruel or Degrading indien (2006). La violence contre les enfants dans la région
Forms of Punishment (articles 19, 28(2) and 37, de l’océan indien. Annual Report of the Observatoire des
inter alia), CRC/C/GC/8. droits de l’enfant de la région océan indien. Mauritius,
indien.
158 Report: Children and Young People’s Consultation in 34 UNICEF MENARO (2005). Violence in Schools in
Europe and Central Asia. Available at: the Middle East and North Africa – Features, Causes,
http://www.violencestudy.org/r27. Intervention and Prevention. (Dr Josi Salem-Pickertz.)

Amman, UNICEF MENARO.
24 Hart SN (Ed) (2005). Eliminating Corporal Punishment.
Paris, UNESCO. 35 Anuradha D, Dreze J (1999). Public Report on Basic
Education in India. New Delhi, Oxford University Press.
25 Regional Reports on Corporal Punishment were
prepared for the Regional Consultations conducted for 36 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
the Study by the Global Initiative to End All Forms against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: North
of Corporal Punishment. Available at: http://www. America. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27.
endcorporalpunishment.org. 37 UNHCR (2005). Refugee and Returnee Children in
26 Global Initiative to End all Corporal Punishment of Southern Africa: Perceptions and Experiences of Violence
Children (2006). Global Summary of the Legal Status of – A Qualitative Study of Refugees and Returnee Children
Corporal Punishment of Children. 28 June 2006. in UNHCR Operations in Angola, South Africa and
Zambia. Pretoria, UNHCR.
27 Durrant JE (2005). Corporal Punishment: Prevalence,
Predictors and Implications for Child Behaviour and 38 Durrant JE (2005). Corporal Punishment: Prevalence,
Development. In: Hart SN (Ed) (2005). Eliminating Predictors and Implications for Child Behaviour and
Corporal Punishment. Paris, UNESCO. Development. In: Hart SN (Ed) (2005). Eliminating
Corporal Punishment. Paris, UNESCO.
28 EMIDA (2000). Enquête sur les violences educatives
faites aux enfants dans les familles et à l’ école primaire au 39 Qi CJ, Dunne MP (2006). Childhood Maltreatment
Cameroun. Yaoundé, EMIDA/UNICEF. Experiences of Young People in China. Prevalence and
Associations with Mental Health among 3,577 Students
29 Nelson Mandela Foundation (2005). Emerging Voices: A
in 6 Provinces. Peking, All-China Women’s Federation,
Report on Education in South African Rural Communities.
UNICEF China Institute of Child and Adolescent
Cape Town, Nelson Mandela Foundation/HSRC Press.
Health, Peking University.
4
40 Dunne M, Leach F (2004). Institutional Sexism: Context 50 Raza S (2004). Minister Resolves to Expose Sexual
and Texts in Botswana and Ghana. Paper presented at the Abuse by Clerics. Daily Times, 9 December 2004.
7th Oxford International Conference on Educational Available at: www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.
Development, 9–11 September 2003. asp?page=story_9-12-2004_pg1_6 .
41 WHO (2005). Multi-country Study on Women’s 51 Murphy B (2005). Sex Abuse in Islamic Schools.
Health and Domestic Violence. Geneva, World Health Frontpagemag, 21 September 2005. Available at: www.
Organization. frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=19530.
42 Krug EG et al. (Eds) (2002). World Report on Violence 52 UNAIDS (2006). 2006 Report on the Global AIDS
and Health. Geneva, World Health Organization. Epidemic. Geneva, Joint United Nations Programme on
HIV/AIDS.
Points: Listen and Speak Out against Sexual Abuse of Girls 53 Analysis provided to the Study by the Global School-
and Boys. Global Submission by the International Save Based Student Health Survey: The World Health
the Children Alliance to the UN Secretary-General’s Organization (http://www.who.int/chp/gshs or http://
Study on Violence against Children. Oslo, Save the www.cdc.gov/gshs) for surveys conducted in 2003–5 for
Children Norway. Botswana, Chile (metropolitan area), China (Beijing),
Guyana, Jordan, Kenya, Lebanon, Namibia, Oman,
44 Heise L et al. (1994). Violence against Women: The 159
Philippines, Swaziland, Uganda, UAE, Venezuela
Hidden Health Burden. World Bank Discussion Paper

(Lara), Zambia and Zimbabwe (Harare).
No. 255. Washington, World Bank.
54 Youri P (Ed) (1994). Female Adolescent Health and
45 Leach F et al. (2003). An Investigative Study of the
Sexuality in Kenyan Secondary Schools: A Research Report.
Abuse of Girls in African Schools. London, Educational
Nairobi, African Medical and Research Foundation.
Papers, United Kingdom Department for International
Development. 55 Undie CC (2005). APHRC, Kenya: HIV and Pregnancy
Prevention among Adolescents in Sub-Saharan Africa.
46 French HW (2003). Victims Say Japan Ignores Sex
Presentation to IPPF Workshop on Child Marriage,
Crimes Committed by Teachers. New York Times, 29
Nairobi, October 11, 2005. Country study profiles
June 2003.
available at: http://www.guttmacher.org.
47 Terefe D, Mengistu D (1997). Violence in Ethiopian
56 UNICEF (2005). Early Marriage: A Harmful Traditional
Schools: A Study of Some Schools in Addis Ababa. In:
Practice. UNICEF, New York.
Ohsako T (Ed). Violence at School: Global Issues and
Interventions. Paris, UNESCO IBE. 57 Erulkar AS et al. (2004). The Experience of Adolescence
in Rural Amhara Region, Ethiopia. New York, Population
Council.
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: West and
Central Africa. Available at: http://www.violencestudy. 58 UNICEF (2004). Analyse régionale sur l’exploitation
org/r27. sexuelle en Afrique de l’Ouest et du Centre : évolution de la
situation, progrès accomplis et obstacles à surmonter depuis
49 John Jay College of Criminal Justice (2004). The
le Congrès de Yokohama en 2001. UNICEF, West and
Nature and Scope of the Problem of Sexual Abuse of
Central Africa Regional Office.
Minors by Catholic Priests and Deacons in the United
States. A Research Study Conducted by the John Jay 59 Human Rights Watch (2001). Scared at School: Sexual
College of Criminal Justice, Report to the United States Violence against Girls in South African Schools. New York,
Conference of Catholic Bishops. New York, John Jay Human Rights Watch.
College of Criminal Justice.
60 Brown C (2003). Sexual Abuse of School Children in 72 Currie C et al. (2004). Health Behaviour in School-
Ghana. Cape Coast, Ghana, Centre for Development Aged Children (HBSC) Study: International Report
Studies, University of Cape Coast/UNICEF. from the 2001/2002 Survey. Health Policy for Children
61 Tang CSK (2002). Childhood Experience of Sexual and Adolescents, No. 4. Geneva, World Health
Abuse among Hong Kong Chinese College Students. Organization.
Child Abuse & Neglect, 26(1): 23–37. 73 Analysis provided to the Study by the Global School-
62 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence Based Student Health Survey: The World Health
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: South Organization (http://www.who.int/chp/gshs or http://
Asia. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27. www.cdc.gov/gshs) for surveys conducted in 2003–5 for
63 Kirk J, Winthrop R (2005). Addressing Abuse and Botswana, Chile (metropolitan area), China (Beijing),
Exploitation in Refugee Schools: Learning from IRC’s Guyana, Jordan, Kenya, Lebanon, Namibia, Oman,
Healing Classroom Initiative. Submission to the United Philippines, Swaziland, Uganda, UAE, Venezuela
Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against (Lara), Zambia and Zimbabwe (Harare).
Children. International Rescue Committee. 74 Creighton SJ (2004). Prevalence and Incidence of Child
64 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence Abuse: International Comparisons. NSPCC Information
160 against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: Latin Briefing. London, NSPCC Research Department.
America. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27.

75 Rigby K (1998). Manual for the Peer Relations
65 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence Questionnaire (PRQ ). Point Lonsdale, Victoria,
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: Australia, The Professional Reading Guide.
Eastern and Southern Africa. Available at:
http://www.violencestudy.org/r27. 76 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
66 Olweus D (1984). Aggressors and Their Victims: Bullying
at School. In: Frude NG, Gault H (Eds). Disruptive
Behavior in Schools. New York, Wiley & Sons, pp 57–76. 77 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
67 Smith PK, Sharp S (1994). School Bullying: Insights and
Perspectives. London, Routledge.
org/r27.
68 Human Rights Watch (2001). Scared at School: Sexual
Violence against Girls in South African Schools. New York, 78 Yang SJ et al. (2006). Bullying and Victimization
Human Rights Watch. Behaviors in Boys and Girls at South Korean Primary
Schools. Journal of the American Academy of Child &
69 Douglas N et al. (1999). Homophobic bullying in
Adolescent Psychiatry, 45(1): 69–77.
secondary schools in England and Wales - teachers’
experiences. Health Education, 99: 53-60. 79 Report of the International Colloquium (2005).
Towards a School of Dialogue and Respect, Tunis 14–16
70 Human Rights Watch (2001). Scared at School: Sexual
Violence against Girls in South African Schools. New York, April 2005, UNICEF Tunisia. Available at: http://www.
Human Rights Watch. violencestudy.org/IMG/pdf/Children_participation_to_
the_International_Colloquium.pdf.
71 De Groulard M et al. (1998). Homosexual Aspects of the
HIV/AIDS Epidemic in the Caribbean: A Public Health 80 CNN (2002). ‘What are Kids Saying about Violence?
Challenge for Prevention and Control. Port of Spain, Survey: Emotional Abuse a Bigger Concern than
Caribbean Epidemiology Centre, Pan-American Health Physical’. 30 July 2002. Available at http://www.cnn.
Organization/World Health Organization. com/2002/HEALTH/parenting/07/30/young.bullies.
4
81 Geiger B, Fischer M (2006). Will Words Ever Harm 91 Soyibo K, Lee MG (2000). Domestic and School
Me? Escalation from Verbal to Physical Abuse in Sixth- Violence Among High School Students in Jamaica.
grade Classrooms. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. West Indian Medical Journal, 49(3): 232-236. Cited in:
21(3): 337-57. United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: the
82 Ybarra ML et al. (2004). Online Aggressor/Targets,
Caribbean. Available at www.violencestudy.org/r27.
Aggressors, and Targets: A Comparison of Associated
Youth Characteristics. Journal of Child Psychology and 92 Chevannes P (2004). Preliminary Study on Violence
Psychiatry, 45(7): 1308–1316. in Caribbean Schools. Change from Within Project,
University of the West Indies for the UNESCO Office
83 ECPAT (2005). Violence against Children in Cyberspace.
for the Caribbean. Cited in: United Nations Secretary-
A Contribution to the UN Secretary-General’s Study
General’s Study on Violence against Children (2005).
on Violence against Children. Bangkok, ECPAT
Regional Desk Review: the Caribbean. Available at:
International.
84 Li Qing (2005). Cyber-bullying in Schools: The Nature
93 Department of Human Health Services/CDC (2004).
and Extent of Adolescents’ Experience. Paper presented at
Youth Risk Behaviour Surveillance – United States,
the American Education Research Association (AER A)
2003. Morbidity & Mortality Weekly Report, 53(SS-2):
Conference in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, April, 2005. 161
1–29.
85 Greene M (2005). Reducing Violence and Aggression in

94 Webster DW et al. (1993). Weapon Carrying among
Schools. Trauma, Violence and Abuse, 6(3): 236–253.
Inner-city Junior High School Students: Defensive
86 Hawkins D et al. (2001). Naturalistic Observations of Behavior Versus Aggressive Delinquency. American
Peer Interventions in Bullying. Social Development, 10: Journal of Public Health, 83: 1604–1608.
512–527. 95 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
87 Currie C et al. (2004). Health Behaviour in School-Aged against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: North
Children (HBSC) Study: International Report from the America. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27.
2001/2002 Survey. Health Policy for Children and 96 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
Adolescents, No 4. Geneva, World Health Organization against Children (2005). Violence in School. Regional
88 Analysis provided to the Study by the Global School- Desk Review: Europe and Central Asia. Available at:
Based Student Health Survey: The World Health http://www.violencestudy.org/r27.
Organization (http://www.who.int/chp/gshs or http:// 97 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
www.cdc.gov/gshs) for surveys conducted in 2003-5 for against Children (2005). Regional Consultation Outcome
Botswana, Chile (metropolitan area), China (Bejing), Report: the Caribbean. Available at:
Guyana, Jordan, Kenya, Lebanon, Namibia, Oman, http://www.violencestudy.org/r27.
Philippines, Swaziland, Uganda, UAE, Venezuela
98 Chevannes P (2004). Preliminary Study on Violence
(Lara), Zambia and Zimbabwe (Harare).
in Caribbean Schools. Change from Within Project,
89 UNICEF (2003). Finding Our Voices, Gender and University of the West Indies for the UNESCO Office
Sexual Identities and HIV/AIDS in Education. Nairobi, for the Caribbean. Cited in: United Nations Secretary-
UNICEF Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Office. General’s Study on Violence against Children (2005).
90 Chege F (2006). Memories of Childhood Violence: Life Regional Desk Review: the Caribbean. Available at:
Cycle Reflections of African Student Teachers. Submission http://www.violencestudy.org/r27
to the United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on
Violence against Children. UNICEF East and Southern
Africa Regional Office.
99 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence 108 Lopez NL et al. (2001). Parental Disciplinary History,
against Children (2005). Regional Consultation Outcome Current Levels of Empathy and Moral Reasonings in
Report: Latin America. Available at: Young Adults. North American Journal of Psychology,
http://www.violencestudy.org/r27. 3: 193-204. Cited in: Durrant JE (2005). Corporal
Punishment: Prevalence, Predictors and Implications
100 WHO/UNESCO/Education International (1998).
for Child Behaviour and Development. In: Hart SN
WHO Information Series on School Health – Document (Ed.) (2005). Eliminating Corporal Punishment. Paris,
3. Violence Prevention: An Important Element of a Health UNESCO.
Promoting School. Geneva, World Health Organization.
109 Durrant JE (2005). Corporal Punishment: Prevalence,
Available at: http://www.who.int/school_youth_health/
Predictors and Implications for Child Behaviour and
resources/en/
Development. In: Hart SN (Ed.) (2005). Eliminating
101 Durrant JE (2005). Corporal Punishment: Prevalence, Corporal Punishment. Paris, UNESCO.
Predictors and Implications for Child Behaviour and 110 Gershoff ET (2002). Corporal Punishment by Parents
Development. In: Hart SN (Ed) (2005). Eliminating and Associated Child Behaviours and Experiences: A
Corporal Punishment. Paris, UNESCO. Meta-analytic and Theoretical Review. Psychological
162 102 Csorba J et al. (2001). Family- and School-related Bulletin, 128: 539-79.
Stresses in Depressed Hungarian Children. European
111 Farrington DP (1993). Understanding and Preventing

Psychiatry, 16: 18–26. Cited in: Durrant JE (2005). Bullying. In: Tonny M, Morris N (Eds). Crime and
Corporal Punishment: Prevalence, Predictors and Justice, Vol. 17. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.
Implications for Child Behaviour and Development. In: 112 Alexander LC et al. (2004). Bullying: Health, Well-being
Hart SN (Ed) (2005). Eliminating Corporal Punishment. and Risk Behaviours. HBSC Briefing Paper No. 10. Child
Paris, UNESCO. & Adolescent Health Research Unit, The University of
103 Sharp S et al. (2000). How Long Before It Hurts? An Edinburgh.
Investigation into Long-term Bullying. School Psychology 113 International Save the Children Alliance (2005). Voices
International, 21: 37–46. of Girls and Boys to End Violence against Children in
South and Central Asia. Contribution to UN Secretary-
104 Rigby K (2003). Consequences of Bullying in School.
General’s Study on Violence against Children.
Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 48(9): 583–590.
Kathmandu, Save the Children Sweden Regional
105 Due P et al. (2005). Bullying and Symptoms among Programme for South and Central Asia.
School-aged Children: International Comparative 114 Olweus D (1978). Aggression in Schools. Bullies and
Cross-sectional Study in 28 Countries. The European Whipping Boys. Washington, DC, Hemisphere Press
Journal of Public Health, 15(2): 128–132. (Wiley).
106 Currie C et al. (2004). Health Behaviour in School- 115 Dake J A et al. (2003). The Nature and Extent of Bullying
Aged Children (HBSC) Study: International Report at School. Journal of School Health, 73(5): 173-80.
from the 2001/2002 Survey. Health Policy for Children 116 Baker DP, LeTendre GK (2005). National Differences,
and Adolescents, No. 4. Geneva, World Health Global Similarities: World Culture and the Future of
Organization. Schooling. Stanford, Stanford University Press.
107 EMIDA (2000). Enquête sur les violences educatives 117 Akiba M (2002). Student Victimization: National and
faites aux enfants dans les familles et à l’ école primaire au School System Effects on School Violence in 37 Nations.
Cameroun. Yaoundé, EMIDA/UNICEF. American Educational Research Journal, 39(4): 829–853.
4
118 International Save the Children Alliance (2004). 127 US Department of Health and Human Services
Mapping Save the Children’s Response to Violence against (2001). Youth Violence: A Report of the Surgeon
Children in South Asia Region. Kathmandu, Save the General. Rockville, MD, US Department of Health
Children Sweden. Cited in: United Nations Secretary- and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and
General’s Study on Violence against Children (2005). Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and
Regional Desk Review: South Asia. Available at: www. Control, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
violencestudy.org/r27. Administration, Center for Mental Health Services,
and National Institutes of Health, National Institute of
119 International Save the Children Alliance (2005).
Mental Health.
Ending Physical and Humiliating Punishment of Children
– Making it Happen. Submission to the United Nations 128 US Department of Health and Human Services
Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Children. (2001). Youth Violence: A Report of the Surgeon
Stockholm, Save the Children Sweden. General. Rockville, MD, US Department of Health
and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and
120 Jewkes R et al. (2001). Relationship Dynamics and
Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and
Teenage Pregnancy in South Africa. Social Science and
Control, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Medicine, 52: 733-744.
Administration, Center for Mental Health Services,
121 Wingood GM et al. (2001). Dating Violence and the and National Institutes of Health, National Institute of 163
Sexual Health of Black Adolescent Females. Pediatrics, Mental Health.

107(5): Art. No. e72.
129 Maugin E, Loeber R (1996). Academic Performance and
122 García -Moreno C, Watts CH (2000). Violence against Delinquency. In: Tonry M (Ed). Crime and Justice: A
Women: its Importance for HIV/AIDS Prevention. Review of Research, 20: 145–264. Chicago, University of
AIDS, 14(Suppl. 3): S253 – S265. Chicago Press.
123 Human Rights Watch (2001). Scared at School: Sexual 130 Finkelhor D et al. (2006). Re-victimization Patterns in
Violence against Girls in South African Schools, New York, a National Longitudinal Sample of Children and Youth.
Human Rights Watch. Durham, Crimes against Children Research Center,
124 Chan LS et al. (2005). Preventing Violence and Related University of New Hampshire.
Health-risking Social Behaviours in Adolescents. Evidence 131 Stewart D et al. (2006). How Can We Build Resilience
Report/ Technology Assessment No. 107, Agency for in Primary School Aged Children? Asia-Pacific Journal
Healthcare Research and Quality. of Public Health,16 (Suppl.): S37–S41. Queensland, Asia
125 Baldry AC, Farrington DP (2000). Bullies and Pacific Consortium for Public Health.
Delinquents: Personal Characteristics and Parental 132 Alexander LC et al. (2004). Bullying: Health, Well-being
Styles. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, and Risk Behaviours. HBSC Briefing Paper No. 10.
10(1): 17–31. Edinburgh, Child & Adolescent Health Research Unit,
126 Search Institute (2005). 40 Developmental Assets. The University of Edinburgh.
Available at: http://www.search-institute.org/assets/. 133 WHO (2006). Preventing Child Maltreatment: A Guide
to Taking Action and Generating Evidence. Geneva,
WHO/ISPCAN.
134 Bond L et al. (2004). The Gatehouse Project: Can
a Multi-level School Intervention Affect Emotional
Well-being and Health Risk Behaviours? Journal of
Epidemiology and Community Health, 58: 997–1000.
135 Stewart D et al. (2006). How Can We Build Resilience 144 Durrant JE (2005). Corporal Punishment: Prevalence,
in Primary School Aged Children? Asia-Pacific Journal of Predictors and Implications for Child Behaviour and
Public Health, 16 (Suppl.): S37–S41. Queensland, Asia- Development. In: Hart SN (Ed.) (2005). Eliminating
Pacific Consortium for Public Health. Corporal Punishment. Paris, UNESCO.
136 Smith HE, Akinsulure-Smith AM (2004). A Global 145 UNICEF (2005). Memories of Childhood Violence.
Perspective on Youth Outreach. In: Clauss-Ehlers Unpublished report. UNICEF, Eastern and Southern
CS, Weist MD (Eds). Community Planning to Foster Africa Regional Office.
Resilience in Children. New York, Kluwer Academic/
146 Limber S, Cedillo S (2003). Responding to Bullying.
Plenum Publishers.
Intervention in School and Clinic, 38 (4):236–242.
137 US Department of Health and Human Services
(2001). Youth Violence: A Report of the Surgeon
General. Rockville, MD, US Department of Health
and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and 148 UNICEF (not dated). Children with Disabilities:
Control, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Towards Inclusive Education in South Asia. (Unpublished
Administration, Center for Mental Health Services, Consolidated Report.) Kathmandu, UNICEF Regional
164 and National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Office for South Asia.
Mental Health.
149 UNICEF MENARO (2005). Violence in Schools in

138 Search Institute (2005). 40 Developmental Assets. the Middle East and North Africa – Features, Causes,
Accessed online August 2006. Available at: http://www. Intervention and Prevention. (Dr Josi Salem-Pickertz.)
search-institute.org/assets/. Amman, UNICEF MENARO.
139 Greene M (2005). Reducing Violence and Aggression in 150 Rigby K (2003). Addressing Bullying in Schools:
Schools. Trauma, Violence and Abuse, 6(3): 236–253. Theory and Practice. In: Trends and Issues in Crime and
Criminal Justice, No. 259. Australia, Australian Institute
of Criminology.
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: Middle
East and North Africa. Available at: http://www. 151 Government of Botswana website (2003). Daily News
violencestudy.org/r27. Online. Available at: http://www.gov.bw/cgi-bin/news.
cgi?d=20030916.
141 Dunne M et al. (2005). Gendered School Experiences:
The Impact on Retention and Achievement in Botswana 152 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
and Ghana. London, United Kingdom Department for against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: Latin
International Development. America. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27.
142 UNICEF MENARO (2005). Violence in Schools in 153 UNAIDS Inter-Agency Task Team (IATT) on
the Middle East and North Africa – Features, Causes, Education (2006). Quality Education and HIV & AIDS.
Intervention and Prevention. (Dr Josi Salem-Pickertz.) Available at: www.unesco.org/aids/iatt.
Amman, UNICEF MENARO. 154 Monasch R, Boerma JT (2004). Orphanhood and
143 All responses are available at: http://www.ohchr. Childcare Patterns in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Analysis
org/english/bodies/crc/ study.htm. As of 20 September of National Surveys from 40 Countries. AIDS, 18
2006, 135 Member States and one observer had (Suppl. 2): S55–S65.
submitted responses.
4
155 Human Rights Watch (2004). Letting Them Fail: 167 UNAIDS Inter-Agency Task Team (IATT) on
Government Neglect and the Right to Education for Children Education (2006). Quality Education and HIV & AIDS.
Affected by AIDS. New York, Human Rights Watch. Available at: www.unesco.org/aids/iatt.
156 Boler T, Jellema A (2005). Deadly Inertia: A Cross- 168 Kirk J, Garrow S (2003). Girls in Policy: Challenges for
country Study of Educational Responses to HIV. Global the Education Sector, Agenda No. 56. Durban, Girls’
Campaign for Education, ActionAid International with Education Movement.
support from CIDA, IIEP, UNESCO et al.
169 Country reports available from the Global Initiative to
157 World Education (2001). Menarche and Its Implications End All Corporal Punishment of Children at http://
for Educational Policy in Peru. Girls’ and Women’s www.endcorporalpunishment.org/index.html
Education Policy Research Activity (GWE-PR A) Policy
Brief. Available at: http://www.worlded.org/docs/
Policy_brief.pdf.
158 Bruns B et al. (2003). Achieving Universal Primary Forms of Punishment (articles 19, 28(2) and 37, inter
Education by 2015: A Chance for Every Child. alia), CRC/C/GC/8.
Washington DC, The World Bank.
159 UNICEF (2004). The State of the World’s Children. New against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: 165
York, UNICEF. Eastern and Southern Africa. Available at: http://www.

160 Human Rights Watch (2001). Scared at School: Sexual violencestudy.org/r27.
Violence against Girls in South African Schools. New York, 172 Jewkes R (2000). The HIV/AIDS Emergency: Department
Human Rights Watch. of Education Guidelines for Educators. Pretoria,
161 Shepard B (2000). Youth Programmes in the SADC Department of Education.
Countries: Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights. 173 All responses are available at: http://www.ohchr.
Paper presented at the 1st Youth Conference of the org/english/bodies/crc/ study.htm. As of 20 September
Southern Africa Development Community Region, 2006, 135 Member States and one observer had
13–16 June 2000, Maputo, Mozambique. submitted responses.
162 UNESCO (2005). Education For All Global Monitoring 174 All responses are available at: http://www.ohchr.
Report 2005. Paris, UNESCO. org/english/bodies/crc/ study.htm. As of 20 September
163 UNESCO (2005). Education For All Global Monitoring 2006, 135 Member States and one observer had
Report 2005. Paris, UNESCO. submitted responses.
164 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence 175 UNESCO (1996). Examples of School-based Programs
against Children (2005). Regional Consultation Outcome Involving Peaceful Conflict Resolution and Mediation
Reports. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27. Oriented to Overcome Community Violence. New York,
Ying Ying Lim and Morton Deutsch, International
165 National Center for Mental Health Promotion and
Center for Cooperation and Conflict Resolution,
Violence Prevention (2004). Prevention Brief. Newton,
Teachers College, Columbia University.
MA, National Center for Mental Health Promotion and
Violence Prevention. 176 Wilson SJ, Lipsey MW (2005). The Effectiveness of
School-Based Violence Prevention Programs for Reducing
166 Adapted from UNICEF, UNESCO and Save the
Disruptive and Aggressive Behavior. Nashville, Center
Children (2002). Quality Education for All: From a Girl’s
for Evaluation Research and Methodology, Institute for
Point of View. New York, UNICEF; and UNESCO
Public Policy Studies, Vanderbilt University.
(2004). Inclusive, Learner-Friendly Environment Toolkit.
Bangkok, UNESCO.
177 Greene M (2005). Reducing Violence and Aggression in 188 Boyle S (2002). Reaching the Poor: The ‘Costs’ of
Schools. Trauma, Violence and Abuse, 6(3): 236–253. Sending Children to School. London, United Kingdom
Department for International Development.
178 UNAIDS Inter-Agency Task Team (IATT) on
Education (2006).Quality Education and HIV & AIDS. 189 Cow M (2001). A World Safe for Children – Ending
Available at: www.unesco.org/aids/iatt. Abuse, Violence and Exploitation. Milton Keynes,World
Vision International.
179 Greene M (2005). Reducing Violence and Aggression in
Schools. Trauma, Violence and Abuse, 6(3): 236–253. 190 Save the Children (2005). Children’s Actions to End
Violence against Girls and Boys. A contribution to the
180 Dunne M et al. (2005). Gendered School Experiences:
UN Secretary-General’s Study of Violence against
The Impact on Retention and Achievement in Botswana
Children. Save the Children Sweden.
and Ghana. London, United Kingdom Department for
International Development. 191 Greene M (2005). Reducing Violence and Aggression in
Schools. Trauma, Violence and Abuse, 6(3): 236–253.
181 Moser C, van Bronkhorst B (1999). Youth Violence in
Latin America and the Caribbean: Costs, Causes, and 192 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
Interventions. LCR Sustainable Development Working against Children (2005). Regional Desk Reviews.
Paper No. 3, Urban Peace Program Series. Washington Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27.
166 DC, World Bank.
193 Seshadri SP (2005). Children and Violence: Participatory
182 Galloway D, Roland E ( 2004). Is the Direct Approach Rapid Assessment Tool. Bangalore, Kolkata and Lucknow,
to Bullying Always the Best? In: Smith PK et al. (Eds). UNICEF India.
Bullying in Schools: How Successful Can Interventions Be?
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, pp 37–54.
Points: Listen and Speak Out against Sexual Abuse of Girls
183 UNESCO (2004). Making the Case for Violence and Boys. Global Submission by the International Save
Prevention Through Schools. FRESH Tools for Effective the Children Alliance to the UN Secretary-General’s
School Health, 1st Edition. Geneva, UNESCO. Study on Violence against Children. Oslo, Save the
Children Norway.
184 All responses are available at: http://www.ohchr.
org/english/bodies/crc/ study.htm. As of 20 September 195 Chigunta F (2005). Report on the Evaluation of the Child
2006, 135 Member States and one observer had Rights Clubs Project in Zambia. Lusaka, Save the Sweden
submitted responses. and UNICEF. Available at: http://www.unicef.org/
evaldatabase/index_31123.html.
185 Marušić I et al. (2005). Evaluation of the Programme
“For Safe and Enabling Environment in Schools 196 Safe Schools Coalition of Washington. Information
– Campaign for Prevention and Combatting Violence in available at: http://www.safeschoolscoalition.org/.
Schools.” Zagreb, Institute for Social Research in Zagreb
197 L’Observatoire des droits de l’enfant de la région océan
and Centre for Educational Research and Development.
186 Save the Children Alliance (2005). 10 Essential Learning de l’océan indien. Annual Report of the Observatoire des
Points: Listen and Speak Out against Sexual Abuse of Girls droits de l’enfant de la région océan indien. Mauritius,
and Boys. Global Submission by the International Save l’Observatoire des droits de l’enfant de la région océan
the Children Alliance to the UN Secretary-General’s indien.
198 UNICEF (2005). Combatting Violence: Education for
Children Norway.
Peace – For Me, You and the Entire World, Background
187 Gittins C (2006) Violence Reduction in Schools – How to Note. Mexico, UNICEF Mexico.
Make a Difference. A Handbook. Strasbourg, Council of
Europe.
4
199 Save the Children (2005). Voices of Girls and Boys to 210 DevTech Systems Inc. (2004). The Safe Schools Program
End Violence against Children in South and Central Ethiopia Assessment Report. Washington, United States
Asia. Submission to the UN Secretary-General’s Study Agency for International Development.
on Violence against Children. Kathmandu, Save the
211 WHO, UNICEF, World Bank, UNESCO and UNFPA
Children Sweden Regional Programme for South and
(2003). Skills for Health. WHO’s Information Series on
Central Asia.
School Health Document No. 9. Geneva, World Health
200 UNICEF (2006). Stigma of AIDS Leads to Killing of Organization.
an Orphaned Kenyan Boy, 21 April 2006. UNICEF.
212 L’Observatoire des droits de l’enfant de la région océan
Available at: http://www.unicef.org/uniteforchildren/
makeadifference/makediff_33564.htm.
201 United Nations Secretary-Generals’s Study on Violence droits de l’enfant de la région océan indien. Mauritius,
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: North l’Observatoire des droits de l’enfant de la région océan
America. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27. indien.
202 Ierley A, Claasen-Wilson D (2003). Making Things 213 Campbell C, MacPhail C (2002). Peer Education,
Right. Restorative Justice for School Communities. In: Gender and the Development of Critical Consciousness:
TS Jones, R Compton (Eds). Kids Working It Out. San Participatory HIV Prevention by South African Youth.
167
Francisco, Jossey-Bass, pp 199–219. Cited in: United Social Science and Medicine, 55: 331–345.

Nations Secretary-Generals’s Study on Violence against
214 Tomasevski K (2004). Manual on Rights-based
Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: North America.
Education: global human rights requirements made simple.
Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27.
Bangkok, UNESCO.
203 Adapted from Hart SN (Ed) (2005). Eliminating
215 Grossman DC et al. (1997). Effectiveness of a Violence
Corporal Punishment. Paris, UNESCO.
Prevention Curriculum Among Children in Elementary
204 Olweus D (1993). Bullying at School: What We Know and School. Journal of the American Medical Association, 277:
What We Can Do. Oxford, Blackwell. 1605–1611.
205 SAMHSA Model Program (undated). The Olweus 216 WHO, UNICEF, World Bank, UNESCO and UNFPA
Bullying Prevention Program. FactSheet – SAMHSA (2003). Skills for Health. WHO Information Series on
Model Program. US Department of Health and Human School Health, Document No. 9. Geneva, World Health
Services. Available at: http://www.clemson.edu/olweus/. Organization.
206 Green M (2006). Bullying in Schools: A Plea for a 217 Save the Children Alliance (2005). 10 Essential Learning
Measure of Human Rights. Journal of Social Issues, Points: Listen and Speak Out against Sexual Abuse of Girls
62(1): 63–79. and Boys. Global Submission by the International Save
207 Green M (2006). Bullying in Schools: A Plea for a
Measure of Human Rights. Journal of Social Issues,
Children Norway.
62(1): 63–79.
218 Prosser J (2002). Visual Studies and School Playgrounds.
208 Smith P et al. (Eds) (2004). Bullying in Schools: How
Annual Conference of the International Visual
Successful Can Interventions Be? Cambridge, Cambridge
Sociology Association. Santorini, Greece, July 14–17.
University Press.
209 Welbourn A (1995). Stepping Stones: A Training Package
in HIV/AIDS, Communication and Relationship Skills.
London, ActionAid.
219 Leach F, Machakanja P (2000). Preliminary Investigation
of the Abuse of Girls in Zimbabwean Junior Secondary
QUOTES
Schools. London, Education Report, Serial No. 39. I United Nations Secretary General’s Study on violence
United Kingdom Department for International against children (2005). Regional Desk Review: Latin
Development. America, p 16. Available at: www.violencestudy.org/r27.
220 Leach F et al. (2003). An Investigative Study of the II International Save the Children Alliance (2005).
Abuse of Girls in African Schools, Educational Papers. Voices of Girls and Boys to end Violence against Children
London, United Kingdom Department for International in South and Central Asia. In preparation of the UN
Development. Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Children.
221 Kent A (2004). Living on the Edge: Examining Space Kathmandu, Save the Children Sweden Regional
and Sexualities within a Township High School in Programme for South and Central Asia, p 22.
Greater Durban. Transformation, 54: 59–75. III L’Observatoire des droits de l’enfant de la région océan
222 Black M, Talbot R (2005). Water: A Matter of Life and indien (2006). La violence contre les enfants dans la région
Health. Oxford University Press/UNICEF India. de l’océan indien. Annual Report of the Observatoire des
223 WHO (2004). International Classification of External
168 Causes of Injury, Version 1.2. Geneva, World Health
indien, p 34.
Organization.
IV United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence

224 CDC/WHO (2001). Injury Surveillance Guidelines.
Atlanta and Geneva, Centers for Disease Control and
Report: Europe and Central Asia, p 30. Available at:
Prevention and World Health Organization.
www.violencestudy.org/r27.
225 Analysis provided to the Study by the Global School-
V Africa Child Policy Forum (2006). The African
Based Student Health Survey: The World Health
Declaration on Violence against Girls. Second
Organization (http://www.who.int/chp/gshs or http://
International Policy conference on the African Child.
www.cdc.gov/gshs) for surveys conducted in 2003–5 for
Addis Ababa, 11 and 12 May 2006, p 1.
Botswana, Chile (metropolitan area), China (Beijing),
Guyana, Jordan, Kenya, Lebanon, Namibia, Oman, VI United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
Philippines, Swaziland, Uganda, UAE, Venezuela against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: North
(Lara), Zambia and Zimbabwe (Harare). America, p 30. Available at: www.violencestudy.org/r27.
226 Currie C et al. (2004). Health Behaviour in School-Aged VII United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
Children (HBSC) Study: International Report from the against Children (2005). Regional Consultation Outcome
2001/2002 Survey. Health Policy for Children and Report: Eastern and Southern Africa, p 18. Available at:
Adolescents, No 4. Geneva, World Health Organization. www.violencestudy.org/r27.
VIII United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
IX Human Rights Watch (2001). Scared at School: Sexual
Violence Against Girls in South African Schools. New
York, Human Rights Watch.
X United Nations Secretary General’s Study on violence
against children (2005). Regional Desk Review: Latin
4
XI United Nations Secretary General’s Study on violence
against children (2005). Regional Desk Review: South
Asia, p 59. Available at: www.violencestudy.org/r27.
XII Human Rights Watch (2004). Letting Them Fail:
Government Neglect and the Right to Education for
Children Affected by AIDS. New York, Human Rights
Watch.
XIII United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
Asia, p 33. Available at: www.violencestudy.org/r27.
XIV L’Observatoire des droits de l’enfant de la région océan
indien, p 35.
169
XV UNAIDS Inter-Agency Task Team (IATT) on

Education (2006). Quality Education and HIV & AIDS.
Available at: www.unesco.org/aids/iatt.
XVI Naker D (2005). Violence against children, the voices of
the Children Uganda, p 35.
IRAQ, 1999, Mahmoud sits in the dormitory of Al-Rahma Rehabilitation Centre for street
children in the Rashad section of Baghdad.
5
IN CARE AND JUSTICE INSTITUTIONS
Introduction 175
The rise of the institution 178
Second thoughts about institutional care 180
Factors contributing to violence in institutions 180
Low priority 181 171
Inadequate staffing 181
VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN IN CARE AND JUSTICE INSTITUTIONS

Lack of Monitoring and Oversight 182
Mixing different levels of vulnerability 182
Children in institutional care 183
Institutionalisation in Eastern Europe and
former Soviet countries 184
Ethnic minorities targeted 184
Why children are placed in residential care 185
Patterns of institutionalisation 186
Sources of violence within care institutions 187
Violence by staff 187
Violence in the guise of treatment 188
Lack of care as a form of violence 188
Violence by other children 189
Impact of institutionalisation on children’s health
and development 189
Children in custody and detention 190
Historical context 192
Children in conflict with the law 193
Why children come into conflict with the law 193
Detention as a substitute for care 195
Sources of violence in detention and police custody 196
Violence by staff in detention institutions 196
Violence while in custody of police and security forces 197
Violence as a sentence 198
Violence by adult detainees 199
Violence by other children 199
Self-harm 200
172 Other children in State custody 201
Refugees, asylum seekers and migrants 201

Unaccompanied children 201
Jail-like facilities 201
Detention of migrant children 202
Children in peacetime armies 203
Responses to violence against children
in care and justice institutions 203
Legislative action 204
Policies to prevent institutionalisation 205
The principle of ‘last resort’ 205
Prioritise alternatives 206
Alternatives to institutional care 207
Support for disadvantaged and at-risk families 207
Support for families of children with disabilities 208
Direct support for orphans and vulnerable children 209
Accommodating different needs and preferences 209
5
Alternatives to institutional detention 209
Community-based diversion programmes 210
Protection from violence within institutions 211
Staff selection, training and remuneration 211
Conforming to international standards 212
Monitoring and investigation 212
Complaints mechanisms 212
Redress and response mechanisms 213 173
De-institutionalising children already in care 213

Public education: getting the message out 215
Where resources are scarce 215
Recommendations 216
For all care and justice settings 216
For care and social welfare systems 218
For justice systems 218
References 220
174
“Sometimes one day in prison felt like a year.
But after ten days you get used to it and you don’t cry as much.”
Boy in juvenile detention, Middle East, 2003 I
5
INTRODUCTION Children are institutionalised for a variety of
reasons. Some are placed in orphanages (as
Around the world, millions of girls and boys well as in more home-like arrangements such
grow up for substantial periods not in their as foster care or kinship care), because they
own or alternative families, but under the con- have lost their parents and have no extended
trol and supervision of care authorities or justice or surrogate family to go to – a problem that
systems. The institutions they live in have many is expanding due to AIDS, especially in sub-
names, including orphanages, children’s homes, Saharan Africa. Others are there because of
care homes, prisons, juvenile detention facilities, physical or mental disability, psychiatric or
reform schools, etc. They may be open or closed other severe illness. Many have been given
(i.e. where children are locked in), and may be up by parents who, lacking money or support
run by Governments, private companies or indi- services to cope with their child’s disabilities,
viduals, or by non-governmental or faith-based
feel they have no alternative. As a result, many
organisations. Many are large-scale, and chil-
children with disabilities are institutionalised 175
dren who enter them can live prolonged peri-
in hospitals. Some have run away, or have been

ods of their lives inside. Whatever their name,
removed by the authorities, from violent and
these institutions govern the day-to-day lives,
abusive homes.
personal development and future life chances of
a very large number of children. The majority of children in the custody of
police, or in detention because of actual or
Although these institutions are established to
provide care, guidance, support and protection perceived offences should not be there. In
to children, the boys and girls who live in them many countries, this group typically includes
may be at heightened risk of violence com- children simply in need of care and protec-
pared to children whose care and protection tion but who have been placed in correctional
is governed by parents and teachers, at home facilities under charges such as vagrancy, and
and at school. Reports from many countries have thereby been criminalised for nothing
in all regions show that institutionalised chil- more than homelessness and poverty. The vast
dren are often subjected to violence from staff majority of children in detention are charged
and officials responsible for their well-being. with minor or petty crimes, and are first-time
This can include torture, beatings, isolation, offenders. Very few have committed violent
restraints, rape, harassment, and humiliation. offences.1 The ‘institutionalised’ umbrella
In addition, the stigmatisation, isolation and also includes migrant and refugee children,
often de-socialisation that results from these including those seeking asylum and who are
institutionalised responses place boys and girls placed in detention centres while their cases
at much greater risk of being exposed to fur- are being decided. Children in the custody of
ther violence and in some cases becoming per- the State as members of peacetime armies are
petrators of it. also included.
Ill-treatment – and outright negligence – stems Institutions housing children are often closed
not only from the typical overcrowding, squalid to public scrutiny. They lack a basic legal
conditions and lack of resources invested in the framework prohibiting all violence, and also
care of these girls and boys. As importantly, lack adequate Government regulation and
there is often a profound degree of discrimi- oversight, effective complaints mechanisms,
nation against children who end up in institu- and inspection systems. Perpetrators are rarely
tions. The lack of public concern about brutal- held accountable, allowing high rates of vio-
ity towards children in correctional institutions lence to continue unchecked, thereby perpetu-
may reflect societies’ rejection of children who ating tolerance of violence against children.
do not conform to conventional social behav-
iour. Such stigmatisation may also be expressed TYPES OF CARE INSTITUTIONS
in the abusive attitudes and behaviour of poorly
While there is no universally accepted defini-
trained staff.
tion of a children’s care institution, the features
176 Stigma also contributes to violence against chil- most have in common are round-the-clock care
dren with disabilities. Research has shown that of children who live apart from their families,
they are frequently at higher risk of staff vio- and supervision by remunerated staff. The
lence in institutions than other boys and girls.2 size, organisation and activities carried out
within these institutions can vary widely. In
The violence suffered by children in institu- the most closed and isolated institutions, the
tions can be exacerbated when they are housed child’s entire life – education, health services
with adults or older children; this may lead and work, leisure and sleep – takes place there,
to physical and sexual victimisation by other and the institution is very much cut off from
older children and adult inmates. The impact the rest of the community.4
of institutionalisation goes beyond the imme-
diate exposure of children to violence: long- Some broad categories of institutional care
term effects can include severe developmental include:
delays, disability, irreversible psychological Long-term residential or institutional care:
damage, and increased rates of suicide and The number of children living in individual
criminal activity. A study from the USA found institutions may range from a few dozen to
that children who had been in detention in several hundred. Some residential institutions
the juvenile justice system were at great risk of are specifically for children with disabilities.
early violent death. The main cause of death The terms ‘residential care’ and ‘institutional
for young people who had been detained as care’ are used interchangeably in this chapter.
children was homicide (90.1%). Being male,
a member of a racial or ethnic minority, and Emergency shelter care: Facilities that pro-
from an urban area were the salient risk factors vide services to meet children’s basic needs for
for violent death, as well as for being caught up safety, food, shelter and education on a short-
in the juvenile justice system.3 term basis.
5
The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) requires States to provide special
protection to children who are deprived of a family environment (articles 19, 20). The
increased risk of violence against children in institutions adds to the State obligations
to take effective legislative and other measures to protect children in care or detention
from violence, and reduce significantly the number of children who are institution-
alised and detained. The CRC recognises that children should grow up in a family
environment: the Convention’s Preamble states that “… the child, for the full and
harmonious development of his or her personality, should grow up in a family environ-
ment, in an atmosphere of happiness, love and understanding.”
Other articles reiterate the centrality of the family in the upbringing of the child, except
when the child’s best interests dictate that alternative arrangements be made. Article
177
9 concerns family contact in cases where children are separated from their families;

article 37(b) asserts that “the arrest, detention and imprisonment of a child shall be
used only as a measure of last resort, and for the shortest appropriate period of time.”
Article 40 concerning children in conflict with the law asserts that children should
be treated “in a manner consistent with the child’s sense of dignity and worth… and
which takes into account the child’s age and the desirability of promoting the child’s
reintegration.” These provisions make clear that alternatives to institutional care which
support the children’s development and allow them to remain at home and at school are
far preferable to judicial procedures and institutionalisation5.
The CRC specifically addresses the rights of boys and girls with disabilities, recognis-
ing “that a mentally or physically disabled child should enjoy a full and decent life, in
conditions which ensure dignity, promote self-reliance and facilitate the child’s active
participation in the community” (article 23). Segregation and institutionalisation can
never be justified by disability. Children with disabilities are frequently institutionalised
and dangers of such placements are well known, thus the CRC requires child care which
does not involve social isolation or exclusion. In addition, article 25 entitles all children
who have been placed in care to have a periodic review of all aspects of their placement.
>>>
The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) states that the
sentence of death shall not be imposed for crimes committed by persons below 18
years of age (article 6). The Covenant also contains provisions which stipulate that
juvenile offenders shall be segregated from adults and be accorded treatment appro-
priate to their age and legal status (article 10). Article 14 of the Covenant states that
procedures against juvenile persons should take account of the age and the desirability
of promoting rehabilitation. In addition, the Convention against Torture and other
Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment states that States should
take effective legislative, administrative, judicial or other measures to prevent acts of
torture (article 2).
178
Psychiatric facilities: Residential care, staffed the chapter on violence against children in the
by personnel including medical professionals, home and family.)

for children with psycho-social disabilities.
Group homes or home shelter: Personalised BACKGROUND AND
residential care, provided by one or more staff CONTEXT
in a house that is not their own, looking after
a group of children (typically 10–15) in a less THE RISE OF THE INSTITUTION
formal, more home-like environment.
From their earliest inception, institutions cre-
Two other categories of care which aim to pro- ated to take in children were essentially set up
vide a non-institutional environment for chil- as repositories for the unwanted. Historians
dren living apart from their families are: suggest that the earliest institution specifically
for the care of neglected children was created
Foster care: The placement of a child with in Constantinople in the 3rd century AD as
another family for a variable period of time. a means of reducing infanticide. Later on, in
The foster child is accepted into the home of the Middle Ages, foundling homes for aban-
the foster family, which often includes the par- doned children were set up by the Church in
ents’ biological children. Italy, and the practice spread across Europe.9
As well as being a charitable work, the found-
Informal foster care/kinship care: Placement ling home was a means of removing neglected
of a child with another family, which may have and abandoned children from the streets
kinship ties to the child, usually without the and making the problem invisible to society
involvement of Government authorities. (See – an increasingly important task as the rate of
5
UN STANDARDS ON JUVENILE JUSTICE
In addition to the CRC, specific UN standards have been adopted for handling cases
of children in conflict with the law. These include the Standard Minimum Rules for
the Administration of Juvenile Justice, known as ‘the Beijing Rules’, adopted in 1985,
which offer guidance on the administration of justice in such a way as to provide for
the protection of children’s rights and respect for their developmental needs.6 Two
other standards adopted in 1990 – the UN Guidelines for the Prevention of Juvenile
Delinquency (the Riyadh Guidelines) and the UN Rules for the Protection of Juveniles
Deprived of their Liberty (the JDL Rules) – complete the framework of prevention,
case management, and social rehabilitation of children.7,8
Many children who have been abandoned or placed in residential care, including chil-
dren with disabilities, could live with their families if provided with adequate social,
financial or medical support. By ratifying the CRC, States have committed themselves 179
to providing such support to the maximum extent of their resources (article 18.2).

When living with the biological family is not in the child’s best interests, a range of
family-based alternatives should be put in place to provide safer and more beneficial
care than large-scale institutions (article 20). Similarly, stronger care and protection
systems, including support for families, could reduce the number of children who
come into conflict with the law. The vast majority of offences committed by children
are petty and non-violent. Community-based alternatives to detention provide not only
a safer environment for children, but much more effective means of rehabilitation.
When institutionalisation or detention is absolutely necessary, a safe environment for
children must be provided, with adequate trained staff, programmes and services.
Children should have clear, accessible and safe opportunities to complain about the
way they are treated, and Governments must ensure effective monitoring, investiga-
tion, and accountability mechanisms to address violence when it occurs and to hold
the perpetrators responsible.
abandonment of infants reached one in four in also the lack of effective and individual care
some European cities in later centuries. Until given to the children.
the 20th century, the mortality rate among
children in such institutions was invariably Institutions for children grew with industriali-
high.10 This reflected not only the swift spread sation and colonialism. As slums, unemploy-
of infection in any crowded residential setting ment and crime proliferated in the early indus-
before the advent of public health systems, but trialised world, the idea developed of ‘rescuing’
“There were teachers [at the ‘orphanage’] who exceeded their authority
and could beat us for no reason. They know that children have nowhere to turn.
And they could do anything they wanted.”
Child, Europe and Central Asia, 2003 II
poor children from their families – often judged Today, social policy ‘best practice,’ reflecting
to be delinquent or depraved – and protecting the CRC and other human rights obligations,
them in residential institutions. Meanwhile, in aims to provide as many children as possible
colonial and post-colonial settings, indigenous with an upbringing in a family, and access to a
or aboriginal children were also seen as need- mainstream school and community life. How-
ing to be ‘saved’ from what were judged to be ever, the process of de-institutionalisation, and
‘inferior’ cultures. In Australia and Canada, recognition of the damaging effects of institu-
for example, entire generations of such chil- tionalisation on children, is at different stages
dren were removed from their families, placed around the world. In countries where institu-
in residential schools, and denied their own tionalisation of children was never taken up on
culture, clothing and language.11 Systems of any major scale, the care institutions that did
develop have mostly been small and run by pri-
‘juvenile justice’ in Europe and the Americas
vate or religious institutions.
began to introduce residential detention insti-
tutions that were separate from adult prisons In some countries the level of youth crime has
180
in the late 19th and early 20th century. become a high-profile political concern, and
there has also been some regression towards

In some places, the development of large-scale institutional detention, even when actual child
institutions for children came later, either to offender rates have fallen. In many countries,
deal with profound social distress after such children in conflict with the law have typically
events as the two World Wars; or as part of an been detained within the same institutions as
ideological commitment to ‘socialised’ child those for adult offenders, and few countries
care. This was the pattern in many commu- have invested in real alternatives to detention.
nist countries, notably those in the post-1945
USSR sphere of influence. Unfortunately, the numbers of children
who lose the protection of their families and
SECOND THOUGHTS ABOUT require alternative forms of care are growing
INSTITUTIONAL CARE for a variety of reasons. These include the
changing social patterns accompanying rapid
As understanding about child development urbanisation, natural disasters, armed conflict,
grew, some countries began to cut back on widespread population displacement, and the
the use of residential care institutions, and HIV/AIDS pandemic.
to consider options other than detention for
children in conflict with the law. Beginning in FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO
the second half of the 20th century, it became VIOLENCE IN INSTITUTIONS
recognised that large, closed institutions could
not support physical, social, emotional and Violence against children in care and justice
cognitive development in any way comparable systems is legitimised by long-held attitudes
to that in a family setting.12 and behaviours, and failures in both law and
5
its implementation. At the time when the country’s 69 residential care institutions had
establishment of care institutions for children a child psychologist on staff, despite the iden-
in disadvantaged and marginal groups was a tified need for such expertise.13 There may in
preferred social policy, corporal punishment addition be no specialised facilities for children.
was almost universally endorsed for the dis- In Northern Ireland, for example, only 15 beds
cipline and control of unruly children. This are available for adolescents with severe mental
effectively meant that institutionalised chil- health problems.14
dren were exposed to a brutal regime and to
frequent violence. In all regions, by omission Inadequate staffing
or commission, this situation still prevails. Unqualified and poorly remunerated staff are
Low priority widely recognised as a key factor linked to vio-
lence within institutions. Low pay and status
Despite changes in child care practice and frequently result in poorly motivated employees
the evolution of children’s rights, including and rapid staff turnover, and under-staffing is a 181
juvenile justice standards, reform has been serious problem. For example, in a number of

slow to take place in institutions. Few Gov- countries it has been documented that staffing
ernments have set about de-institutionalis- ratios in institutions for children with disabilities
ing as many children as possible in keeping may be as high as one hundred children for each
with their human rights obligations. This is staff member. Under such conditions, children
mainly because of the low level of importance are often left unattended for long periods, and
accorded to the most disadvantaged children overnight entire wards are unattended or pad-
in society – those who have been orphaned, locked, with only a skeleton night shift. Physical
abandoned, those living with disabilities, or and sexual abuse in such instances is rife.15
in conflict with the law.
Relatively few staff in care institutions receive
Far too often, children needing care and pro- any special training in child development or
tection outside the family become the focus rights, or information about issues of violence. In
of policy attention only when some notorious institutions for children with disabilities, inad-
care system failure or rampant abuse occurs. equately trained staff can be quick to lash out at
This lack of priority in policy terms means the children.16 Overwhelmed staff may resort to
that conditions in residential care and juve- violent measures to maintain discipline, particu-
nile detention centres are frequently poor, larly when supervision is lacking. Staff ‘burnout’
with inadequate (sometimes life-threateningly results in increasingly negative attitudes towards
meagre) nutrition, hygiene and health care. children and in patterns of physical and impul-
sive responses to confrontation.17
Low levels of funding result in a lack of properly
qualified professionals. In Azerbaijan, for exam- Individuals with histories of violence against
ple, a 2005 report indicated that not one of the children, including sexual abuse and exploi-
tation, may seek out jobs that allow them Mixing different levels
easy access to children. Rigorous background of vulnerability
checks on personnel are still rare, allowing an
employee who has been dismissed from one Many facilities fail to segregate vulnerable
institution to be hired by another and to con- children from dangerous peers. Children who
tinue a pattern of abuse.18 are vulnerable to violence because of age, size,
sex or other characteristics are often housed
Failure to supervise staff properly is also a seri- together with older children with a history of
ous problem. A study of abuse in residential care violent behaviour.23 For example, in former
in the UK identified ineffective management Serbia and Montenegro, NGOs report that
and minimal contact by managers with staff as children under the age of seven may be placed
significant features common to abuse cases.19,20 in the same institution as child offenders over
the age of 14.24 In Jamaica, where children in
Lack of Monitoring and Oversight need of care and protection are often housed
182 Residential care and detention facilities are with children charged with offences, a 2003
often unregulated and closed to outside scru- Government investigation found that ‘bullies’
tiny, especially those run by private agencies, or gangs of older children sexually preyed upon
faith-based organisations, and NGOs, or that more vulnerable children.25 In many countries,
are situated in isolated areas. In such circum- children in detention are held with adult offend-
stances, violence may continue for years until ers, greatly increasing their risk of violence.
an extreme incident brings it to light. Moreover,
individuals responsible for violence against
children in care and justice systems are rarely
held accountable for their actions. If cases
are reported, they often are only investigated
superficially and prosecutions are extremely
rare. Those in a position to take action may be

complicit in the abuse, reluctant to discipline
or prosecute a colleague, or fearful of negative
publicity or loss of financial support. They may
respond by blocking access to the institutions;
punishing or threatening to dismiss workers
if they speak out. The failure to hold perpe-
trators accountable only ensures that violence
continues. Perpetrators go on to abuse other
RWANDA, 1998, Rose, 4, helps set tables for lunch at
children, and their violent acts create a cli- the Gitarama Orphanage, where she and her sister have lived
mate where violence against children becomes since losing their parents in the 1994 genocide.
‘acceptable’ and commonplace.21,22
“Some of us are abused at home. We move into the child welfare system that is meant
to protect us. The system abuses us. We try to make a complaint and nothing is done.
5
We harbor all this anger and lash out at our peers, family, friends, social workers,
foster parents, group home staff, teachers etc., and the cycle continues.
Somewhere this needs to stop.”
Young person, North America, 2004 III
CHILDREN IN INSTITUTIONAL Central and Eastern Europe and the former

Soviet Union, even though the actual numbers
CARE
had declined due to a falling population. (The
By some accounts, as many as eight million boys total number of children in institutional care
and girls around the world live in institutional declined during that period, however, because
care.26 Some studies have found that violence in the total population of children in the region
residential institutions is six times higher than declined, the proportion of children in institu-
violence in foster care, and that children in tions actually increased.) 30
group care are almost four times more likely to
Some countries in which large-scale insti-
experience sexual abuse than children in family-
tutional care was previously approved have
based care.27 In Kazakhstan, for example, a
deliberately moved away from this kind of care
2002 study found that over 63% of children in
for children without families. For example, the
children’s homes reported that they had been
number of children living in children’s homes
subjected to violence; 28% indicated that such
has dropped significantly over the last 20 years 183
violence occurred regularly.28 A survey of 3,164
in England,31 Italy and Spain.32 In the USA

children in residential institutions in Romania
and Canada, where the number of children in
found that physical abuse included beatings,
out-of-home care has increased significantly
suppression of meals, physical isolation, and
in recent years, the majority of children are
submission to various humiliating jobs. Almost
placed in foster care or group homes.33
half of the children surveyed confirmed beat-
ing as a punitive practice. More than a third The pattern of de-institutionalisation is not uni-
of the institutionalised children were aware of form among industrialised countries, however.
cases when children were obliged to have sexual In Japan, 30,000 children remain in institutions
relations. Abusers included members of the staff established in the post-War era. These children
and mainly older children in the institution.29 still live in large dormitories in hospital-like
buildings, run by a small, non-specialist and
NATURE AND EXTENT overworked staff, and there is virtually no thera-
OF THE PROBLEM peutic case work. Funds are from private chari-
table sources, and boards of directors have ill-
Numerous studies have consistently established defined functions and are rarely monitored.34
the negative impact of institutionalisation and
the existence of high rates of violence in large- High rates of institutionalisation can also be
scale residential care. Yet in some parts of the found in other regions. In the Middle East,
world, and for some groups of children, rates of over 25,000 children were in residential care
institutionalisation are increasing. For exam- in 1999–2000 in Lebanon, while in Morocco,
ple, between 1989 and 2002, the proportion there were an estimated 25,300 children in resi-
of children in institutional care was estimated dential care in 1999–2000.35 In Latin America,
by one researcher to have increased by 3% in certain countries still report significant num-
bers of children in care institutions, the high- 1970s, large numbers of institutions opened
est being Colombia (24,300), Brazil (24,000), throughout the region. Following the collapse
Bolivia (15,600), and Chile (11,600) according of communist Governments, lack of alterna-
to figures published in 2004.36 tive support systems for families meant that
the widespread use of institutions continued.
In Africa, the extended family has normally In 2002, an estimated 1,120,800 children
absorbed orphaned children and other victims were in public care in 27 of the CEE, CIS and
of family casualty, and rates of institutionalisa- Baltic States, 54% of whom – around 605,000
tion have traditionally been low. In many Afri- – were in residential facilities.42
can countries, the only orphanages that existed
until recently were set up by missionaries Many of these facilities are for children with
before independence. However, today in many disabilities. In 2002, an estimated 317,000
African countries private orphanages are now children with disabilities in the region lived
mushrooming, as faith-based organisations, in residential institutions.43 In some countries,
184 NGOs and private donors seek to respond to children labelled as ‘disabled’ make up the
the growing numbers of children orphaned majority of those in residential care. In Uzbeki-
by HIV/AIDS and armed conflict.37 Evidence stan, for example, children with disabilities in
from Liberia,38 Uganda,39 and Zimbabwe40 all care number almost 20,000, compared to only
points to an increased use of institutional care 4,300 without disabilities.44
in recent years. Children’s rights advocates
point out that the majority of children entering Ethnic minorities targeted
these institutions often have at least one living Historically, children from racial and ethnic
parent or contactable relative. They argue minorities tend to be over-represented in care
that these new institutions simply draw chil- (for example in Australia, Brazil, and Canada,
dren out of communities, and represent funds as mentioned above), and in many cases this
which could have been better used to provide trend persists. In Romania, for example, the
improved support services at local level. Insti- Roma people account for less than 10% of the
tutional care is also expensive, costing between country’s population, yet as many as 40% of
six and 100 times more than community-based institutionalised children are Roma. This pat-
foster care, the policy response preferred both tern is repeated in several other countries of
by Governments and aid donors.41 Eastern Europe, including Bulgaria, the Czech
Institutionalisation in Eastern Europe Republic and Hungary. In Central and East-
and former Soviet countries ern Europe and ex-USSR countries generally,
prejudice against ethnic minorities is reported
Institutions for children are more prevalent in to have led staff in residential institutions to
Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) and in the discourage contact between parents and their
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) institutionalised children, and reduced foster
than any other region. During the 1960s and care and adoptive placements.45,46
5
WHY CHILDREN ARE PLACED violence. The organisation found that 88% of
IN RESIDENTIAL CARE children in SOS Children’s Villages in Croa-
tia, 75% of children in Belarus, and 55% of
In contrast to earlier times, today relatively few children in Lithuania, had suffered physical or
children are placed in residential care because sexual violence within the biological family.51
they have no parents. In the CEE and the CIS, Also, many children are removed from fami-
for example, the proportion of children living
lies because of substance abuse by their parents
in residential institutions who have no living
and caregivers.
parent is between 2% and 5%,47,48 while in
Brazil it is about 5%.49 Most commonly, chil- Disability: Because of the widespread stigma-
dren are placed in care because of disability, tisation of children with disabilities as well as
family disintegration, violence in the home, the lack of support provided to parents, these
lack of social support systems, and poor social children are institutionalised at significantly
and economic conditions, including poverty. In higher rates than other children. In Jamaica, for
some countries, natural disasters, armed con- example, 65% of children with developmental 185
flict or the effects of the HIV/AIDS pandemic or physical disabilities live in homes run exclu-

may leave parents unable to care for their chil- sively for children with disabilities.52 Country
dren. Illness, accidents, and incarceration may reports prepared by the CEE/CIS for the 2002
also separate children from their parents. UN Special Session on Children found that
Poverty: This is a significant factor in the the overriding reason why families placed their
decision of many parents to place children in children with disabilities in institutions was due
residential care. When parents feel unable to to a lack of care-giving capacity. Misdiagnosis,
provide for their children, and believe that over-diagnosis and an exclusive focus on the
children can receive better access to education, medical model of disability are also problems
health care and adequate nutrition in residen- leading to the overuse of institutionalisation
tial facilities, they may choose to place their in these countries. In some cases, the lack of
child in care, believing he or she will be better stimulation or the lack of access to high-quality
off than at home. health and education can delay development,
therefore adding to the children’s disability.53
Violence within families: Many children end
up in care because of violence in their family, Family catastrophes including HIV/AIDS:
including neglect, and psychological, physi- Armed conflicts, natural disasters on a mas-
cal and sexual violence. Domestic violence in sive scale, the HIV/AIDS pandemic, or other
Latin America is also a leading cause for the disease naturally incline some humanitarian
loss of parental care.50 SOS Children’s Villages organisations to propose the establishment
found that 73% of children in their Villages of care institutions and orphanages as a suit-
in Venezuela had prior experiences of physi- able response to the large numbers of chil-
cal or psychological violence, including sexual dren in need of care. In Russia, for example,
babies born with HIV who have been aban- and services that would support community
doned are placed in special orphanages just for integration.57
HIV – positive children, or isolated indefinitely
in hospital wards, where they are deprived Patterns of institutionalisation
of any opportunities for social, physical and There is great variation in patterns of institu-
mental development.54 In some conflict-torn tionalisation between countries, even within
countries where a high proportion of children regions. A recent study carried out in Euro-
have lost one or both parents, levels of institu- pean countries found significant differences in
tionalisation may be unusually high. In Soma- the reasons why children under the age of three
lia, for example, although it is contrary to are being taken into care. In Western European
Islamic standards and traditional norms, use countries (Belgium, France, Norway, Por-
of children’s homes or orphanages is strongly tugal, Sweden and the UK), which provided
advocated by parents and carers, especially in information on reasons for placing children
urban areas. Children’s homes, all of which under three in residential care institutions, the
186 subsist on external, mostly charitable support, main reasons were abuse and neglect within
provide children with food, shelter and educa- the family (69%), social reasons such as par-
tion, which are often not available elsewhere. ents in prison (23%), abandonment (4%), and
Among the approximately 8,000 Somali chil- disability (4%).
dren resident in children’s homes, a high pro-
portion of them have relatives.55 There were no orphans (defined in this con-
text as children with no living parents) living
Lack of alternatives: In many environments, in institutions in these countries. In contrast,
alternatives to institutionalisation, including a little over one in 20 of the institutionalised
support for vulnerable families and family- children in central and south-eastern Europe
based care, have not been developed. This (Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary,
can lead to unnecessary overuse of residential Latvia, Romania and Slovakia), Cyprus and
placements. For example, the director of a psy- Malta were orphans. The main reasons for
chiatric hospital in Turkey estimated that of the children being placed in residential care
500 patients (including adults and children) in these countries were abandonment (32%),
at his facility, only 10% would need to be social reasons such as family ill-health and
confined as in-patients if community-based incapacity (25%), disability (23%), abuse or
services were available.56 In Romania, the neglect (14%), and orphaned (6%).58
population of children in orphanages has been
reduced, but many children with disabilities The study concluded that less wealthy coun-
have simply been moved from larger institu- tries with lower levels of spending on public
tions to smaller ones. The extensive funding health and social services tended to have
needed for these new institutions has drained higher numbers of institutionalised children.
scarce resources from developing foster care It speculated that this might be due to a lack
5
of counselling services to prevent abandon- SOURCES OF VIOLENCE WITHIN
ment, and that are unable to provide social CARE INSTITUTIONS
services to parents who are at risk of being vio-
lent towards their child. As well, in countries The heightened risk of violence to children
with fewer health and social services to offer in care institutions comes from a variety of
parents such as mental health and alcohol or sources. The greatest amount of evidence con-
drug addiction services, children are likely to cerns violence of various kinds by staff, includ-
remain in institutional care for longer periods ing neglect, and violence by children against
of time. other children. In addition, some forms of
treatment practiced in many institutions
In Brazil, a national survey of 589 institutions themselves constitute violence.
receiving federal funding used somewhat differ-
ent categories to collect data on institutionali- Violence by staff
sation of children of all ages. The main reasons Children in residential facilities may be sub-
children were institutionalised included the jected to physical, sexual and psychological 187
following: family’s lack of material resources

violence by staff. Such violence can include
(i.e. poverty) (24%), abandonment by parents verbal abuse, beatings, excessive or prolonged
or guardians (18%), domestic violence (11%), restraints, rape, sexual assault or harassment.
parents’ or guardians’ addiction to chemical Some of it comes in the form of State-autho-
substances (11%), parents living on the streets rised and still lawful violent disciplinary mea-
(7%), orphaned: 5%, imprisonment of parents sures. In 145 States, corporal punishment
or guardians (4%), and sexual abuse by either and other forms of degrading punishment or
parents or guardians (3%).59 treatment have not been explicitly prohibited
in all residential institutions and other forms
Most children living in institutions could be
of alternative care; only 31 States have consis-
reintegrated into their families with the assis-
tently prohibited all corporal punishment in
tance of social workers, or other services and
all forms of alternative care.60 In some States,
support. When family reintegration is not pos-
there are detailed regulations specifying how
sible, other family-based alternatives provide a
punishment is to be administered, including
far safer and more beneficial environment for
the implement to be used, and what parts of
children. The lack of arrangements for alter-
the body may be struck.
native systems of care in countries with the
means to provide such systems is another dem- Although the State is responsible for protect-
onstration of the obscurity and prejudice sur- ing children from violence irrespective of who
rounding the care of children who have been is providing their care, staff violence has been
deprived of their families, or had the misfor- documented in institutions around the world,
tune to be born into dysfunctional, violent, or including those run by the State, by faith-
fragmented home situations. based organisations, and by private entrepre-
neurs or enterprises. The forms of violence can make them more ‘compliant.’ This may have
be horrific. In care institutions in Jordan, chil- other implications; for example when children
dren have been reportedly subjected to beat- with disabilities are heavily medicated by staff
ings with hands, sticks and hoses, and having in institutions and hospitals (often as a way of
their heads hit against the wall.61 In care insti- coping with staff shortages), they are unable
tutions in Qatar, a study found that children to defend themselves from physical violence or
were often beaten with sticks by institution sexual assault.65
staff, including teachers, supervisors, guards
A further example of State-authorised violence
and social workers.62
is the practice of performing medical inter-
Violence in the guise of treatment ventions to limit reproductive functions – for
example, giving hysterectomies to young girls
In residential institutions for children with dis- with intellectual impairments or mental health
abilities (including brain injuries, developmen- concerns. There have been reports of this viola-
188 tal disabilities, and psychiatric disabilities), chil- tion of human rights on girls as young as seven
dren may be subjected to violence as part of their or eight.66 There is no medical justification
purported ‘treatment.’ For example, in Turkey, for such operations. However, several reasons
a two-year investigation found that in psychiat- have been given, including that the operation
ric institutions, children as young as nine were will prevent the girls from menstruating, thus
subjected to electroconvulsive or ‘shock’ treat- avoiding demands that would otherwise be
ment (ECT) without the use of muscle relax- placed on caregivers; and that it will ensure
ants or anaesthesia. Such treatment is extremely that the young girl will not become pregnant.
painful, frightening and dangerous.63 Such concerns reflect the problems of under-
staffed institutions and the lack of sexual and
Electric shocks are also used as an ‘aversive
reproductive health education and services for
treatment’ to control children’s behaviour in
girls with disabilities, as well as the lack of
some institutions. For example, the SIBIS (Self
adequate protection against the assumed risk
Injurious Behaviour-Inhibiting System) device
of rape for young women both in institutions
is a commercially available remote-controlled
and the community.
electric shock device marketed almost exclu-
sively for administering shocks to children Lack of care as a form of violence
with disabilities. One facility in the United
States devised its own ‘substantially stronger’ Wherever children are living, including when
device when it found that electrical shocks they are in the custody of the State, Govern-
from the SIBIS device “lost much of (their) ments are required to ensure that basic needs are
effectiveness” over a period of a few months.64 met. However, conditions in many residential
institutions are often so poor that they put the
Drugs may also be used, not for medical treat- health and lives of children at risk. Institutions
ment, but to control children’s behaviour and are often overcrowded, unsanitary, and lacking
5
in both staff and resources, leading to increased While recent studies are not common on
mortality rates among these children compared this issue, studies from the 1990s in the UK,
to their peers in family environments. Russia, and elsewhere indicated that bullying
and sexual abuse by peers while children were
In Mexico, children in psychiatric facilities in care widespread.69 ‘High-impact’ physical
have been found lying on mats on the floor, violence was also reported widely, ranging from
some covered with urine and faeces. Lacking knife attacks to kicks and punches, primarily
adequate staff supervision, some children were from peers.70 In some cases, children reported
seen eating their own faeces and physically that orphanage staff pitted them against each
abusing themselves.67 In rehabilitation centres other for their own entertainment.71
for children with mental disabilities bedrid-
den children emaciated from starvation and IMPACT OF INSTITUTIONALISATION
dehydration have been found. Bottles of food ON CHILDREN’S HEALTH
were provided by staff, but children who were AND DEVELOPMENT
189
unable to pick up the bottles due to their dis-
The overuse of institutions for children exacts

ability got no nourishment.68
enormous costs on children, their families, and
In many facilities for children with disabilities, society. Extensive research in child development
the children have no access to education, rec- has shown that the effects of institutionalisation
reation, rehabilitation or other programmes. can include poor physical health, severe devel-
They are often left in their beds or cribs for opmental delays, disability, and potentially
long periods without human contact or stimu- irreversible psychological damage. The negative
lation. Such deprivation often leads to severe effects are more severe the longer a child remains
negative physical, mental and psychological in an institution, and in instances where the
damage, and in many instances to death. conditions of the institution are poor.
Violence by other children The risk of developmental and psychological

damage is particularly acute for young children
Children in residential care are vulnerable to under the age of four, which is a critical period
violence from their peers, particularly when for children to bond to their parents or care-
conditions and staff supervision are poor. givers.72 Even in a well-staffed institution, it is
Lack of privacy and respect for cultural iden- unlikely that the attention they might receive
tity, frustration, overcrowding, and a failure to from their own parents would be replaced by
separate particularly vulnerable children from staff. One study on institutions in Europe
older, more aggressive children often lead to found that young children (0–3 years) placed
peer-on-peer violence. Staff may sanction or in residential care institutions without parents
encourage peer abuse amongst children – either were at risk of harm in terms of attachment
to maintain control or simply for amusement. disorder, developmental delay and neural atro-
phy in the developing brain. The study con- of their childhood in institutions were over-
cluded that “The neglect and damage caused represented by a factor of 10 among returned
by early privation of parenting is equivalent to trafficking victims.78
violence to a young child.” 73
Research also shows that children placed in resi-
Inactivity, social isolation, and degrading condi- dential care are more likely to come into conflict
tions of living in institutions can lead to a decline with the law. In Northern Ireland, for example,
in a child’s social and psychological function- a large proportion of young people who end up
ing.74,75 After spending time in an institution, in the criminal justice system have come from a
children can lose basic skills that they had upon care background. Twenty-five percent of those
entry, such as the ability to look after themselves in custody are admitted directly from residential
and to develop caring relationships. care, and an estimated 70% of 10–13-year-olds
in detention are from the care system. One study
The physical condition of children in institu-
on the state of mental health services regarding
tions may also deteriorate. Lacking rehabilita-
190 children in secure care and custody in Northern
tion, physical therapy or other programmes,
Ireland found that 48% of young people ques-
children are often left to languish for years

tioned had been in care for over five years, and
in a state of total inactivity. Without stimula-
that 22% had experienced four or more place-
tion and opportunities for mobility, children’s
ments within the previous two years – with one
arms, legs, and spines become contorted and
person having been moved 13 times.79
atrophied from lack of use. Lacking adequate
human contact, some children resort to self-
harm. Their situation is exacerbated when staff CHILDREN IN CUSTODY
respond by using physical restraints. AND DETENTION
Institutionalisation also fuels the cycle of vio- Violence against children while in justice insti-
lence: institutionalised children are more likely tutions or in the custody of the police – police
to engage in self-harm, aggression towards lock-ups, prisons including adult prisons,
others, or become involved in crime, prostitu- reformatory schools, and other places where
tion, or substance abuse. One study in Russia children in conflict with the law may be held
suggests that one in three young people who – is more common than violence against chil-
leave residential institutions becomes home- dren placed in institutions solely for provision
less, one in five ends up with a criminal record, of care. Even though there are many overlaps
and one in ten commits suicide.76 Some studies and similarities (poor conditions, low quality
indicate that many institutionalised children of staffing, etc.), the institutional treatment of
are emotionally vulnerable and crave adult children regarded as being anti-social or crim-
attention, making them ready targets for traf- inal is likely to be more physically and psy-
fickers.77 A study in the Republic of Moldova chologically punitive than that of other groups
found that young people who had spent part or in other environments. All the prejudices
5
and discriminations attached to unwanted or that every child deprived of their liberty has
family-less children are reinforced where the the right to prompt access to legal and other
child is seen as a social nuisance, or worse. appropriate assistance and the right to chal-
lenge its legality, and to receive a prompt deci-
NATURE AND EXTENT sion (article 37d). However, pre-trial detention
OF THE PROBLEM may last for months or even years. In Burundi,
for example, the pre-trial period for children
Although information is hard to find and data
is sometimes longer than the maximum sen-
on children in care and justice systems are not
tence for the offence that was allegedly com-
generally disaggregated, some sources esti-
mitted.84 Pre-trial detention of children in
mate that, at any one time, one million chil-
dren worldwide are deprived of their liberty. Lagos State, Nigeria, has been found to last
This is certainly an underestimate, and better for as much as one year.85 Disturbingly, many
data collection is urgently needed globally. For of the children detained for long periods are
example, in the USA alone, more than 600,000 never convicted of a crime. In Pakistan, only
191
children and teenagers spend some period of 13–17% of detained children were eventually

time in secure detention facilities every year.80 convicted of any offence.86 In the interim, they
are detained for months or even years in over-
The vast majority of boys and girls in deten- crowded, dismal conditions, at risk of violence
tion are charged with minor or petty crimes, from staff, peers and adult inmates.87
and are first-time offenders. Very few have
committed violent offences. Many have com- Studies in South Asia indicate that the major-
mitted no offence at all, but have been rounded ity of children detained are eligible for bail
up for vagrancy, homelessness, or simply being and pose no danger to the public.88 However,
in need of care and protection.81 judges routinely set bail well beyond the reach
of detainees’ families, resulting in needless
In many countries, the majority of children in
incarceration.89 Bail is rarely, if ever, consid-
detention have not been convicted of a crime,
but are simply awaiting trial. In Pakistan, as ered as an option for street children.
of March 2003, out of around 2,340 children After trial, large numbers of children are sen-
detained in prisons alone (i.e. not taking into tenced to correctional facilities or prisons.
account detention in police cells and other Although, as noted earlier, CRC article 40
institutions), in just four regions of Pakistan,
encourages a variety of alternatives, including
83% were under trial, or waiting for their trial
supervision orders, probation, and foster care,
to start.82 In six jails in Cebu, the Philippines,
imprisonment is often the norm. For example,
75% of children held in jail between 1999 and
2001 were detained pending trial.83 in Indonesia in the late 1990s, up to 99% of
juvenile offenders brought before the courts
Building on the International Covenant on were sentenced to prison.90 In Bangladesh,
Civil and Political Rights, the CRC requires children are frequently sent into ‘safe custody’
by the police and the courts, even if this is remedy and social reform. The first separate
unnecessary. Bangladesh passed a Children’s system of criminal justice for young people was
Act in 1974 which called for a separate system introduced in the US State of Illinois in 1899,
of juvenile justice, probation, and the removal and other States and countries swiftly followed
of children from adult prisons. However, more suit. Since then, most (but not all) countries
than 30 years later, the provisions of this Act have introduced special ways of handling the
are breached and abused at every stage of a cases of young people, including lighter and
child’s contact with the law, and children in alternative types of sentence. Many children
custody may experience appalling conditions, accused of an offence today will – without
abuse of rights, and violence.91 losing the right to a fair trial – be diverted
Similar situations have been reported in from judicial processes into the welfare system,
Africa. Most countries in Eastern and South- come before special ‘child hearings’, or be pro-
ern Africa have legislation on juvenile justice vided with treatment that takes full account of
192 systems designed to respect the rights of the their age, circumstances and needs.93 However,
child. However, many are not functioning or while many countries have introduced child-
do not exist due to financial constraints and friendly legislation in line with the CRC and
lack of capacity. Separate facilities for chil- other international standards, application and
dren in conflict with the law are scarce, and enforcement of these norms lag behind.
children under 18 are imprisoned with adult
offenders, putting them at even greater risk of Although the majority of offences committed
violence and sexual abuse. This situation has by children are non-violent, pressure on politi-
been reported to the Study from Kenya, Mad- cians to ‘get tough on crime’ has driven increas-
agascar, Eritrea, and Mozambique, and occurs ingly tougher responses to children in conflict
in many other countries.92 with the law. This pressure has resulted in
harsher sentences and increased rates of deten-
HISTORICAL CONTEXT tion. These policies are often fuelled by dispro-
portionate media attention to juvenile crime
Policies to deal with children in conflict with that reinforce public misconceptions about
the law have evolved as societies themselves the nature and extent of crimes committed by
have changed over time, and as ways of admin- children. For example, in the USA, between
istering law and order have been redesigned to 1993 and 1999, the number of children con-
match contemporary socio-political ideas and
fined in juvenile detention facilities increased
realities.
by 48%, even though violent crime committed
Children living on the streets of towns and by children decreased by 33% during the same
cities, some of them involved in petty crime, period.94 Between 1994 and 2004, the number
became a fixture of the urban scene from of children sentenced to penal custody in Eng-
the 19th century onwards, sparking calls for land and Wales increased by 90%.95
“The life here in prison is very difficult. It is hard, because it is not easy for a person to live.
We who are new here suffer a lot. We sleep badly. Usually, you don’t sleep – you fall asleep
5
sitting down until the morning. Because the prison is overcrowded. We eat badly. We are suffering,
we’re beaten with a belt, the boss of the discipline beats us a lot. They sleep with us.
The cell bosses force us to sleep with them (to have sexual intercourse).”
Boy, 14, Eastern and Southern Africa, 2005 IV
On the plus side, more progressive attitudes are most modern child development experts, but
beginning to make an impression in pockets the crime- and safety-conscious society may
of the developing world. Some of these efforts insist upon it.
to change attitudes towards marginalised and
discriminated children, and to keep them The CRC and other human rights treaties set
from the descent into criminality which can out guidelines for the use of detention, and
be expected to follow exposure to incarcera- provides that it should always be used as a last
tion and police brutality, are examined more resort and for the shortest possible time (article
closely later. 37). However, custodial regimes for the under-
18s vary enormously, and few live up to these
provisions.
Why children come into conflict
with the law
Violence in the home and the pressures of 193

chronic poverty, coupled with a lack of ade-

quate care and protection systems, result in
many children coming into conflict with the
law. Research conducted in Peru found that
family violence and child mistreatment were
the precipitating factors in 73% of cases of
children migrating to the streets.96 Once
there, many children engage in risky survival
HAITI, 2005, Boys reach through bars at a jail for juveniles behaviours that bring them into contact with
in the Delmas neighbourhood of Port-au-Prince. the law, including begging, loitering, scaveng-
ing, petty thieving or prostitution. Hence the
frequent association between petty crime and
the desperate need of care. In a study of young
CHILDREN IN CONFLICT offenders in three districts of Uganda, 70% of
WITH THE LAW children said that meeting their own needs,
including those for food, was their main moti-
The discourse about children and criminality
vation for stealing.97
goes to the heart of strongly held views about
child development, upbringing methods, the Up to 95% of children in detention are charged
purpose of justice systems, political pressures, with minor and petty offences.98,99 Theft and
and the human potential for transformation other property crimes are most common. In
after a ‘bad start’ in life. Institutionalisation is the Philippines, a study in Davao City found
opposed as anything except as a last resort by that more than 80% of offences were for theft
(35%), substance abuse (28%) and curfew vio- in Lagos, Nigeria were non-criminal cases, of
lations (19%). Violent offences accounted for which 55% were boys ‘beyond parental con-
only 7% of crimes committed by children.100 trol’, and 30% were care and protection cases
In Malawi, a 1999 study found that 68% of (‘found’ children). A further 15% were chil-
registered offences were theft, burglary and dren who had been rounded up in police street
robbery. The word ‘vagabond’ was used to raids. Likewise, 80% of girls detained in the
describe a further 8% of young offenders, Girls’ Remand Home were non-criminal cases,
which the study noted was “a term… repre- i.e. ‘beyond parental control’, or ‘care and pro-
senting obvious cases of street children.”101 tection’ and civil dispute cases.103
In addition to being petty offenders, most Although almost no data are available about
children in detention have not been previously young offenders with disabilities, it is widely
arrested. For example, in the Lao People’s accepted that children with intellectual
Democratic Republic and the Philippines, it impairments and mental health problems
194 was found that over 90% of children in deten- are at increased risk of conflict with the law
tion were there for a first offence.102 – often at the behest of others who see them
as pawns. Once in trouble, these children are

Many children are arrested and detained for less likely to be able to talk their way out of
offences that are only a crime when committed trouble, or make a compelling case on their
by children. These ‘status offences’ include tru- own behalf. Once in prison, they are also
ancy, running away from home, or being ‘beyond more likely to be victimised. Neither the
parental control’. In March–April 2003, 60% juvenile justice nor the child welfare system
of children detained in a Boys’ Remand Home is well equipped to address children’s mental
INFANTS AND YOUNG CHILDREN IN PRISON
A unique group of children at risk of violence in detention facilities are infants and
young children who are in prison with their mothers. This practice exists in many
countries, in all regions. However, institutions seldom provide the necessary condi-
tions to protect children. There are undeniable benefits in keeping children with their
mothers; some countries allow only infants to stay with their mothers, while others
allow mothers to keep children up to the age of six. However, improvements are
urgently needed in the conditions under which these institutions function in order
to cater for the specific needs of children living with their mothers in detention. For
example, a study on children in prisons with their mothers in Cambodia found that
children were beaten by other prisoners when they cried, or as a result of a dispute
with the child’s mother.104
5
health needs, yet increasing numbers of chil- Many children working or living on the streets
dren with mental or emotional disorders end are simply assumed to be anti-social elements,
up there. Such placements are devastating to and are taken into detention by police with-
families. Children with mental health needs out proof of misdeed. In Rwanda, as in many
face the added stress of being displaced and other countries, street children are rounded up
feeling abandoned. Meanwhile, parents have and placed in ‘re-education centres’ where they
to give up their say about key aspects of their are deprived of their liberty, whether or not
children’s lives, sometimes even losing track of they have committed an offence.107 In many
where their children are living. settings, they are sent by courts to detention
in remand institutions or adult prisons, where
Detention as a substitute for care they may be kept indefinitely.108
In too many countries, the criminal justice Children who are victims of sexual or eco-
system is used as a substitute for adequate care nomic exploitation are frequently detained as
and protection systems. The police are often if they were criminals, including girls fleeing 195
the first and only agency to respond to chil- forced marriages, trafficked children and chil-

dren in need, and lacking appropriate alterna- dren in the commercial sex industry (see box).
tives, place vulnerable children in police lock- For example, under ‘safe custody’ laws in Ban-
ups or in detention.105 For example, in Kenya, a gladesh, boys and girls can be detained in jails
study found that 80–85% of children in police or homes for vagrants in cases where they have
custody or correctional facilities were children been the victims of rape or sexual assaults, res-
in need of care and protection, and who had cued from brothels or from traffickers, or, in
actually committed no criminal offence.106 the case of girls and women, where they have
GIRLS IN DETENTION
The use of so-called ‘protective custody’ disproportionately affects girls who are most
often the victims of sexual abuse and exploitation. Detention for the protection of girls
who have been sexually abused is particularly acute in countries where ‘honour crimes’
are practised. For example, in Syria, girls who have been sexually assaulted are often
put into an institution for juvenile delinquents rather than handed over to their par-
ents, due to fears that the girls may be killed to preserve the family honour, or forced
to marry their rapist.114
Since girls are usually detained in much smaller numbers than boys, Governments
may have even fewer facilities to ensure their segregation from adults. A 2002 paper on
juveniles and the law commented that “The numbers of juvenile girls within the system
>>>
“Ninety percent of the kids that go in, come out worse than when they went in.”
Young person, North America, 2004 V
GIRLS IN DETENTION
are small, and as a result they are simply tacked onto the rest of the system with little
recognition that their needs are different and separate from older women. It also means
that they attract fewer resources…”115
Girls in detention facilities are at particular risk of physical and sexual abuse, par-
ticularly when detained in mixed-sex facilities, or where a general lack of facilities for
girls results in placement in adult facilities. An additional concern is the lack of female
staff in facilities detaining girls. Male staff often engage in ‘sanctioned sexual harass-
ment,’ including improper touching during searches, or watching girls while they dress,
shower, or use the toilet.116 Male staff also use their positions of authority to demand
sexual favours, and are responsible for sexual assault and rape.
196
married someone from another religion or SOURCES OF VIOLENCE IN

without the consent of their guardians.109 Sim- DETENTION AND POLICE CUSTODY
ilarly, in India and Nepal, trafficking survivors
and girls found in brothels are often forced by Children deprived of their liberty and placed
the police and NGOs into ‘protective custody’ in detention are at extreme risk of violence. As
in secure institutions.110 in residential care, violence against children in
detention often comes from staff or peers. In
Mental health is also an issue of concern in addition, children may be subject to violence
the incarceration of children. Studies in the from adult detainees, from police or security
UK indicate that between 46% and 81% of forces while in their custody, or may receive vio-
young prisoners (aged between 15–21 years) lent sentences as a judgment from the courts.
have mental health problems.111 Other research
Violence by staff in detention
claims that about 80% of children in custody
institutions
suffer from at least two mental disorders.112
Quite apart from the fact that such children Children in detention are frequently subjected
should be receiving treatment and not pun- to violence by the staff, as a form of control or
ishment, staff in correctional institutions are punishment, and often for minor infractions.
often not trained to deal with children who are Although 124 countries have fully prohibited
mentally ill or who have emotional problems. corporal punishment in penal institutions, in
In detention centres, for example, it has been at least 78 countries it remains legal as a dis-
reported that staff have responded to suicidal ciplinary measure in these institutions.117 In
children by stripping them naked and tying the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, 30% of
their wrists and ankles to bare beds.113 detained children reported physical or mental
“Cops are really aggressive with kids. They slam kids on the ground
and when they strip search you they are rough.”
Girl, 16, North America VI
5
punishment, ranging from beatings, being that a significant part of this violence occurs
forced to crawl, sitting in the sun, and having to children formally in the custody of police
meals withheld.118 In Yemen, more than one- and security forces, for example, during arrest,
third of detained children reported beatings interrogation, or in police lock-ups. In Egypt,
and other cruel treatment; more than half of a for example, children detained in police lock-
study sample said that they had been sexually ups reported beatings with batons, whips,
abused, usually by guards and teachers.119 In rubber hoses, and belts, and sexual abuse.122
some juvenile detention centres in Brazil, beat- In Nepal, 85% of children and young people
ings are a daily occurrence; children reported interviewed in prisons reported abusive treat-
that guards verbally abused them, punched ment while in the custody of police or secu-
them with their fists, kicked them, and hit rity forces, and 58.6% reported torture with
them with wooden sticks.120 methods such as electric shocks, beatings with
Violent practices are found in both industri- hard objects, beatings with their hands tied,
alized and developing countries. Children and beatings while blindfolded.123
197
may be confined to cramped cells for weeks It is well documented that some police forces

or even months, subjected to painful restraints routinely use violence, including torture, to
as a “disciplinary” measure, or forced to hold extract information and confessions from chil-
uncomfortable physical positions for hours at dren. In Pakistan, the National Commission
a time. In the UK, information obtained in for Child Welfare and Development found
November 2005 revealed frequent use of pain-
that of juvenile detainees, 68% of respondents
ful restraints in four privately-run ‘secure train-
reported having been forced to admit their
ing centres’, in which children aged between
guilt.124 In Papua New Guinea, children have
12 and 17 were detained. Painful restraining
been burned, cut with scissors, whipped while
holds involving pressure to noses, thumbs and
naked, and humiliated during interrogations
ribs were used 768 times in the year, causing
by police in order to get them to confess to a
injuries in 51 cases.121
crime.125 In some states, children have died as
Violence while in custody of police a result of police torture.126
and security forces
In many countries, laws require children to
Police and other security forces are often be transferred quickly from police custody to
responsible for violence against children. Chil- an appropriate children’s facility or brought
dren living or working on the street are partic- before a judge within 24 to 48 hours or less.
ularly vulnerable to violence by police, includ- However, in practice, children may remain in
ing harassment, beatings, sexual assault, and police lock-ups for long periods of time, often
killings. This is discussed at greater length in without notification to their parents or guard-
the chapter on violence against children in the ians. For example, in the Philippines, laws
community. However, it is important to note requiring police to inform the Department of
“It was like being crucified on an iron bed. I tried to resist, but seven or eight guards pushed me down
on my back onto a hard iron frame. They stretched out my arms and legs and chained them to the four
corners of the bed. I had to lie there like that from the evening till the next morning.”
Girl, 16, Middle East, 2003 VII
Social Welfare and Development within eight punishments of extreme violence, including
hours of a child’s arrest are frequently not flogging, stoning, and amputation. For exam-
observed, and children may remain detained ple, the CRC has expressed concern about
in police cells for up to a month.127 In Jamaica, such sentencing of children to States includ-
an investigation in the late 1990s found that ing Brunei Darrussalam, the Islamic Republic
many children who were abused, neglected of Iran, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and
or accused of only petty offences remained Yemen, and has recommended that these coun-
in filthy and overcrowded police lock-ups for tries amend existing laws to make these prac-
periods of eight months or more.128 tices unlawful.132
Similarly, violence may be used against chil- Although universally condemned and prohib-
dren in the custody of security and military ited by international law (ICCPR, article 6,
forces in occupied or disputed territories. In CRC, article 37a), some States still demand
Israel and the Occupied Palestinian Territory, capital punishment for crimes committed
198 over 1,400 Palestinian children were arrested by children. Since 1990, Amnesty Interna-
by Israeli military authorities between 2000 tional has recorded 39 reported executions
and 2004. Affidavits by Palestinian child of child offenders in eight countries – China,
detainees indicated that most were subjected the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the
to one or more forms of mistreatment during Islamic Republic of Iran, Nigeria, Pakistan,
their period of arrest and interrogation includ- Saudi Arabia, the USA, and Yemen.133 In
ing sexual harassment, and physical and psy- March 2005, however, the US Supreme Court
chological threats.129 ruled that the death penalty could no longer
be imposed on individuals for crimes commit-
Violence as a sentence
ted before the age of 18, and the remaining
Corporal punishment as a sentence for children 72 persons who had been sentenced to death
convicted of offences has been prohibited in for crimes committed as juveniles were then
177 States and territories, and a series of human removed from death row.134
rights judgments have condemned the practice.
A life sentence without the possibility of release
However, some 31 States and territories still
for offences committed by children is also
permit corporal punishment as a court sentence
against children.130 For example, Malaysia’s proscribed by international law (CRC, article
Child Act allows the whipping of children found 37a). However, at least 15 countries have laws
guilty of an offence.131 In Tonga, the Criminal allowing this, although only a handful impose
Offences Act stipulates that boys under the age the sentence in practice. Outside the USA,
of 16 can be whipped up to 20 times. there are only about a dozen child offenders
known to be serving life sentences. In the USA,
In certain countries, children who are judged however, by 2005 some 2,225 individuals had
to have reached puberty may be sentenced to been sentenced to serve the rest of their lives
5
in prison for crimes they had committed as installed, children are routinely detained with
children. An estimated 59% were sentenced to adult offenders under appalling conditions,
life imprisonment without parole for their first- increasing their risk of violence from older
ever criminal conviction; an estimated 26% inmates.137
were convicted of ‘felony murder,’ in which the
child had participated in a robbery or burglary In addition, where countries allow children
during which a co-participant had committed to be detained, tried, and sentenced as adults,
murder, often without the knowledge or intent they may also incarcerate them with adults.
of the child. Racial disparities are marked, with In the USA, nearly every state has recently
African-Americans receiving the sentence 10 changed its laws to make it easier to try chil-
times more often than white children.135 dren as adults; in 2000, an estimated 55,000
children were tried in adult courts.138 Children
Violence by adult detainees who are convicted in these courts are then typ-
ically detained in adult prisons.
National legislation in most countries requires
199
separate facilities for children in conflict with Violence by other children

the law in order to prevent abuse and exploita-
tion by adults. Yet in many countries, deten- As in care institutions, children in detention
tion with adults still occurs. Since 2001, the facilities are vulnerable to violence from their
Council of Europe’s Committee for the Preven- peers, particularly when conditions and staff
tion of Torture has recorded its concern about supervision are poor. Lack of privacy, frustra-
young people being kept in the same cells as tion, overcrowding, and a failure to separate
adults in at least three Council of Europe particularly vulnerable children from older,
countries. In Germany, for example, in 1988 more aggressive children often lead to peer-
UNICEF reported that young people under 18 on-peer violence.
were not systematically separated from adults, In Rio de Janiero, gang-related rivalries have
putting them at risk of threatening behaviour, led to serious episodes of violence among chil-
blackmail, or even rape by older prisoners.136 dren held in juvenile detention centers, includ-
In police lock-ups, where space is limited, ing beatings, stabbings, rape, and murder.139 In
children are often held together with adults the UK, a 2005 report from the Chief Inspec-
who may perpetrate violence, including sexual tor of Prisons and Youth Justice Board (Eng-
violence, against them. Adequate supervision, land and Wales) found that 21% of both boys
particularly at night, is often lacking, result- and girls had been hit, kicked or assaulted by
ing in further abuses by police, including rape. another young person.140
In some parts of the world, separate facilities Self-harm
for short-term custody or longer-term deten-
tion may not even exist. In States where sepa- Children in detention are at heightened risk
rate juvenile justice systems have not been of self-mutilation and suicidal behaviour due
“When I went to prison, I was around all the violence. I was like, ‘man I gotta get out
of this – how am I gonna get out of this prison?’ I can’t do no life sentence here
at that age. And so I thought of that [killing himself]. Gotta end it, gotta end it...
I’ve got so many cuts on me… Razor blades. They give us disposable razors.”
Boy, sentenced to life without parole for an offence committed at 14, North America, 2005 VIII
to violence, neglect, or poor living conditions. UK, 29 children died in detention between
Prolonged or indefinite detention and isolation 1990 and September 2005. Twenty-seven
also contribute to poor mental health (dis- hanged themselves, the youngest aged 14, and
cussed above) and the risk of self-harm. one died while being restrained.143
In the USA, 110 youth suicides are reported to For children detained in adult facilities, the
have occurred nationwide in juvenile facilities risks of self-harm are particularly great; some
from 1995 to 1999.141 In 2002, a total of 122 studies in the USA indicate that children
juvenile detention facilities reported transport- detained in adult jails or prisons are up to
ing at least one child to a hospital emergency eight times more likely to commit suicide than
room because of a suicide attempt.142 In the those detained in juvenile facilities.144
DOES CHILD DETENTION ‘WORK’?

200 Children subjected to detention are more likely to commit offences in the future than
children placed in diversion programmes. In the USA, virtually every study examining
recidivism among children sentenced to juvenile detention facilities has found that at
least 50–70% of offenders are re-arrested within one or two years after their release.145
In contrast, recidivism rates for children placed in some community-based alterna-
tive programmes are as low as 10%.146 Recidivism is particularly acute for children
detained with adults. In Cambodia, an estimated six out of 10 children detained in
adult prisons are re-arrested for more serious crimes after their release.147
According to one juvenile justice expert: “Evaluation research indicates that incarcerat-
ing young offenders in large, congregate-care juvenile institutions does not effectively
rehabilitate and may actually harm them. A century of experience with training schools
and youth prisons demonstrates that they constitute the one extensively evaluated and
clearly ineffective method to treat delinquents.”148
5
OTHER CHILDREN IN STATE sions for the care and protection of unaccom-
panied children. Such arrangements should
CUSTODY
ideally include separate reception facilities, a
REFUGEES, ASYLUM SEEKERS prohibition on child detention, and officially
AND MIGRANTS appointed trained guardians. But the reality
is that many centres are not equipped to meet
Children may flee their home countries for a children’s needs, and staff are not trained to
variety of reasons including armed conflict, deal with children, especially those who may
ethnic insurgency, persecution of their fami- be suffering from trauma. This increases their
lies, death or disappearance of their parents, or potential exposure to violence. Significant
forced military recruitment. Others may move numbers of unaccompanied and separated
across borders in search of better economic and children disappear from reception facilities or
social opportunities, often without the neces- during the asylum procedure.151 Some of these
sary documents or in contravention of immi- disappearances are reported as being related to
gration rules. Whether legal or illegal in status, trafficking. 201
many of these children find themselves in insti-

tutions where they are isolated from the com- Groups working with asylum-seeking detain-
munity. ees have expressed concern that the level of
uncertainty about how long they are to be
Unaccompanied children detained, combined with fears about the con-
sequences of return, may exacerbate these chil-
While many refugee children are with their
dren’s risk of self-harm.152 This is a particular
parents or in the care of family members, a
anxiety in the case of those who have survived
significant number of asylum-seeking and ref-
torture or serious trauma in their country of
ugee children are either separated from close
origin. Depression can lead to desperate out-
family, or entirely unaccompanied. In 2004,
comes. According to the Separated Children
countries such as Austria, Belgium, France,
in Europe Programme, the placement of some
Italy and the UK each recorded between 1,000
children in residential centres “has gone on to
and 5,000 arrivals of asylum-seeking separated last years and has been described as ‘mental
children.149 In 2005, concern about the vulner- torture’, leading some children to feel that
abilities and losses of rights faced by unaccom- the only way they can end this suffering, to
panied and separated asylum-seeking children take some control of their life, is to commit
led the Committee on the Rights of the Child suicide.”153
to adopt a General Comment providing guid-
ance on the protection, care and proper treat- Jail-like facilities
ment of such children based on the CRC.150
Although children should never be detained
Currently, only around one-third of Euro- in relation to their immigration status, many
pean countries have legal and practical provi- are held in secure facilities for long periods.
“I was tortured in prison and male inmates burnt me
with cigarettes because I refused to have sex with them”.
Boy, 16, Indian Ocean subregion, 2006 IX
For example, in Australia, hundreds of girls migration channels, but major flows invariably
and boys seeking asylum have been held in include children, including some who become
detention centres for an average of 20 months. unaccompanied or separated from close family
The prolonged detention had a significantly during the migratory process. In Spain, almost
detrimental impact on the mental and physi- 1,400 unaccompanied and separated migrant
cal health of some of these children. Some of children were taken in by the Andalucian
the children held in detention suffered from Administration in Southern Spain between
depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and January and October 2005.157 In Mexico, over
anxiety disorders. Other children experienced 4,000 unaccompanied children were returned
bed wetting, sleep walking and night terrors.154 to their countries of origin in 2005 alone, most
Children were also exposed to unrest, protests of them to Guatemala. The return procedures
and violence that took place in some of the do not include the necessary safeguards to
detention centres. Some children in detention guarantee the security and well-being of these
also sewed their lips together and committed children.
202 other acts of self-harm.155
Concern over the treatment and care migrant
Asylum-seeking children were detained in children receive in the country of destination

immigration centres or confined in international – as well as in their country of origin in those
airports in several countries in 2004 and 2005, cases where they are subsequently repatriated –
including the Bahamas, Botswana, Libyan has been growing. The ‘care’ of these children
Arab Jamahiriya, Malaysia, Thailand, the USA too often involves unwarranted deprivation of
and Europe.156 Children may be detained with liberty, or placement in open facilities where
their family members for immigration-related conditions are inappropriate. These children
offences, without it being assessed if this is in
frequently lack the guarantees and legal rep-
their best interests, and without examining
resentation available to other children in the
alternatives to detention. Release is often only
country concerned.158 Detained children are
secured when confirmation of resettlement to
frequently housed in the same facilities as non-
a third country of the minor or the family has
related adults; they may be exposed to trauma-
been obtained. Stateless children are at a par-
tising experiences and have inadequate access
ticular risk of facing long-term detention for
to proper nutrition, health support and educa-
lack of residence requirements. These circum-
tion. Some children detained for breaches of
stances do not necessarily entail violence, but
immigration regulations are held together with
may leave children in especially vulnerable and
individuals charged with criminal offences.
exposed situations.
Detention of migrant children Peer violence is also a risk. A study of migrant
children from Northern Africa detained in
Statistics on illegal migration are few and not Spanish centres found that many reported
reliable in view of the clandestine nature of extortion, theft, and physical abuse by larger,
5
older children. Many children reported that weapons. Some conscripts suffered permanent
the staff often failed to intervene, even when psychiatric damage after systematic ill-treat-
abuses occurred in front of them. Some chil- ment.161,162,163
dren ran away from the centres in the belief
that they would be safer on the streets.159 In the UK, the suspicious deaths of two 17 year
old soldiers at Deepcut Army Barracks led to
revelations of other suicides, as well as dozens
CHILDREN IN PEACETIME ARMIES
of incidents of self-harm and systematic bul-
This study does not cover the subject of child lying at the barracks. A 2004 parliamentary
soldiers during wartime, which was explored committee later conducted an inquiry and rec-
in the 1996 UN study Impact of Armed Con- ommended an external complaints procedure
flict on Children (known as the Machel Study) to investigate allegations of bullying and abuse
and its follow-up. However, children who are in the British military.164
members of Government military forces may
Although not members of the armed forces, 203
be subjected to violence in peacetime. The
thousands of children live permanently on
mode of life, work, and residence of these chil-

military bases in army barracks. In Kazakh-
dren is essentially institutional, taking place in
stan, Russia and the Ukraine, homeless and
army barracks or training camps.
orphaned children may be ‘adopted’ by mili-
In at least 65 countries around the world, tary units from the age of 10 or 11. They also
boys and girls are recruited into Government receive military training, raising concerns
military forces, either legally as volunteers, or about their exposure to harsh conditions, bul-
illegally through force or deception.160 Con- lying and other forms of abuse, and hazardous
siderable evidence indicates that such under- activities such as weapons training.165
age soldiers may be subjected to bullying,
rape, sexual violence, and harassment to the RESPONSES TO VIOLENCE
point of self-harm and/or suicide, depression AGAINST CHILDREN IN CARE
and mental illness. For example, in Paraguay,
children as young as 12 have been forcibly AND JUSTICE INSTITUTIONS
recruited into the armed forces, often with A variety of responses is required to prevent
birth certificates falsified by civilian or mili- and respond to violence against children in
tary authorities. Since 1989, over 100 young care and justice systems. As with other settings
conscripts have died while serving compulsory in which violence against children occurs,
military service, and many others have been primary prevention to avoid violence before
victims of serious accidents. The deaths and it takes place in institutions is highly impor-
injuries were believed to be the result of pun- tant. This has two major thrusts: reducing
ishment by officers and the lack of safety mea- the main factors that lead to children being
sures for dangerous activities such as handling placed in institutions, and providing alterna-
tives to the institutions themselves. The first cases, legislation should be consistent with the
of these can only be dealt with briefly in this CRC and other human rights instruments.
section, and is also addressed in the chapter Some important features of such legislation
on violence against children in the home and include the following.
family. Alternatives to institutionalisation are
described in more detail. The State must not itself be a perpetrator of
violence against individuals in its care. There-
The section also deals with secondary preven- fore all forms of violent sentencing must be
tion measures focused on responding imme- eliminated, including capital punishment and
diately to violence in institutions. These take life imprisonment without the possibility of
into account that however fast primary pre- release. The use of corporal punishment and
vention advances and institutionalisation is other cruel or degrading forms of punishment
reduced, existing institutions and all alterna- or control must be prohibited explicitly within
tive care placements must be made safe places all institutional and alternative care settings
204 for children. These include better training and where children reside or are detained.
appropriate remuneration for staff, more and
better services to meet a wide range of chil- In the interests of reducing the numbers of
dren’s needs (including those related to sex and children taken into custody, criminal codes
disability), improved supervision and adminis- and other legislation related to crime and polic-
trative transparency, and more openness to the ing need to decriminalise status offences and
voices and involvement of children and their survival behaviours (such as begging, loitering,
families. vagrancy) to remove the legal basis under which
many children are taken into custody. Sexu-
Also essential is action to address the impu- ally exploited or trafficked children should be
nity of those who are responsible for violence treated as victims to be helped rather than per-
against children, by establishing effective and petrators to be arrested, and must be provided
transparent monitoring, investigation and with community-based care and protection.
accountability mechanisms. In the case of trafficking and illegal entry of
migrant children, there should be a non-pun-
LEGISLATIVE ACTION ishment clause for immigration offences such
as possession of fraudulent documents.
A clear legislative basis to deal with children in
care and detention is an essential part of elimi- Legislation must reflect States’ obligations to
nating violence against children in institutions protect children, wherever they are placed and
and other forms of alternative care. In some whoever is providing or managing the institu-
countries, this may best be contained within a tion or form of care. All potential staff should
comprehensive children’s act or similar broad- be screened. All institutions and alternative
based piece of legislation; in others, existing forms of care must be registered and the care
legislation may need to be modified. In all of children within them regulated in detail. All
5
care and justice institutions should be required and institutional care should be regarded as
to report on all incidents of violence. options of last resort, taking into account the
best interests of the child and his or her long-
Legislation should also ensure that institutions term special needs.
can no longer operate as closed settings, without
accountability. Public scrutiny must be guar- Most of the following are primary prevention
anteed in a number of ways, including ensur- approaches, aimed specifically at reducing insti-
ing access for children’s families (except when tutionalisation. It should, of course, be borne in
not in the best interests of the child), NGOs, mind that a range of broad-brush measures (such
human rights institutions and ombudspersons, as improved basic service provision, including
lawyers, media, and other elements of civil soci- for families of children with disabilities or other
ety, while respecting individual privacy and dig- risk factors, livelihood improvement, gender
nity for girls and boys. Effective monitoring and and social equality, prevention of substance
reporting systems by competent bodies should abuse, reduction of domestic violence, inclu-
be established in law, with the power to demand sive education and educational retention, and 205
ongoing information on conditions, and to general anti-poverty development goals) would

investigate and redress allegations of violence. by definition help improve families’ capacity to
raise or manage vulnerable and at-risk children,
Guarantees that the voices of children and
and contribute greatly to keeping children out
their families will be heard should have a basis
of care and detention institutions.
in law, rather than just guidance or institu-
tional procedure manuals. Legislation must The principle of ‘last resort’
ensure that simple, accessible, independent
and safe complaint mechanisms should be pro- Institutional care should be reserved for chil-
vided to children in institutions. Children and dren whose needs cannot be met in their own
their representatives should also have access to family or an alternative family setting. For chil-
an appeals process if they are not satisfied with dren who are in conflict with the law, deten-
the response to their complaint. tion should be used only for children who are
assessed as posing a real danger to others, and
POLICIES TO PREVENT then only for the shortest necessary time.
INSTITUTIONALISATION
In practical terms, this principle of ‘last resort’
Policies governing care and justice systems means that whenever a child is considered for
should aim both to prevent violence against or taken into care, an evaluation should be con-
children in care or custody, and to reduce the ducted to identify the type of placement most
numbers of children entering the full range appropriate to that child’s needs. An impor-
of institutions, from both public and private tant objective of such evaluations is to ensure
care facilities to police custody, juvenile deten- that children are not admitted into residential
tion centres, and adult prisons. Detention care unless it is in their best interests.
“We are beaten by security forces… when we are caught, on the way to the lockup,
and when we arrive at the lockup. In the lockup, we are beaten by other prisoners
who ask us for money. During interrogation, we are beaten so that we will tell
the (police inspector) what we stole or tell him who did it.”
Boy living on the streets, Eastern and Southern Africa, 2005 X
There is nothing particularly new about the institutional care. Clear strategies for reinte-
‘last resort’ principle either for care or justice grating children into the communities must be
issues. The problem has been that in many parts in place. In many countries, this will entail a
of the world, the ‘last resort’ is frequently the fundamental shift in policies.
only resort considered or available. Although
there have been local successes, in only a few Professionals who work with children, policy
regions have entire care and justice systems makers, and officials including police and
shifted towards making alternatives the norm. judges should be educated about the desirabil-
In the words of one expert who contributed to ity and availability of alternatives to institu-
this Study, “It is not enough to repeat the same tionalisation or detention. For example, police
services should have specifically trained police
mantra, it must mean a radical change in the
to focus on children’s care and protection
way the systems operate.”
issues. Doctors and other health professionals
Prioritise alternatives should be able to provide families with a dis-
abled child or other at-risk children with the
206 Family and community-based alternatives and referrals and information they need to care for
diversion mechanisms must be developed and and support their children.

resources allocated, to reduce the reliance on
THE HIGH FINANCIAL COSTS OF INSTITUTIONALISATION
Institutionalisation of children is expensive, and can be up to 12 times the per capita

cost of community-based care options, creating an unnecessary financial drain on bud-
gets.168,169 The World Bank reported that the annual cost for one child in residential care
in the Kagera region of the United Republic of Tanzania was over six times that of sup-
porting a child in a foster home.170 Research in Ukraine, the Republic of Moldova and
Russia during 2001 and 2002 showed that community residential and small group home
care cost approximately half that of State institutional care; foster care cost approximately
one-fifth to one-third that of State institutional care; and family support and social ser-
vice provision cost approximately one-eighth that of State institutional care.171
Although less expensive over the long term, the creation of such alternatives initially
requires additional resources. A study of institutionalisation in the CEE/CIS countries
cautions that “the resultant savings will not be realised immediately. This is because to
enable a smooth transition it is necessary to set up alternatives before an institutional
system has been closed down or reduced in size…(However) as institutions are gradually
closed, the costs are reduced as the new system takes over. These extra transitional costs
must be regarded as an investment to the introduction of a new and better system.”172
5
All donors, whether multi-lateral, intergovern- criminalisation, as well as to institutionalisa-
mental or NGO, should actively support alter- tion itself. This is essential to ensure both that
natives, through advocacy with Government decision-makers actually take action, and to
and partners, and support for re-training and inform families about non-institutional solu-
sensitisation activity. Where Governments have tions for the care of their children.
already made clear a non-institutional policy for
children orphaned by HIV/AIDS and others ALTERNATIVES
needing care, as in South Africa, charities and TO INSTITUTIONAL CARE
NGOs should respect the policy and avoid
building the kind of facilities which reinforce Support for disadvantaged and
stigma, social exclusion, discrimination and a at-risk families
poor life start for children who might otherwise
have stayed with family members.166,167 Donors With adequate support services, many parents
that support juvenile justice reform should also who might otherwise abandon a child or resort
ensure that they support alternatives to deten- to institutionalisation can be helped to care for
207
tion and prevention programmes, rather than him or her. Family support can address violence

allow aid to be used for the construction of in the home and other factors that are linked
secure facilities. with children coming into conflict with the
law. Such services include accessible and quality
More generally, public education is necessary basic health and social services; home visits by
to change societal attitudes to child care and social workers, visiting nurses or community-
based support groups (mutual support groups,
local faith-based groups, etc.); programmes that
teach effective parenting skills; livelihood assis-
tance to relieve the pressures of poverty; and
respite care to enable parents with serious bur-
dens of care to take a break from time to time.
The benefits of keeping children with their fam-

ilies are inarguable in terms of their health and
happiness, and the best interests of the child.
Furthermore, the cost of supporting families to
maintain their children at home is substantially
lower than institutionalising them.
Access to free education (or in some settings,
help with school fees) is a means of reducing
YEMEN, 1998, Nine-year-old Abdullah Ahmed lies in bed
reading in the dormitory at the Centre for Rehabilitation
institutionalisation in places where poverty is
for Minors, in the old part of Sana’a. entrenched, and parents may deposit children
in institutions in order to obtain an education
for them. In Zimbabwe, the Child Protection intensive needs to stay in their natural families
Society reports that the biggest single reason represent an economically viable alternative
why families in Zimbabwe do not want to to institutionalisation. They provide fami-
care for their children is that they are worried lies with various combinations of training,
about the cost of education.173 Governments are financial subsidies, and services. In the two
required to invest in education for all children, decades following the introduction of family
and donors and NGOs should favour helping support programmes in the USA and Canada,
families or foster families with school fees rather the number of children with developmental
than encouraging the use of orphanages or disabilities living in institutions decreased by
building institutions. Where necessary, normal about 70%.174 For this to work, parents with
schooling should be supplemented with tar- children who have disabilities need to be pro-
geted assistance and outreach to specific at-risk vided with accurate information about how
children and their families (see the chapter on they can care for their child and what services
violence against children in the community). are available in their community. The same is
208
true of parents with disabilities or with chronic
Support for families of children with illnesses like HIV/AIDS.

disabilities
Boys and girls with disabilities have an equal
Where children have disabilities, family sup- right to education. In 1999, it was estimated
port programmes which enable children with that only about 3% of children with disabilities
CASE STUDY: HELPING FAMILIES TO CARE FOR CHILDREN AT HOME
A family in Lebanon had four children between the ages of two and 12. The father
was severely disabled and required extensive care. The mother was active and healthy,
but jobless and overburdened with her family’s daily needs. Although her three older
children were doing well in school, the mother was unable to pay their education fees.
She approached an SOS Children’s Village, asking them to accept her children.
Rather than taking the children into care, SOS made an agreement with the mother
that SOS would cover the children’s educational fees for one year, and approached the
school to reduce the school fees. The mother was also asked to prepare a business plan
for an income-generating activity that she could carry out. SOS agreed to help with
start-up costs and provide a loan for her business. Within 15 days, the mother drew up
a plan for a mini-bakery in a shop next to her house. As soon as she went into business,
she began to generate income and to repay the loan to SOS. The family soon became
entirely self-reliant, with the children remaining at home with their parents.176
“We don’t know why you are here and how long you will have to stay. You are ten years old,
scared and confused. Your journey through life has been grim – family despair and violent arguments,
no money for clothes or games, sometimes no money for food. But nothing has prepared you for this.
5
Yesterday you were home. This morning a social worker came and took you away. You joined the more
than one million children living in residential institutions across Europe and Central Asia. We must
try to see the world through the eyes of children we serve.”
Maria Calivis, Regional Director for CEE/CIS and Baltic States, UNICEF, 2005 XI
in developing countries had access to school.175 ALTERNATIVES TO INSTITUTIONAL

Children with disabilities have a right to inclu- DETENTION
sive education alongside their peers.
As a guiding principle, children in need of care
Direct support for orphans and and protection should not be apprehended by
vulnerable children the police but should instead be immediately
referred to child welfare agencies. Some of this
When children lose their family or it is not pos-
sible for them to stay with their parents, alter- can be accomplished by decriminalising status
natives to institutionalisation may include fos- offences (such as truancy), survival behaviours
tering, adoption, support for extended family (such as begging, selling sex, scavenging, loi-
members who serve as carers, and small group tering or vagrancy), victimisation through
homes. In regions with a high HIV prevalence trafficking or criminal exploitation, and anti-
in rural Africa, where older children are acting social or unruly behaviour by children, thus
as heads of household, it is often possible to avoiding a criminal justice response to what 209
provide support so as to keep siblings together is a social or developmental/behavioural prob-

and avoid institutional care. lem. Of those children who remain – i.e. those
in actual conflict with the law – it is essential
Accommodating different needs and
that they are ‘diverted’ as quickly as possible
preferences
from police custody and the formal justice
Governments and those involved in placement system into alternative programmes.
decisions, including courts, should recognise
Children should only be detained as a last
that different children need different types of
resort, and for the shortest possible length of
care and aim to offer as wide a range of different
care options as possible and ensure the quality time. Screening systems should be put in place
of each. The CRC (article 20.3) also emphasises to ensure that children are only detained if they
the need to take into account the child’s ethnic, are assessed as posing a real danger to others
religious, cultural and linguistic background and following a judicial hearing at which they
when considering options for the child. are represented. Police, judges, and appropriate
Government agencies should develop mecha-
Children have a right to participate in all nisms to identify the least restrictive environ-
stages of the placement process (CRC article ment for each child, taking into account each
12).177 When it is not possible or desirable for child’s individual situation. Any child whose
children to stay with their biological families, liberty is restricted has a right to speedy legal
both children and their parents should partici- and other assistance to challenge the legality of
pate in decision-making about care options, their deprivation of liberty (CRC article 37d).
with children having the full opportunity to
express their views.
CASE STUDY: DIVERSION PILOT PROJECTS IN KENYA
In 1997 and 1998, the Kenyan Department of Children’s Services estimated that 80% of
children in the juvenile justice system were cases of children requiring care and protec-
tion. Only 20% of children had committed actual offences, and few of these were seri-
ous. In 2001, the Department of Children’s Services and Save the Children UK started a
pilot project to divert children away from the courts in Nairobi, Nakuru and Kisumu.
The aim of the programme is to divert children, especially those in need of care and
protection, away from the justice system at the earliest possible point. A focus is to
ensure that police officers are trained to refer children to other agencies rather than
placing them in detention. As part of the project, specialised Child Protection Units
were set up in major police stations in the three pilot project areas, and police officers
and other stakeholders received training in child rights and the diversion process. At
210
the community level, member groups offer skills training, counselling for parents and
children, non-formal education, community centres and temporary shelters.

In its first four years, 2,800 children were diverted from the courts, and district offi-
cials reported a 90% drop in the number of children referred to Children’s Courts in
the project areas. Decisions by police and district teams on how to assist children are
made much more quickly, with some children being resettled straight from the police
station. Many now stay in police custody for less than 24 hours, reducing congestion
in police stations. Around 70% of children diverted from the courts have been reinte-
grated with their families. The number of children in the Nairobi Children’s Remand
Home has been reduced by half. In general, children are spending only days in remand
homes rather than weeks or months.182
Community-based diversion minor offences before the children respon-

programmes sible enter the formal justice system, the use
of Local Councils as ‘courts of first instance’
A wide variety of alternatives to detention exist,
for children; and restorative justice initiatives.
both in industrialised and developing coun-
tries. Many provide effective rehabilitation and When successful, such programmes reduce
community reintegration for young offenders the risk of exposing the child to a brutalising
without unnecessarily depriving them of their environment in which anger and resentment
liberty.178 These include the establishment grows, violent behaviour is regarded as a norm,
of community-based mechanisms to handle and recidivism almost guaranteed.
5
In some countries, traditional practices offer grate in the community. Even though more
models for children who come in conflict with serious cases – murder, rape, drug trafficking,
the law without resorting to detention. For extreme violence – do not get handled by the
example, in Somalia, under customary law, Committees, the reintegration service can help
traditional elders oversee the resolution of con- them upon their release from prison.181
flicts and compensation for crimes or disputes.
If a child has committed an offence, the parents A number of ‘good practice’ lessons have
of the child and the victims will go together to emerged from community-based diversion
see an elder who will decide on the compensa- efforts. Such programmes should be appro-
tion to be paid by the child’s parents.179 How- priate to the age and maturity of the child,
ever, attempts to extend or adapt such models and can include the creation of cautioning or
should beware of practices that may contravene warning systems, in-home supervision, victim/
the CRC and other human rights instruments, offender mediation, community service as a
in terms of punishments available and in some sentence, and family and community coun-
cases in terms of gender relations. In Somalian selling. Many other options are available and 211
should be explored to fit local conditions.

traditional justice, for example, women are
generally unable to speak for themselves, and
compensation is always less for crimes against PROTECTION FROM VIOLENCE
women than for those against men.180 WITHIN INSTITUTIONS
In recent years, a number of NGO initiatives It is of utmost importance that all children
have been taken in countries where police rou- who are placed in care systems or detention
tinely detain children for petty offences. For facilities should be protected from all forms
example, in the Philippines, as many as 94% of violence. To do so, a clear legal framework
of children detained in custody are first-time and a range of policies, regulations and pro-
offenders, and the level of violence they experi- grammes must be in place.
ence in custody is high. In the country’s Visayas Staff selection, training and
island group, local Children’s Justice Commit- remuneration
tees have been formed to handle the cases of
children arrested for minor offences, using Given the documented levels of violence per-
mediation between the parties. This project, petrated by staff against children in institu-
run by FREELAVA, a Filipino NGO, is now tions, staff who work in both care and justice
operational in 10 barangays (villages or munici- systems – including foster carers – should be
pal wards) with a population of between 10,000 carefully selected, undergo criminal record
and 100,000. Community volunteers and peer checks, receive appropriate training and neces-
counsellors, who were themselves previously sary supervision, be fully qualified, and receive
children in conflict with the law, assist children adequate wages. Levels of staffing should
removed from custody and help them reinte- ensure effective care and oversight.
“We feel our juvenile justice systems have the responsibility to rehabilitate youth
and integrate them back into society rather than subject them to more violence.”
Children, North America, 2005 XI
Staff must be trained in child rights and non- ensure their transfer to more appropriate care.
violent disciplinary measures. Care should be Police stations and lock-ups should be subject
taken not to train staff in such a way as to to regular, independent monitoring.
create a gulf between them and children and
young people. The overwhelming need of chil- Conditions in all institutions should con-
dren is for nurture, and few react well to being form to international standards, including the
treated like ‘clients’ and ‘caseloads’. provision of health and mental health care,
adequate nutrition, and sanitation. Children’s
Efforts should be made to improve the status of dignity and need for personal space should be
individuals working with children in care and respected. Children should be separated from
justice systems, to ensure high-calibre employ- adults, and younger, more vulnerable children
ees. Health-care and educational staff should should be separated from those that are older
be institutionally independent from the agency or known to be violent. Facilities should not be
that runs the institution. All staff should be overcrowded, and children should have oppor-
212 required to report all instances of violence. tunities for recreation and mobility. Children
should not lose their right to education, voca-
Conforming to international standards

tional training, and other programmes to
Where children are held in custody, inter- facilitate their full development.
national standards of due process should
Monitoring and investigation
be strictly followed (see the Introductory sec-
tion of this chapter on the relevant UN stan- All facilities should be independently inspected
dards). These include the right to be informed and monitored by qualified bodies with full
promptly of charges against the young detainee, access to the facilities and freedom to inter-
the right to legal assistance, and a swift deter- view children and staff in private. These bodies
mination of the child’s case. should have the power and capacity to moni-
tor conditions and investigate any allegations
Notification of a child’s parents or legal guard-
of violence in a timely manner. Such bodies
ians, including NGOs accredited to work with
could include ombudspersons, independent
children, should be mandatory whenever a
commissions, citizens or police review boards.
child is arrested or taken into custody. From the
earliest stage of apprehension, children should Complaints mechanisms
receive free medical and legal assistance from
independent professionals. A parent, guardian Children in both care and justice systems should
or ‘appropriate adult’ should be present during have simple, accessible and safe opportunities to
any interview or interrogation of children. complain about the way they are treated with-
Guidelines for transfers should be adopted out risk of reprisal. Children should also have
and strictly observed to limit the length of opportunities to express themselves freely and
time that children are in police custody, and verbalise their concerns, particularly for those
5
reluctant to access formal complaints mecha- aged where such violence takes place. This
nisms. Children and their families should also continuum should include:
have an appeals process if they are not satisfied
with the response to their complaint. • criminal prosecution
• civil actions, including those for
damages or injunctive relief (such as
REDRESS AND RESPONSE
ordering changes in the institution)
MECHANISMS • administrative proceedings (such as
When violence against children takes place, revoking licenses, imposing fines, or
whether in care or detention institutions, closing facilities)
perpetrators must be held accountable and • professional sanctions related to
the children affected must receive appropri- employment (e.g. a note in an employee’s
personnel file, dismissal, being barred
ate care, support and compensation. Children
from working with children).
who have been subjected to violence (either
previous to or subsequent to their placement) Finally, policy is improved if it is based on 213
should receive appropriate medical and mental reliable data, and if this data is open to the

health care. Appropriate interventions can public. All placements should be registered
include educational and psycho-social individ- and centrally reported, and disaggregated sta-
ual or group work with the child, or psycho- tistics should be made publicly available for
therapy. Special attention should be given to all children in all forms of care and detention.
restoring their confidence in human relation- States should analyse and publish data on all
ships as an important part of the healing pro- instances of violence, the response to com-
cess. In the case of ethnic and other minorities plaints, and enforcement practices, including
that have systematically been institutionalised actions taken against perpetrators of violence
at higher rates than the rest of the population, towards children, or against institutions in
particularly when this has been the result of which such acts of violence take place.
Government policy, collective forms of redress
may need to be considered. DE-INSTITUTIONALISING CHILDREN
ALREADY IN CARE
Violence against children will never be fully
eliminated as long as perpetrators believe that As alternatives are developed and implemented,
concerted efforts should be made to shut down
they can get away with it. To ensure there is no
large institutions (see box). Where de-institu-
impunity for perpetrators of violence against
tionalisation is introduced, this needs to be
children, States should therefore ensure a con-
done with great care and in a monitored and
tinuum of appropriate sanctions against indi- appropriate manner.
viduals who are responsible for violence against
children in institutions, and against the way in
which institutions (public or private) are man-
CASE STUDY: DE-INSTITUTIONALISATION IN SUDAN
In 2003, approximately 110 infants were abandoned on the streets of Khartoum every
month, with 50% dying within hours. Those who survived were admitted to May-
goma, Khartoum’s only institution for infants, where mortality rates reached 75%.
Between 1998 and 2003, of 2,500 infants admitted, only 400 survived. Those that
lived suffered severe developmental delays and some suffered from chronic illnesses due
to poor nutrition and to lack of stimulation and individual care.
To address the problems at Maygoma, the Sudanese Government, UN organisations,
community groups and key NGOs including Médecins Sans Frontières and Hope and
Homes for Children formed a task force. This task force identified three main needs
in the community: services to prevent the separation of children from their families,
and services to reunite families; alternative family care for children who could not live
214 with their families; and specialist services for children with disabilities. Its goal was the
eventual closure of Maygoma.

The programme developed by the task force included communications strategies to
address the stigma attached to children born outside marriage; the training and acti-
vation of social workers; the development of alternative family care programmes (for
both emergency and permanent placements), and prevention programmes to identify
mothers at risk and to reunify infants with their birth mothers.
The programme has been enormously successful. The mortality rate at Maygoma
dropped to 33% by 2004, and to 10% by 2005. Admissions from the streets have
decreased from 75% to 30%, and 51 infants have been reunited with their mothers.
More than 500 infants have been placed in alternative family care in less than two
years. All of these infants recovered their developmental delays. The programme is also
cost-effective. The expense for each child in alternative family care is only one-tenth
the cost for care in Maygoma.
Maygoma is scheduled to close in 2006.184
In order to ensure that children are not unnec- tive placements or a return to the child’s family
essarily retained in residential or other care, is possible (CRC article 25). This assessment
placements should be reviewed regularly to should be carried out with the full involvement
assess whether the child’s continued institu- of the child and, where appropriate, with the
tionalisation is necessary, or whether alterna- child’s family, together with a multi-disciplin-
5
ary group including educators, social workers, racial and ethnic minorities, parentless chil-
representatives of the facility, and others. dren, children with disabilities, and children
affected by HIV/AIDS, since exclusion and
Children who go out into the world at the end discrimination exacerbate the risk of violence.
of a long period of institutional care or deten- Individuals and families should be encouraged
tion should not simply be left to fend for them- to demand more support in caring for their
selves, without follow-up and support. Many children themselves, and to resist pressures to
children feel as if they have ‘been pushed off a give children up to institutional care.
cliff’ when they leave care and have to manage
their lives independently; they may have no
WHERE RESOURCES ARE SCARCE
experience of making the simplest decision on
their own behalf. They may lose their friends Many of the responses described in this chap-
and what they regard as ‘home’, and have great ter depend on the capacity of care systems and
difficulty adjusting to any new regime, whether the availability of qualified social workers. In
independent or in another form of care. For many countries, that capacity is at a very low 215
example, children formerly in care in the USA level, or non-existent, particularly in rural

who became homeless after leaving the system areas. For example, the lack of social workers is
identified the need for instruction in everyday acute in many countries. Government officials
life skills, transitional living programmes, and in Namibia reported in 2002 that there were
help from social workers in locating homes and only 118 registered social workers in the entire
available services. They also explained how country, and that in the Caprivi region, there
highly regimented settings in group homes lim- was only one social worker to serve a popula-
ited their ability to practice independent deci- tion of 79,000. In Zimbabwe, the Child Pro-
sion-making and learn other skills that would tection Society reported that the loss of social
prepare them for adulthood before leaving the workers through emigration led to significant
system. “Don’t over-shelter us and then expect us delays in the review of child welfare cases,
to be independent,” said one young woman.183 children becoming ‘stuck’ in institutions, and
to delays in foster family placements.
PUBLIC EDUCATION: GETTING THE
MESSAGE OUT However, much can be achieved by commu-
nity-based organisations and resources. These
Societal attitudes play an important part in how include faith-based groups, neighbourhood
institutions treat – or mistreat – children in associations, women’s groups, and committees
their charge. Efforts should therefore be made of village elders or other community leaders.
to conduct public campaigns to promote chil- While some may be formed or take on such
dren’s rights and counter negative stereotypes responsibilities spontaneously, or in reaction
of certain groups of children, such as children to specific events, building the capacity of local
living or working on the streets, children from communities and para-professionals is crucial.
In response to rising numbers of children’s cases RECOMMENDATIONS
of petty crime being dealt with by the formal
legal system, local councils in Uganda have All States have the obligation to protect all chil-
received training to strengthen their roles for the dren from all forms of violence, wherever they
protection of children in conflict with the law. are placed and irrespective of who is providing
Specific capacity-building initiatives and support their care. To effectively prevent and address
for the local council committees have included: violence against children in care and justice
training on roles and jurisdiction in handling systems, a range of actions must be taken, and a
child-related cases, training on diversion mea- variety of organisations and constituencies need
sures, and capacity building on children’s rights, to be engaged. It is essential that action plans be
growth and development, rehabilitation and formulated, costed and fully discussed in order
reintegration. The local councils handle child- to bring societies ‘on board’ with their objec-
related cases, but also refer some cases to police tives. In doing so, the voices of children and
and probation social welfare offices. The local their families must be listened to and heeded.
216 councils also use alternative forms of punish-
For all care and justice settings
ment such as compensation, apology and restitu-

tion, and have organised sensitisation campaigns 1. Prohibit all violence in care and justice
designed to teach surrounding communities systems. Governments should ensure that
about the value of non-custodial sanctions. This sectoral laws applying to care and justice
project has helped to divert child-related cases systems reflect the State-wide legislative
from the formal justice system.185 prohibition on all forms of violence. Legal
In Malawi, Community Crime Prevention prohibition should be backed by detailed
Committees are combining traditional ways of guidance for all involved.
handling children’s issues with current law. The 2. Ensure institutionalisation is a last
committees aim to divert children in conflict resort, and prioritise alternatives. Gov-
with the law from the court system, by counsel- ernments should ensure that placement in
ling the family and the child, and supporting an institutional setting is avoided wherever
the child’s reintegration. To support the work possible, and a full range of alternatives
of the committees, UNICEF also supports should be available for both care and jus-
sensitisation to increase the awareness of par- tice systems.
ents, teachers and especially traditional leaders
about crime prevention and diversion possibili- 3. Ensure quality staffing and training.
ties. UNICEF Malawi reports that most petty Governments should ensure that staff
crimes are now addressed within the commu- recruitment, training and employment
nity without police and judiciary involvement, policies, and rights-based codes of conduct
and that both the number of court cases and ensure that all those who work with chil-
levels of recidivism have decreased.186 dren in care and justice systems are both
5
qualified and fit to work with children and be subjected to excessive interviews, state-
young people, that their professional status ments, hearings and unnecessary contact
is recognised, and that their wages are with the justice process.
adequate. Levels of staffing should ensure
adequate supervision and oversight. Consideration should be given to the use
of video-taping and other testimonial aids
4. Sensitise police, referral agencies, law- such as the use of screens or closed-circuit
yers, judges, institution managers and televisions. Unnecessary contacts with the
staff. Governments should ensure that all alleged perpetrator, or their defence coun-
those who come into contact with chil- sel, should be eliminated. Speedy trials
dren during the process of their assimila- should also be ensured, unless delays are
tion into care and justice systems should in the child’s best interests.
be familiarised with children’s rights; this
6. Regularly reassess placements. Gov-
applies equally to the children concerned
ernments should ensure that authorities 217
and to their parents.
regularly review the reasons for a child’s

5. Ensure court systems are sensitive to the placement in care, residential or deten-
needs of children and their families. Gov- tion facilities, and assess whether contin-
ernments should ensure that child victims, ued institutionalisation is necessary; chil-
including those who have witnessed family dren (and their parents when appropriate)
violence, are not re-victimised during the should be involved in reviews at all stages
justice process nor subjected to extended or to determine appropriate care options.
drawn out cross-examination or other legal
7. Ensure effective complaints, investiga-
processes. In line with the Guidelines on
tion and enforcement mechanisms. Gov-
Justice for Child Victims and Witnesses of
ernments should ensure that children have
Crime (ECOSOC Resolution 2005/20),
simple, accessible and safe opportunities to
all investigations, law enforcement, pros-
raise concerns and complain about the way
ecution and judicial processes should take
they are treated without the risk of reprisals,
into account the needs of these children
and have access to the courts when neces-
in terms of their age, sex, disability and
sary. All allegations of violence must be
level of maturity, and fully respect their investigated thoroughly and promptly, safe-
physical, mental and moral integrity. If it guarding ‘whistleblowers’ from reprisals.
is in their best interests, children should be
accompanied by a trusted adult through- 8. Effective sanctions against perpetra-
out their involvement in the justice process. tors. Governments should adopt and apply
Moreover, the child’s privacy should be a continuum of appropriate criminal, civil,
protected, his or her identity and confiden- administrative and professional proceedings
tiality respected, and he or she should not and sanctions against individuals who are
responsible for violence against children as obligations to reduce rates of abandonment
well as against those who are responsible for and institutionalisation by ensuring par-
institutions where such violence takes place. ents’ access to adequate support, including
services and livelihood programmes. Prior-
9. Ensure effective monitoring and access. ity should be given to supporting families
Governments shouild ensure that insti- of children with disabilities, and other chil-
tutions are inspected regularly by appro- dren at high risk of abandonment or insti-
priately empowered independent bodies tutionalisation.
with the authority to enter without warn-
ing, interview children and staff in pri- 12. Ensure that alternatives to institution-
vate and investigate any alleged violence; alisation cover all children in need of
access to institutions by NGOs, lawyers, care. This includes all children in need of
judges, ombudspersons, national human care, especially orphaned children, those
rights institutions, parliamentarians, the with disabilities, and minority or margin-
218 media, and others as appropriate should alised groups. Government should ensure
be assured, while respecting children’s pri- that family-based care options are favoured
vacy rights. in all cases, and are the only option for
babies and small children.
10. Registration and collection of data. Gov-
ernments should ensure that all placements For justice systems
and movements of children between place-
ments, including detention, are registered 13. Reduce detention. Governments should
and centrally reported. Data on children ensure that detention is only used for child
in detention and residential care should be offenders who are assessed as posing a real
systematically collected and published. At danger to others, and then only as a last
a minimum, such data should be disaggre- resort, for the shortest necessary time, and
gated by sex, age, disability and reasons for following judicial hearing, with greater
placement. All incidents of violence should resources invested in alternative family-
be recorded and centrally reported. Infor- and community-based rehabilitation and
mation on violence against children should reintegration programmes.
also be collected through confidential exit 14. Legal reform. Governments should ensure
interviews with all children leaving such that all forms of violent sentencing are pro-
institutions, in order to measure progress hibited for offences committed before the
in ending violence against children. age of eighteen, including the death penalty,
For care and social welfare systems and all indeterminate and disproportion-
ate sentences, including life imprisonment
11. Support parents’ capacity to care for their without parole and corporal punishment.
children. Governments should fulfil their Status offences (such as truancy), survival
5
behaviours (such as begging, selling sex,
scavenging, loitering or vagrancy), victimi-
sation connected with trafficking or crimi-
nal exploitation, and anti-social or unruly
behaviour should be decriminalised.
15. Establish child-focused juvenile justice
systems. Governments should ensure that
juvenile justice systems for all children up
to age 18 are comprehensive, child-focused,
and have rehabilitation and social rein-
tegration as their paramount aims. Such
systems should adhere to international
standards, ensuring children’s right to due
process, legal counsel, access to family, 219
and the resolution of cases as quickly as

possible.
11 OHCHR (2005). Informal Note on Indigenous Children:
REFERENCES Four Years Experience of Servicing the Mandate of the UN
1 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence Special Rapporteur. Prepared for the United Nations
against Children (2005). Summary Report of the Thematic Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Children.
Meeting on Violence against Children in Conflict with 12 UNICEF (2003). Children in Institutions:
the Law. 4–5 April 2005, Geneva. Available at: The Beginning of the End? The Cases of Italy, Spain,
http://www.violencestudy.org/r180. Argentina, Chile and Uruguay. Innocenti Insight.
2 American Academy of Pediatrics (2001). Assessment Florence, Innocenti Research Centre.
of Maltreatment of Children with Disabilities (Policy 13 Burchell G (2005). Meeting the Challenges of Out-of-
Statement). Pediatrics, 108(2): 508–512. Home Care Provision. Submission to the Committee
3 Teplin LA et al. (2005). Early Violent Death Among on the Rights of the Child General Day of Discussion
Delinquent Youth: A Prospective Longitudinal Study. on Children Without Parental Care. United Aid for
Pediatrics, 115: 1586–1593. Azerbaijan.
4 Ministry for Foreign Affairs Sweden (2001). Children 14 Include Youth (2005). Submission to the Committee
in Institutions. Stockholm, Ministry for Foreign Affairs on the Rights of the Child General Day of Discussion on
Sweden. Children Without Parental Care. Belfast, Include Youth.
220
5 United Nations (1990). Convention on the Rights of

the Child. New York, UN. Available at: against Children (2005). Summary Report of the
http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/pdf/crc.pdf. Thematic Meeting on Violence against Children with
Disabilities. 28 July 2005, New York. Available at:
6 United Nations (1985). United Nations Standard
Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice
(‘The Beijing Rules’). Adopted by General Assembly 16 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
resolution 40/33 of 29 November 1985. Available at: against Children (2005). Summary Report of
http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/beijingrules.htm. the Thematic Meeting on Violence against Children with
7 United Nations (1990). United Nations Guidelines for
the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency (The ‘Riyadh
Guidelines’). Adopted by General Assembly resolution 17 Kendrick A (1998). ‘Who Do We Trust?’ The Abuse of
45/112 of 14 December 1990. Available at: Children Living Away from Home in the United Kingdom.
http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/h_comp47.htm. Paper presented to the 12th International Congress on
Child Abuse and Neglect (ISPCAN). September 1998,
8 United Nations (1990). United Nations Rules for
Auckland, New Zealand.
the Protection of Juveniles Deprived of their Liberty.
Adopted by General Assembly resolution 45/113 of 18 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
14 December 1990. Available at: against Children (2005). Summary Report of
http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/h_comp37.htm. the Thematic Meeting on Violence against Children with
9 Carter R (2005). Family Matters: A Study of Institutional
Childcare in Central and Eastern Europe and the Former
Soviet Union. London, EveryChild. 19 Berridge D, Brodie I (1996). Residential Child Care
in England and Wales: The Inquiries and After. In:
10 Boswell J (1988). The Kindness of Strangers:
Hill M, Aldgate J (eds). Child Welfare Services:
The Abandonment of Children in Western Europe from
Developments in Law, Policy, Practice and Research.
Late Antiquity to the Renaissance.
London, Jessica Kingsley, pp 180–195.
New York, Pantheon Books.
5
20 Barter C (2003). Abuse of Children in Residential Care. 31 Barter C (2003). Abuse of Children in Residential Care.
London, NSPCC. London, NSPCC. Available at: http://www.nspcc.org.
uk/Inform/OnlineResources/InformationBriefings/
AbuseOfChildrenInResidentialCare_asp_ifegap26011.
against Children (2005). Summary Report of
html.
the Thematic Meeting on Violence against Children
in Conflict with the Law. 4–5 April 2005, Geneva. 32 UNICEF (2003). Children in Institutions: The
Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r180. Beginning of the End? The Cases of Italy, Spain,
Argentina, Chile and Uruguay. Innocenti Insight.
22 Human Rights Watch (2001). Easy Targets: Violence
Florence, Innocenti Research Centre.
Against Children Worldwide. New York, Human Rights
Watch. 33 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
23 Westcott H, Clement M (1992). NSPCC Experience of
Child Abuse in Residential Care and Educational
Placements: Results of a Survey. London, NSPCC. 34 Goodman R (2000). Children of the Japanese State:
The Changing Role of Child Protection Institutions in
24 Astra, Children’s Rights Centre, Humanitarian Law
Contemporary Japan. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Centre, and OMCT (2004). State Violence in Serbia
and Montenegro: An Alternative Report to the United 35 International Save the Children Alliance (2003). A 221
Nations Human Rights Committee. Geneva and Belgrade. Last Resort: The Growing Concern about Children in

Residential Care. London, Save the Children UK.
25 Keating P et al. (2003). Review of Children’s Homes and
Places of Safety in Jamaica. Kingston, Jamaica, 36 UNICEF Regional Office for Latin America and the
Ministry of Health. Caribbean (2004). Convention on the Rights of the Child.
Fifteen Years Later. Latin America, UNICEF.
A Last Resort: The Growing Concern About Children 37 Foster G (2004). Study of the Response by Faith-Based
in Residential Care. London, Save the Children UK. Organisations to Orphans and Vulnerable Children.
UNICEF and Word Conference of Religions for
27 Barth RP (2002). Institutions vs Foster Homes:
Peace.
The Empirical Base for a Century of Action. Chapel Hill,
NC, University of North Carolina School of Social 38 International Save the Children Alliance (2003).
Work, Jordan Institute for Families. A Last Resort: The Growing Concern about Children in
Residential Care. London, Save the Children UK.
28 Almaty (2002). Alternative Report of Non-Governmental
Organisations of Kazakhstan. Available at: 39 Ugandan Ministry of Labour, Gender and Social
http://www.crin.org/docs/resources/treaties/crc.33/ Development (2003). Uganda Country Report for the
kazakhstan_ngo_report.pdf. Stockholm Conference on Residential Care. University of
Stockholm, Sweden.
29 Stativa E (2000). Survey on Child Abuse in Residential
Care Institutions in Romania (ABSUR). Available at: 40 Powell G et al. (forthcoming). Children in Residential
http://www.crin.org/docs/resources/treaties/crc.40/ Care: The Zimbabwean Experience. New York, UNICEF.
GDD_2005_stativa1eng.pdf#search=%22Survey%20o
41 UNICEF (2003). Africa’s Orphaned Generations. New
n%20Child%20Abuse%20in%20Residential%20Care
York, UNICEF.
%20Institutions%20in%20Romania%22.
Soviet Union. London, EveryChild.
42 TransMONEE Database (2002). UNICEF Innocenti 51 SOS-Kinderdorf (2005). A Child’s Right to a Family:
Research Centre, Florence. Cited in: United Nations The Experience, Learning and Vision of SOS Children’s
Study on Violence against Children (2005). Violence in Villages. Position Paper.
Residential Facilities for Children. Regional Desk Review:
52 Keating P et al. (2003). Review of Children’s Homes and
Europe and Central Asia. Available at: http://www.
Places of Safety in Jamaica. Kingston, Jamaica, Ministry
violencestudy.org/r27
of Health.
43 UNICEF (2005). Children and Disability in Transition
in CEE/CIS and Baltic States. New York, UNICEF.
44 Burnett A (2005). Study Examines the Situation of Soviet Union. London, EveryChild.
Children with Disabilities in Uzbekistan. Tashkent,
54 Human Rights Watch (2005). Positively Abandoned:
Uzbekistan, UNICEF. Available at: http://www.unicef.
Stigma and Discrimination against HIV-Positive Mothers
org/infobycountry/uzbekistan_25809.html.
and Their Children in Russia. New York, Human Rights
45 Tobis D (2000). Moving from Residential Institutions to Watch.
Community-based Social Services in Central and Eastern
55 UNICEF Somalia (2003). From Perception to Reality:
Europe and the Former Soviet Union. Washington DC,
A Study on Child Protection in Somalia. UNICEF
222 World Bank.
Somalia, Ch. 5.
56 Mental Disability Rights International (2005). Behind

Closed Doors: Human Rights Abuses in the Psychiatric
Facilities, Orphanages and Rehabilitation Centres of
47 Tobis D (1992). The Continuum of Child Welfare Turkey. Washington DC, MDRI.
Services: Principles and Practices for Central and Eastern
57 Mental Disability Rights International (2006). Hidden
Europe. Paper given at the Regional Seminar for East
Suffering: Romania’s Segregation and Abuse of Infants and
and Central Europe, Sofia, Bulgaria, September/
Children with Disabilities. Washington DC, MDRI.
October 1992. Cited in: Carter R (2005). Family
Matters: A Study of Institutional Childcare in Central and 58 Browne KD et al. (2004). Mapping the Number and
Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union. London, Characteristics of Children Under Three in Institutions
EveryChild. Across Europe at Risk of Harm. European Union Daphne
Programme, Final Project Report No. 2002/017/
48 A Jones et al. (Eds) (1991). Soviet Social Problems.
C, Publication 26951. Birmingham, University of
Boulder, Colorado, Westview Press. Cited in: Carter R
Birmingham.
(2005). Family Matters: A Study of Institutional Childcare
in Central and Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet 59 Silva E (2004). O Direito à Convivência Familiar e
Union. London, EveryChild. Comunitária: os Abrigos para Crianças e Adolescentes no
Brasil (The Right to Live with Family and Community:
49 Cabral C (2005). Contributions to International
Shelters for Children and Adolescents in Brazil). Brasília:
Standards for the Protection of Children in Out-of-Home
Ipea/Conanda. Cited in: Cabral C (2005). Contributions
Care. Submission to the Committee on the Rights of the
to International Standards for the Protection of Children
Child Day of General Discussion on Children Without
in Out-of-Home Care. Submission to the Committee on
Parental Care, Geneva.
the Rights of the Child Day of General Discussion on
50 SOS-Kinderdorf (2005). A Child’s Right to a Family: Children without Parental Care, Geneva.
The Experience, Learning and Vision of SOS Children’s
60 Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of
Villages. Position Paper.
Children (2006). Global Summary of the Legal Status of
Corporal Punishment of Children. 28 June 2006.
5
61 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence 70 Kendrick A (1998). Who Do We Trust? The Abuse of
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: Middle Children Living Away from Home in the United Kingdom.
East and North Africa. Available at: http://www. Paper presented to the 12th International Congress
violencestudy.org/r27. on Child Abuse and Neglect; Protecting Children,
Innovation and Inspiration. ISPCAN, Auckland,
New Zealand, 6–9 September.
East and North Africa. Available at: http://www. 71 Human Rights Watch (1998). Abandoned to the State:
violencestudy.org/r27. Cruelty and Neglect in Russian Orphanages. New York,
Human Rights Watch.
Closed Doors: Human Rights Abuses in the Psychiatric 72 Frank DA et al. (1996). Infants and Young Children
Facilities, Orphanages and Rehabilitation Centres of in Orphanages: One View from Paediatrics and Child
Turkey. Washington DC, MRDI. Psychiatry. Pediatrics, 97(4): 569–578.
64 Israel M (2002). Use of Skin-Shock as a Supplementary 73 University of Birmingham, UK Centre for Forensic and
Aversive at the Judge Rotenberg Centre (JRC). Paper Family Psychology. Cited in: International Foster Care
presented at the 2002 Meeting of the Association for Organisation (2005). Submission to the Committee
Behaviour Analysis. Available at: http://www.judgerc. on the Rights of the Child Day of General Discussion.
223
org/writeup3.html. Available at: http://www.crin.org/docs/resources/

treaties/crc.40/GDD_2005_IFCO.pdf.
against Children (2005). Summary Report of the 74 Conroy J, Bradley V (1985). The Pennhurst Longitudinal
Thematic Meeting on Violence against Children with Study: A Report of Five Years of Research and Analysis.
Disabilities. 28 July 2005, New York. Available at: Philadelphia, Temple University Developmental
http://www.violencestudy.org/r180. Disabilities Centre and Boston, Human Services
Research Institute.
against Children (2005). Summary Report of the 75 Bregman J, Harris J (1995). Mental Retardation. In:
Thematic Meeting on Violence against Children with Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, VI 2207.
Disabilities. 28 July 2005, New York, pp 18–19.
76 Harwin J (1996). Children of the Russian State: 1917–95.
Avebury, Ashgate Publishing Company.
67 Mental Disability Rights International (2000). Human
Rights and Mental Health: Mexico. Washington, DC,
MRDI.
78 IOM Rehabilitation Centre for Victims of Trafficking
Closed Doors: Human Rights Abuses in the Psychiatric
(2004). Cited in: Child Rights Information Center
Facilities, Orphanages and Rehabilitation Centres of
(2004). Evaluation Report: Life Skills Education for
Turkey. Washington, DC, MRDI.
Prevention of Trafficking in Human Beings. Child Rights
69 Sinclair I, Gibbs I (1998). Children’s Homes: A Study in Information Centre (CRIC), Secretariat of the National
Diversity. Chichester, UK, Wiley. Cited in: Barter C Council for Protection of the Rights of the Child,
(2003). Abuse of Children in Residential Care. London, Ministry of Education.
NSPCC.
79 Include Youth (2005). Submission to the Committee on
the Rights of the Child General Day of Discussion on
Children Without Parental Care. Belfast, Include Youth.
80 Annie E Casey Foundation (2004). Kids Count: 2004 90 Defence for Children International (2003). Kids Behind
Date Book Online. Available at: http://www.aecf.org/ Bars: A Study on Children in Conflict with the Law:
kidscount/. Towards Investing in Prevention, Stopping Incarceration
and Meeting International Standards. Amsterdam,
Defence for Children International.
against Children (2005). Summary Report of the
Thematic Meeting on Violence against Children in Conflict 91 Save the Children (2005). Mapping Save the Children’s
with the Law. 4–5 April 2005, Geneva. Available at: Response to Violence against Children in the South Asia
http://www.violencestudy.org/r180. Region. International Save the Children Alliance
82 National Commission for Child Welfare and 92 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
Development Records (2003). Cited in: AMAL and against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: South
Consortium for Street Children (2004). Street Children Asia. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27.
and Juvenile Justice in Pakistan. AMAL and Consortium 93 UNICEF (1998). Juvenile Justice. Innocenti Digest No 3.
for Street Children. Florence, International Child Development Centre.
83 Martin F, Parry-Williams J (2005). The Right Not to Lose 94 Annie E Casey Foundation (2003). The Advocasey
Hope. London, Save the Children UK. Index: Kids, Crime and Punishment. Advocasey, 5(1).
224
84 Amnesty International (2002). Burundi: Juvenile Justice 95 Nacro (2005). A Better Alternative: Reducing Child
in Burundi. London, Amnesty International. Cited in: Imprisonment. London, Nacro.

United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
96 Consortium for Street Children and University College
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: East and
Cork (1999). Prevention of Street Migration: Resource
Southern Africa. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.
Pack. London, Consortium for Street Children and
org/r27.
University College Cork. Cited in: Wernham M (2004).
85 Human Development Initiatives and Consortium for An Outside Chance: Street Children and Juvenile Justice
Street Children (2004). Street Children and Juvenile – An International Perspective. London, Consortium for
Justice in Lagos State. Human Development Initiatives Street Children.
and Consortium for Street Children, p 73.
97 Kakama PT (2002). Deprivation of Basic Needs as
86 Jahangir A, Doucet M (1993). Children of a Lesser God: Motivator for Criminal Activities Among Children.
Child Prisoners of Pakistan. Lahore, Pakistan, Vanguard London, Save the Children UK.
Books, p 1.
98 Defence for Children International (2003). Kids Behind
87 Human Rights Watch (1999). Prison Bound: The Denial Bars: A Study on Children in Conflict with the Law:
of Juvenile Justice in Pakistan. New York, Human Rights Towards Investing in Prevention, Stopping Incarceration
Watch. and Meeting International Standards. Amsterdam,
88 NCCWD (2001). Situation Analysis of Juveniles in Jails, Defence for Children International.
p 79. Cited in: United Nations Secretary-General’s 99 Martin F, Parry-Williams J (2005). The Right Not to Lose
Study on Violence against Children (2005). Regional Hope. London, Save the Children UK.
Desk Review: South Asia. Available at: http://www.
100 Martin F, Parry-Williams J (2005). The Right Not to Lose
Hope. London, Save the Children UK.
101 Centre for Youth and Children’s Affairs (1999). A Survey
Study Report on the Juvenile Offenders in Malawi Prisons
and Approved Reform Centres. Lilongwe, Malawi, Centre
for Youth and Children’s Affairs, p 16.
5
102 Martin F, Parry-Williams J (2005). The Right Not to Lose 112 Davies N (2004). Wasted Lives of the Young Let
Hope. London, Save the Children UK. Down by Jail System. The Guardian, 8 December
2004. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/
103 Wernham M (2004). An Outside Chance: Street Children
criminaljustice/story/0,,1369112,00.html.
and Juvenile Justice – An International Perspective.
London, Consortium for Street Children. 113 Human Rights Watch (1996). Modern Capital of Human
Rights? Abuses in the State of Georgia. New York, Human
104 Quaker United Nations Office (2005). Violence against
Rights Watch.
Babies and Small Children Living in Prisons with Their
Mothers. Submission to the UN Secretary-General’s 114 Moussa D (2005). Report About the Sexual Assault and
Study on Violence against Children. Children Exploitation in Syria. Save the Children Sweden
in Lebanon.
105 NGO Advisory Panel for the United Nations Secretary-
General’s Study on Violence against Children (2005). 115 The Howard League for Penal Reform (UK). Cited in:
Summary Report: Violence against Children in Conflict Roy N, Wong M (2002). Juvenile Justice Review and
with the Law. Thematic Consultation for the UN Training Documents. Prepared for Save the Children UK,
Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Children. pp 2002–2003.
Geneva, 4–5 April 2005. Available at: http://www.
116 United Nations (1999). Report of the Special Rapporteur
on Violence against Women of the Mission to the United 225
106 The Consortium for Street Children. Data Taken States of America on the Issue of Violence against Women

from the Juvenile Court Register, Nairobi, Kenya, for in State and Federal Prisons. E/CN.4/1999/68/Add. 2,
the Period Feb. 1998–Jan. 2002. Cited in: Wernham paras 55 and 58.
M (2004). An Outside Chance: Street Children and
117 Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of
Juvenile Justice – An International Perspective. London,
Children (2006). Global Summary of the Legal Status
Consortium for Street Children.
of Corporal Punishment of Children, 28 June 2006.
107 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence Available at: http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org.
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review:
Eastern and Southern Africa. Available at: http://www.
108 Defence for Children International (2003). Kids Behind org/r27.
Bars: A Study on Children in Conflict with the Law:
Towards Investing in Prevention, Stopping Incarceration
and Meeting International Standards. Amsterdam,
East and North Africa. Available at: http://www.
Defence for Children International.
109 Khan SZ (2000). Herds and Shepherds: The Issue of Safe
120 Human Rights Watch (2004). Real Dungeons: Juvenile
Custody of Children in Bangladesh, BLAST/Save the
Detention in the State of Rio de Janeiro. New York,
Children UK.
Human Rights Watch.
121 Children’s Rights Alliance for England (2005). State of
Children’s Rights in England annual review, available at
Asia. Available at:http://www.violencestudy.org/r27.
www.crae.org.uk
111 Home Affairs Committee (2005). Rehabilitation of
122 Human Rights Watch (2003). Charged with Being
Prisoners. First Report of Session 2004–2005. House
Children: Egyptian Police Abuse of Children in Need of
Affairs Committee, House of Commons. London,
Protection. New York: Human Rights Watch.
The Stationery Office Ltd.
123 Penal Reform International and Advocacy Forum 132 Committee on the Rights of the Child (2005, 2006).
(2006). Assessment of children and young persons in Concluding Observations: Brunei Darussalam (CRC/
prisons, correction home and police custody in Nepal. C/15/Add. 219) 2003; Iran (CRC/C/15/Add. 254) 2005;
Juvenile Justice in Nepal Series 2. Kathmandu. Nigeria (CRC/C/15/Add. 257) 2005; Pakistan (CRC/
UNICEF. C/15/Add. 217) 2003; Saudi Arabia (CRC/C/SAU/
CO/2) 2006; and Yemen (CRC/C/15/Add. 267) 2005.
124 National Commission for Child Welfare and
Development (2001). Situation Analysis of Juveniles 133 Amnesty International (2005). Violence against
in Jails, p. 79. United Nations Secretary-General’s Children: Capital Punishment. Submission to the UN
Study on Violence against Children (2005). Regional Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Children.
Desk Review: South Asia. Available at: http://www.
134 United States Supreme Court (2005). Roper vs Simmons.
543 USA 551.
125 Human Rights Watch (2005). Making Their Own Rules:
135 Human Rights Watch (2005). The Rest of Their Lives:
Police Beatings, Rape and Torture of Children in Papua
Life Without Parole for Child Offenders in the United
New Guinea. New York, Human Rights Watch.
States. New York, Human Rights Watch.
126 See for example, Amnesty International (2000). Hidden
136 UNICEF (1998). Juvenile Justice. Innocenti Digest No 3.
Scandal, Secret Shame. London, Amnesty International,
226 Florence, International Child Development Centre.
and Human Rights Watch (2001). Easy Targets: Violence
against Children Worldwide. New York, Human Rights 137 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
Watch. against Children (2005). Summary Report of the
Thematic Meeting on Violence against Children in Conflict
with the Law. 4–5 April 2005, Geneva. Available at:
Bars: A Study on Children in Conflict with the Law:
Towards investing in prevention, stopping incarceration
and meeting international standards. Amsterdam, 138 Human Rights Watch (2005). The Rest of Their Lives:
Defence for Children International. Life Without Parole for Child Offenders in the United
States. New York, Human Rights Watch.
128 Human Rights Watch (1999). Nobody’s Children:
Jamaican Children in Police Detention and Government 139 Human Rights Watch (2004). Real Dungeons: Juvenile
Institutions. New York, Human Rights Watch. Detention in the State of Rio de Janiero. New York,
Human Rights Watch.
Bars: A Study on Children in Conflict with the Law: 140 HM Chief Inspector of Prisons (2005). Juveniles in
Towards Investing in Prevention, Stopping Incarceration Custody 2003-2004: an analysis of children’s experiences
and Meeting International Standards. Amsterdam, in prison.
Defence for Children International. 141 Annie E. Casey Foundation (2003). Juvenile Justice at
130 Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of a Crossroads. Advocasey, Vol. 5, No 1. Baltimore, The
Children (2006). Global Summary of the Legal Status Annie E. Casey Foundation.
of Corporal Punishment of Children, 28 June 2006. 142 US Department of Justice (2004). Office of Juvenile
Available at: www.endcorporalpunishment.org. Justice and Delinquency Prevention Annual Report,
131 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence FY2003-2004. Washington DC, OJJDP.
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: East Asia 143 The Howard League for Penal Reform (2005). Available
and the Pacific. Available at: www.violencestudy.org/r27. at: http://www.howardleague.org/index.php?id=213
5
144 Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention 154 Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission
(1985). Juveniles in Adult Jails and Lockups: It’s Your Australia (2004). A Last Resort? Summary Guide.
Move. Washington DC, OJJDP. (A summary of the important issues, findings and
recommendations of the National Inquiry into Children
145 American Youth Policy Forum (2001). Less Cost, More
in Immigration Detention.) Human Rights and Equal
Safety: Guiding Lights for Reform in Juvenile Justice.
Opportunity Commission.
Washington DC, American Youth Policy Forum.
155 Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission
146 Coalition for Juvenile Justice (2004). Unlocking the
Australia (2004). A last resort? Summary Guide.
Future: Detention Reform in the Juvenile Justice System.
(A summary of the important issues, findings and
147 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence recommendations of the National Inquiry into Children
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: East Asia in Immigration Detention.) Human Rights and Equal
and the Pacific. Available at: http://www.violencestudy. Opportunity Commission.
org/r27.
148 Feld BC (1998). Juvenile and Criminal Justice Systems’ against Children (2006). Summary Report of the
Responses to Youth Violence. Crime and Justice, 24: Thematic Consultation on Violence against Refugee
189–261. Cited in: Annie E Casey Foundation (2003). and other Displaced Children. 25 April 2006, Geneva.
Juvenile Justice at a Crossroads. Advocasey, 5(1): 17. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r180. 227

149 Separated Children in Europe Programme (2005). 157 BBC Monitoring of RNF Radio 1 (2005). Child Migrant
Newsletter No. 22. Available at: http://www. Centres at ‘Breaking Point’ – Spanish Official.
savethechildren.net/separated_children/publications/ 1 November 2005.
newsletter/NEWSLETTER_No_22.pdf.
158 UNICEF and International Social Service (2004).
150 The Committee on the Rights of the Child (2005). Improving Protection for Children Without Parental Care,
General Comment No. 6 on the Treatment of a Call for International Standards. New York, UNICEF,
Unaccompanied and Separated Children Outside Their and Geneva, International Social Service. Available at:
Country of Crigin. CRC/GC/2005/6. http://www.crin.org/docs/resources/treaties/crc.40/
151 Separated Children in Europe Programme (2005). GDD_2005_CALL_FOR_INT_STANDARDS.pdf.
Newsletter No. 22. Available at: http://www. 159 Human Rights Watch (2002). Nowhere to Turn: State
savethechildren.net/separated_children/publications/ Abuses of Unaccompanied Migrant Children by Spain and
newsletter/NEWSLETTER_No_22.pdf. Morocco. New York, Human Rights Watch.
152 Amnesty International (2005). Seeking Asylum Is Not 160 Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (2004).
a Crime: Detention of People Who Have Sought Asylum. Child Soldiers Global Report 2004. London, Coalition to
AI Index : EUR 45/015/2005. London, Amnesty Stop the Use of Child Soldiers.
International. Available at: http://web.amnesty.org/
161 Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (2005).
library/Index/ENGEUR450152005?open&of=ENG-
Submission to the UN Secretary-General’s Study on
369.
Violence against Children, with specific reference to
153 Kanics J (2005). Presentation to the UN Regional children in military schools and to children in peacetime
Consultation on Violence against Children, Ljublijana, government forces. Coalition to Stop the Use of Child
Slovenia. Cited in: United Nations Secretary-General’s Soldiers.
Study on Violence against Children (2005). Regional
Consultation Outcome Report: Europe and Central Asia.
162 Amnesty International (2001). Paraguay: No Child’s 171 Carter R (2005). Family Matters: A Study of Institutional
Play – Under-age Recruitment in the Armed Forces Must Childcare in Central and Eastern Europe and the Former
Stop. Press release, 5 April 2001. Available at: http:// Soviet Union. London, EveryChild, pp 34–35.
web.amnesty.org/library/engindex.
163 Rojas F (2001). El Servicio Militar Obligatorio en Childcare in Central and Eastern Europe and the Former
Paraguay: Entre la Contestación Social y la Inercia de Soviet Union. London, EveryChild.
las Instituciones del Estado Autoritario. Research and
173 Meeting on African Children Without Family Care
Education in Defense and Security Studies Conference,
(2002). Final Report. Windhoek, 30 November 2002.
Centre for Hemispheric Defense Studies, Washington
DC, 22–25 May (REDES 2001). Available at: http:// 174 Lakin KC et al. (1998). Decreases Continue in Out-of-
www.ndu.edu/chds/REDES2001 (Programa, Bloque IV, Home Placements of Children and Youth with Mental
Panel 2). Retardation. Mental Retardation, 36(2): 165–167.
164 Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (2005). 175 Habibi G (1999). UNICEF and Children with
Submission to the UN Secretary-General’s Study on Disabilities. One-in-Ten, 2(4). UNICEF Education
Violence against Children, with specific reference to Update.
children in military schools and to children in peacetime 176 Allouche Z (2005). Children Without Parental Care.
228 government forces. Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Submission to the Committee on the Rights of the
Soldiers.
Child General Day of Discussion on Children Without

165 Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (2005). Parental Care. The Lebanese Association of SOS
Submission to the UN Secretary-General’s Study on Children’s Villages.
Violence against Children, with specific reference to 177 Committee on the Rights of the Child (2005).
children in military schools and to children in peacetime Recommendations Following a ‘Discussion Day’ on
government forces. Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Children Without Parental Care. Available at: http://
Soldiers. www.ohchr.org/english/bodies/crc/docs/ discussion/
166 Presentation by Child Protection Society of Zimbabwe recommendations2005.pdf.
(2002). Cited in: Meeting on African Children Without 178 OHCHR et al. (2005). Protecting the Rights of Children
Family Care: Final Report. Windhoek, 30 November in Conflict with the Law. Programme and Advocacy
2002. Experiences from Member Organisations of the Inter-
167 Hillman AA, Rosenthal E (2003). Unanswered Cries: agency Coordination Panel on Juvenile Justice. Summary
Institutionalisation and Violence against Children with Document. Inter-Agency Coordination Panel on
Disabilities. One in Ten, 24: 12–14. Juvenile Justice /UNICEF.
168 International Save the Children Alliance (2003). A 179 UNICEF (2003). From Perception to Reality: A Study on
Last Resort: The Growing Concern About Children in Child Protection in Somalia. UNICEF Somalia, Ch. 10.
Residential Care. London, Save the Children UK. 180 UNICEF (2003). From Perception to Reality: A Study on
169 Desmond C (2002). The Economic Evaluation of Models Child Protection in Somalia. UNICEF Somalia, Ch. 10.
of Care for Orphaned and Vulnerable Children. Paper 181 OHCHR et al. (2005). Protecting the Rights of Children
prepared for Family Health International, August 2002 in Conflict with the Law. Programme and Advocacy
draft. Experiences from Member Organisations of the Inter-
170 World Bank (1997). Confronting AIDS: Public Priorities agency Coordination Panel on Juvenile Justice. Summary
in a Global Epidemic. Washington DC, World Bank. Document. Inter-Agency Coordination Panel on
Juvenile Justice /UNICEF.
5
182 Martin F, Parry-Williams J (2005). The Right Not to Lose VI United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
Hope. London, Save the Children UK. against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: North
183 Human Rights Watch (2006). Failure to Protect
Children in Foster Care: Former Foster Children, Now VII Save the Children (2003). One Day in Prison-Feels like
Homeless in California. Advocacy Paper. New York, a Year: Palestinian Children Tell Their Own Stories.
Human Rights Watch. Stockholm, Save the Children Sweden.
184 Mulheir G (2005). De-institutionalisation in Sudan: VIII Human Rights Watch (1998). The Rest of their Lives :
Preventing Violence Through Transforming Services to Life Without Parole for Child Offenders in the United
Children and Families. Submission to the Unitd Nations States. New York, Human Rights Watch, p 64.
IX L’Observatoire des droits de l enfant de la région océan
185 OHCHR et al. (2005). Protecting the Rights of Children indien (2006). La violence contre les enfants dans la région
in Conflict with the Law. Programme and Advocacy de l’océan indien. Annual Report of the Observatoire des
Experiences from Member Organisations of the Inter- droits de l’enfant de la région océan indien. Mauritius,
agency Coordination Panel on Juvenile Justice. Summary l’Observatoire des droits de l enfant de la région océan
Document. Inter-Agency Coordination Panel on indien, p 52.
X United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence 229
186 OHCHR et al. (2005). Protecting the Rights of Children against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: Eastern

in Conflict with the Law. Programme and Advocacy and Southern Africa, p 27. Available at:
Experiences from Member Organisations of the Inter- www.violencestudy.org/r27.
agency Coordination Panel on Juvenile Justice. Summary
XI United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
Document. Inter-Agency Coordination Panel on
Report: Europe and Central Asia, p 25. Available at:
QUOTES XII United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
I Save the Children (2003). One Day in Prison-Feels like Report: North America, p 67. Available at: www.
a Year: Palestinian Children Tell Their Own Stories. violencestudy.org/r27.
II Youth Human Rights Group (2003). Monitoring Human
Rights in Orphanages and Boarding Schools for Abandoned
Children in the Kyrgyz Republic. Bishkek, Youth Human
Rights Group, p 13.
III United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
IV Martin F, Parry-Williams J (2005). The Right Not to Lose
Hope. London, Save the Children UK, p 37.
V United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
PAKISTAN, 2006, (Left-right) Raz Mohammed, 10, Farooq, 8, and Musa, 12, sit on a pile of garbage in Quetta, capital of
the southern province of Balochistan. They live on the streets and scavenge for food and items to sell.
6
IN PLACES OF WORK
Introduction 233
The emergence of child labour as a policy concern 238
The contemporary campaign against child labour 239
Conflict, HIV/AIDS, and economic globalisation 240
The importance of a child-centred perspective 241
231
VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN IN PLACES OF WORK

The existing knowledge base 242
Types of workplace violence 242
Child labour statistics 242
Children in certain high-risk work settings 244
Child domestic labourers 244
Violence of all kinds is common 244
Isolation and psychological distress 245
Children exploited in the sex industry 245
Forced and bonded labour 247
Bonded servitude 247
Indigenous groups 248
Traditional forms of slavery 249
Illicit activities 249
Children involved in trading drugs 250
Characteristics of workers and perpetrators 251
Workplace characteristics 252
Environmental factors 252
Responses to violence against children in places of work 253
Laws and their implementation 255
Labour law enforcement 256
Backing for law enforcement within civil society 257
Universal education and life skills 259
The participation of children 261
Advocacy 262
Targeted interventions: Contact, rescue, and rehabilitation 263
Contact 264
Rescue operations 264
Rehabilitation 265
232 Improved data collection 266
Action research and monitoring 266
Building momentum for change 267

A long way to go 267
Recommendations 268
References 271
6
INTRODUCTION aspects for those young people who are work-
ing legally. This is surprising, given that the
Of all the settings where children are exposed image of child labour derives from the brutali-
to violence, the workplace is among the most ties suffered by children in 19th century fac-
difficult to address. According to international tories and mines.2 Overt or implied violence
instruments and most national laws, children was integral to the view of workplace abuse of
under a certain age (usually 15 but sometimes children informing early campaigns against
lower; see Table 6.1) should not be in the work- child labour. The effects on children’s physical
place at all, let alone in a workplace where they growth and well-being were among the most
may be subject to violence. Yet well over 200 potent arguments for its elimination.
million children and adolescents do work, at
ages both below and above the minimum legal The most obvious response to violence against
age,1 and many suffer ill-treatment, physical and children in the workplace is to remove them
psychological violence, verbal or sexual abuse. from it. However, it is important to recog-
nise that for many children this is not an easy 233
Violence is a neglected aspect of debates on option. Programmes to remove children from

child labour; there are little data available, violent workplaces have to ensure that the
especially for child workers in the informal reasons they are there – economic, social and
economy where the majority are to be found. cultural – are simultaneously addressed, or
Although specific studies are few, a growing they will simply return to them. Unless pro-
body of information from organisations and grammes engage with child workers and their
from children themselves presents a convincing families and seek to change attitudes, expec-
picture of an acute global problem. Violence tations and prospects, they are not likely to
towards working children has only remained remove children permanently from an exploit-
‘invisible’ because the direct question is rarely ative working life.3,4,5,6
posed: for example, participants in the Study’s
South Asia consultation noted that data are It is also important not to further violate the
systematically collected on violence against well-being of children who work by penalis-
female and other workers, but child workers ing or criminalising them for circumstances
are ignored. They also commented that values beyond their control (see also the chapters
and perceptions have served to minimise and on violence against children in the commu-
even undermine the issue of workplace violence nity and in care and justice institutions).7 The
against children – a comment that applies reduction of violence against children in the
equally elsewhere. workplace is not achieved by inflicting official
violence on them, and deepening the stigma-
Addressing violence has also been largely tisation they already endure. Young workers
absent from explicit efforts to eliminate child have themselves made a contribution, through
labour, or to reduce its harmful and negative Study Consultations, to an understanding of
“Raids are conducted on our work places as part of the government programme to eliminate child
labour, and working children are rounded up like stray dogs. We are pulled out of work, taken away
against our wishes and illegally confined. The actual raid experience is very traumatic for us.”
Child, South Asia, 2005 I
the violence they suffer. They report losing

their self-esteem through being denigrated in
the workplace, and feel similarly denigrated
when their work is treated as something evil to
be abolished, ignoring their sincere attempts
to contribute to family survival.8
Despite 150 years of experience in responding
to exploitative and abusive child labour and
the significant progress made in recent years
in finding ways to remove children from the
worst forms of child labour, experience in
responding specifically to violence in working
children’s lives is limited. This chapter looks
234 at existing information and programmes in an
attempt to open a new window on the working
child phenomenon.
Standards to regulate child labour were the very earliest international instruments put
in place concerning child protection. A Minimum Age (Industry) Convention was first
adopted in 1919 by the newly formed International Labour Organization (ILO), at a
time when the employment of children was regarded as a major social issue in Europe
and North America.9 The involvement of children in abusive, forced or violent types of
workplace was also recognised and addressed by the Forced Labour Conventions No.
29 (1930), and No. 105 (1957); and in the 1956 Supplementary Convention on Slav-
ery, which prohibits any practice whereby a child is given or sold by his/her parents to
someone else for the purposes of labour or exploitation (article 1.d).
During the immediate post-colonisation era, the child well-being issues which mainly
preoccupied international organisations and newly-independent Governments were
public health and education. In 1973, the ILO adopted the Minimum Age Convention
No. 138 (1973), which put under-age labour back onto the international agenda. This
addressed the issue from the perspective of minimum age of employment of children
and young people in different types of work with some flexibility according to coun-
tries’ different stages of development.
6
TABLE 6.1 – Minimum ages according to ILO Convention No. 138
WHERE THE ECONOMY

AND EDUCATIONAL
CATEGORY OF WORK IN GENERAL FACILITIES ARE
INSUFFICIENTLY
DEVELOPED
Not less than the age of
completion of compulsory Not less than 14 years for an
General minimum wage
schooling, and in any case initial period
not less than 15 years
Light work 13 years 12 years 235

18 years (16 years under 18 years (16 years under
Hazardous work
certain strict conditions) certain strict conditions)
Source: ILO/IPEC (2004). Global Child Labour Trends 2000–2004. Geneva, International Programme on the
Elimination of Child Labour, International Labour Organization.
During the 1980s, the protection of ‘children in especially difficult circumstances’, includ-
ing children suffering from exploitation, came to the fore. This was due to the emphasis
by NGOs on these issues, and the impetus they gave to the articulation of the 1989 UN
Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC). Although the Convention later took in
the child survival and development – or public health – agenda, the main driver was child
protection;10 thus the vision of child rights established in the CRC fully embraced the
need to protect children from exploitative work of all kinds.
Exploitative work and the Convention on the Rights of the Child
A specific article in the CRC is devoted to work (article 32). This recognises “the right
of the child to be protected from economic exploitation and from performing any work
that is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with the child’s education, or to be harmful
to the child’s health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development.” The
article goes on to oblige States to “provide for a minimum age or minimum ages for
admission to employment” and other key aspects of a regulatory regime. Other articles
>>>
“Preventive action against violence in the workplace affecting children is essential. Start with keeping
or getting under-age children out of these situations and allowing them to be or remain in school. And
there has to be zero tolerance of violence against children wherever they work.”
Frans Roselaers, Editorial Board of the UN Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Children
that relate to the exploitation of child labour include article 34 (protection from sexual
exploitation); article 35 (protection from trafficking); and article 36 (protection against
all other forms of exploitation).
However, the notion of child protection in the CRC goes well beyond non-exploita-
tion. Within its holistic framework for the upbringing, well-being and development of
the child, the CRC covers a number of rights potentially at risk in cases where children
work. These include article 2 (protection against discrimination); article 3 (primary
consideration given to ‘the best interests of the child’); and article 8, the right to
identity (working children may be denied the use of their own name). There are also
rights to access to health (article 24), education (article 28), and recreation (article 29),
which the working child frequently does not enjoy.
236
Certain CRC articles apply to specifics of the working situation, especially when a
child is working away from home and is under the control of some adult other than
the parents. These include article 19 (protection from all forms of physical or mental
violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment); article 27 (the right to an
adequate standard of living); and article 37 (protection from torture, cruel and degrad-
ing treatment and arbitrary deprivation of liberty). Finally, the rights relating to civic
participation apply to working children as to others: article 12 (the right to be con-
sulted); article 13 (the right to seek and impart information and views); and article 15
(the right to freedom of association).
Post-CRC developments
In 1992, growing concern with the plight of working children led the ILO to launch
the International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC). The elimi-
nation of child labour began to be recognised also as a core labour standard, including
at the World Summit for Social Development in Copenhagen (1995), and the WTO
Ministerial Conference in Singapore (1996). International meetings on child sexual
exploitation and child labour took place in Stockholm (1996), Amsterdam (1997),
Oslo (1997), and Yokohama (2001).
In 1999, the ILO adopted Convention No. 182, the Worst Forms of Child Labour
Convention, targeting the most hazardous and exploitative situations in which
children are found.
6
The purpose of the new Convention was to strengthen the international legal frame-
work for action by focusing more widely than on minimum age of employment. With
its passage, the international profile of activity to tackle child labour reached an
unprecedented level. The concept of ‘worst forms’ helped establish global priorities,
and directed attention to the impacts of work on children as well as on the type of
work they perform. A ‘worst form’ is not occupationally defined internationally, but
by participating countries for their own context. However, some ‘unconditional worst
forms’ are identified as universally outlawed.
Taken together, Conventions Nos 138 and 182 set the boundaries of the types of work
that are unacceptable under international standards. These standards express the con-
sensus view that work which falls within the legal limits and does not interfere with the
237
child’s health and development or prejudice their schooling can be a positive experi-

ence. Child labour proscribed under international law falls into three categories:11
• Unconditional worst forms of child labour, which are internationally defined
as slavery, trafficking, debt bondage and other forms of forced labour,
forced recruitment of children for use in armed conflict, prostitution and
pornography, and illicit activities.
• Work that jeopardises the physical, mental or moral well-being of a child,
either because of its nature or because of the conditions in which it is carried
out, known as ‘hazardous work’, which should be defined at the national level
and prohibited for all children under 18 years; hazardous work is defined as
work “which exposes children to physical, psychological or sexual abuse.”
• Work that is performed by a child who is under the minimum age specified
for that kind of work, and which is thus likely to impede the child’s education
and full development. The minimum working age should not be lower than
the age for completing compulsory schooling, and normally at least 15 years.
However, light work that is not harmful for the child and which does not
hinder education may be allowed from 13 years onwards, but only for a limited
number of hours.
The adoption of Convention No. 182 created a consensus among international bodies
and NGOs on priorities for ending child labour, beginning with the worst forms.
Additional international concern with child sexual exploitation led to two further
>>>
‘We all come from the same village in the south. We came to the city to work and have not seen our
families since we left. We pay rent and live together as a group to defend ourselves from thieves.’
Shoeshine boys, Eastern and Southern Africa, 2003 II
international legal developments: the Palermo Protocol on the trafficking of persons,

especially women and children (2000); and an optional protocol to the CRC on the
sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography (2000). These protocols
are directly relevant to the likelihood of violence against children in situations of
economic activity where there is international unanimity that children should not be
employed.
BACKGROUND AND than going to school;12 this attitude is particu-

larly likely where the quality and relevance of
CONTEXT
238 the available schooling is low. In settings with
Children have always worked. Many forms a strong social hierarchy, it may be normal for
of child work are a natural part of growing children from a disadvantaged background to
up; traditionally, the child assumed domes- be assigned to work for better-off families at an
tic working responsibilities – carrying water, early age. Children in such societies are at the
minding siblings, herding goats, helping par- very bottom of the pecking order. They are seen
ents at the loom or spindle – at the earliest as the property of the family or employer, and
practicable age. These activities fused with do what they are told. 13
‘work’ in its economic sense as the child grew
older. Many children in the world today still THE EMERGENCE OF CHILD
work in family-based activities as part of the LABOUR AS A POLICY CONCERN
informal economy. Some of this work con-
tains risk of violence. It may involve children The issue of child labour has had a particular
taking animals to pasture far from home and genesis as a public policy concern. Until the
being exposed to marauders; it may be associ- industrial revolution of the 19th century, work
ated with seasonal migration for agricultural was seen as being the lot of poor children from
work, when children accompany their fami- an early age. As in much of the developing
lies and work in settings where conditions are world today, children made a working contri-
extremely tough. It may involve them leaving bution to the family economy. Child labour
home for a precarious and unsafe life in town. became a public issue when large numbers of
children left the relatively protected environ-
In some places and among certain classes, castes ment of the family or family workshop, and
or ethnic groups, parents place greater value on became exposed to hazardous conditions in
children being employed in economic activities factories and mines.
6
Though competing interpretations have been torates, and providing education for working
proposed by historians for the decline of child children. The modern campaign has had to
labour in the industrialisation process of the take into account a rather different process of
19th and 20th centuries, an important factor industrialisation, and the fact that childhood
was the changing ideology regarding child- in many developing societies is constructed
hood.14 In 19th-century Europe, child labour differently than in westernised settings, with
began to be viewed as wrong because it vio- continuing expectations that children should
lated the notion that children had a right to help shoulder family needs and responsibilities
childhood, and that the State should protect at an early age.16
that right. For the first time came the public
assertion that children had the right not to THE CONTEMPORARY CAMPAIGN
work, and not to be exposed to dangers, exploi- AGAINST CHILD LABOUR
tation and abuse in the ‘new’ – organised and
industrialised – workplace.15 The contemporary drive against child labour
has been accompanied by international, 239
In responding to what had become the noto- academic and NGO attempts to enhance

rious phenomenon of ‘child labour’, social understanding of its dynamics and remedies
reformers put in place a number of interven- – although violence as a specific issue has been
tions which remain in the contemporary neglected. The information generated enables
portfolio: public inquiries, minimum age leg- a picture to be drawn of occupations and
islation, compulsory education, labour inspec- workplaces where violence can be assumed to
be more or less likely to occur.
Global estimates indicate that the vast major-
ity of children’s work (69%) is in the agricul-
tural sector, followed by 22% in services and
9% in industry (see Figure 6.1).17
UNICEF/HQ96-0959. Alejandro Balaguer
Many child workers operate within a family

setting, and the informal economy harbours
most child workers across all sectors. Gender
plays a significant role in determining the dif-
ferent types of work done by boys and girls;
for example, girls predominate in domestic
labour, while boys are heavily represented in
mining and quarrying.
PERU, 1996, A boy and a girl carry pumice stones, out of an
underground volcanic mine near the southern city of Arequipa. Although analysis of sending factors shows
some cultural drivers, the predominant reason
“Bihari ustads (masters) punish too much. My second ustad once hung me by the hands and beat me so
hard, the stick broke. After that he continued beating me with the shuttle. I left him and
worked under a third ustad. This one insulted me and did not pay me regularly.”
Boy in sari industry, 15, South Asia, 2001 III
why children work is ‘poverty’; this poverty

may have been exacerbated by family tragedy FIGURE 6.1
such as the loss of parents, or other economic
shock. Children below minimum working age Distribution of working children
often state that they are working because of by sector in 2004
their own or their families’ poverty, and chil- Services (22%)
Agriculture (69%)
dren do more work in poorer societies.18 Send-
ing their children to work instead of to school
can be seen as part of a ‘Faustian bargain’ that
poor parents make for immediate economic
Industry (9%)
gain.19 Their children’s prospects in life, which
depend on having an education, matter less Source: ILO (2006). The end of child labour:
than immediate family survival. within reach. Global Report.
Geneva, International Labour Organization.
240 If a child goes out to earn because of acute
family need, anxieties about personal safety
will be overridden. By definition, the environ- Republic of the Congo, Liberia, Rwanda, and
ments in which under-age children are sent Sierra Leone, the increased presence of chil-
to work are unsupportive of child rights; thus dren on the streets and open spaces trying to
protection from physical, psychological or secure the wherewithal to eat is the outcome of
sexual violence (and other forms of harm) is economic devastation (see the chapter on vio-
often ignored. Since the main thrust of child lence against children in the community).20
labour campaigns and programmes has been to
remove children from such workplaces for child Another source of household economic ruin
developmental reasons, addressing the violence is the HIV/AIDS epidemic; in Eastern and
in them specifically has not up to now been a Southern Africa, the loss of parents to AIDS has
key preoccupation, except in the case of sexual pushed many children into the informal econ-
exploitation and other forms of work where the omy in order to survive. In Ethiopia, the United
occupation is itself abusive. However, this may Republic of Tanzania and Zambia, ILO/IPEC
not always be the main source of workplace found a strong co-relation between the epi-
violence. demic and the entry of orphaned children into
occupations associated with violence such as
Conflict, HIV/AIDS, and economic domestic work, quarrying and prostitution.21 In
globalisation Zambia, 47% of children (average age 15 years)
selling sex for money had lost both father and
Many challenges have emerged in recent years mother, and 24% had lost one parent.22
to compound the problem of child labour
and workplace risk. In sub-Saharan Africa, in Though globalisation’s specific effects on child
post-conflict countries such as the Democratic labour are little researched, there are strong
6
“They take their childhood away from them when they make them work from an early age, struggling
in the streets, they never have time for their own lives. When they should be at school, they must go to
work, they can’t play and are traumatized by the insults and the aggressions they suffer everywhere.”
Adolescent boys, Latin America, 2005 IV
indications from anecdotal reports that these recipients of interventions.25 Greater familiar-
are widespread and mainly negative. The ity with children’s working environments has
increasing informalisation of labour in most provided a window onto the brutality and cal-
regions of the world has seen the growing pres- lousness many young workers face.
ence of all unskilled working people, especially
young female workers, in precarious, vulnera- As a consequence of their life experience, work-
ble and low-earning activities.23 Organisations ing children often have a powerful sense of their
involved with children working on the streets own will and capacities; hence the existence
report that numbers are rising, although reli- of working children’s organisations in Africa,
able statistics are few.24 Asia and Latin America, which undertake
programming and advocacy activity to fulfil
Economic crises, such as those facing the their own agendas, including leaving exploit-
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) ative and violent work. Other programmes to
in their transition to market economies, are end child labour have helped develop groups
forcing many children into street work and in which working children participate, and 241
sexual exploitation as a means of survival, and which support their efforts to leave the work-

fuelling a growing trafficking industry that place and gain education. The views of work-
often brutalises its victims. This picture is ing children on harmful work tend to coincide
repeated in a number of regions, notably East with those of adults, and with those expressed
and South Asia and Europe. However, data in international conventions. They oppose the
specifically on violence are difficult to find. exploitation of children, work that inhibits
education, work that involves long hours for
The importance of a child-centred little pay, forced labour, and work that endan-
perspective gers health or morals. They strongly oppose
Since the adoption of the CRC, the importance physical, sexual and psychological abuse of
of a rights-based child-centred perspective on children in the workplace.26
the phenomenon of working children is now
more widely recognised and its implications NATURE AND EXTENT OF
better understood. The views of children as an THE PROBLEM
input to projects for the elimination of child
labour have been more actively and systemati- Much of what is known about violence in the
cally sought. This not only meets their right organised workplace is derived from studies in
to participation, but has a practical purpose industrialised countries and among adult work-
in that programmes which respect the views ers, where the phenomenon appears to be on the
of working children and acknowledge choices increase. There has been a tendency to focus on
they have made in their lives are more likely physical violence. Only recently has the analyti-
to attain their objectives than those where cal perspective been extended to embrace verbal,
children and their families are seen as passive psychological and sexual violence, including
sexual harassment, bullying or mobbing (gang- and comments that most of it occurs in the
ing-up on and intimidating another worker).27 informal workplace where regulation is non-
existent and solid data is lacking.30
THE EXISTING KNOWLEDGE BASE
Types of workplace violence
Prevalence statistics on violence according to
worker age group are lacking. In the regulated The most common forms of violence against
workplace where young workers are legally children in the workplace are:
employed, safety codes and standards apply. • Physical violence, including beatings,
However, these may not adequately protect kicking, slapping, whipping, scalding
young workers. They may be reluctant to and in extreme cases, even murder;
report violence against them. Where employ- • Psychological (emotional) violence
ment is under-age and illegal, incidents are including shouting, scolding, insults,
even less likely to be reported. threats, obscene language, bullying,
242 mobbing, isolation, marginalisation,
Child labour surveys may not be conducted in
repeated discriminatory treatment;
such a way as to elicit the reality of the violence

under-aged workers experience.28 In Cambo- • Sexual violence, including sexual
dia, in a 2002 survey of working children, only harassment, fondling and rape.
0.5% of the children indicated that they were The most frequent harm to working children’s
exposed to mental and physical abuse. This well-being from the violence they experience
contrasted with statements made at a 1997 appears to be low self-esteem resulting from
workshop where the children reported wide- verbal abuse, humiliation and bullying.31 Chil-
spread employer violence, including severe dren frequently complain of the lack of respect
beatings, sexual abuse and electric shocks.29 in the way they are treated; in one study in
This example illustrates how hard accurate Bangladesh, 84% of working children com-
information is to obtain. plained of insults and other hurtful words.32
Where children are exploited in the informal The violence working children experience is
sector, the knowledge base is more severely often systematic and part of a collective work-
lacking while risks are greatly enhanced. place culture of physical brutality, shouting,
NGOs and human rights organisations have bad language, and casual violence including
undertaken qualitative surveys among rela- sexual taunts.
tively small groups of child workers in ‘dan- Child labour statistics
gerous’ or violence-prone occupations. But
child workplaces are notoriously difficult to New global estimates published by the ILO in
research. The Indian Government is rare in 2006 indicated that, in 2004, 218 million chil-
having made an effort to identify workplace dren were involved in child labour. Of these,
violence and abuse perpetrated on children, more than 60% (126 million) were deemed to
6
be in ‘hazardous work’. In the age group 5–14 ted for any child under 18 years of age accord-
years, 74 million children were working in haz- ing to ILO Convention No. 182; nor are
ardous situations. Between the ages 5 and 11, ‘unconditional’ worst forms of child labour,
boys and girls tend to be equally represented such as bonded labour, forced labour, child
in both child labour generally and hazardous prostitution, or engagement in fighting forces.
labour more specifically. At older ages, boys Some 8.4 million children are estimated to be
are more involved than girls (see Figure 6.2). employed in these forms. Of these, 1.2 mil-
The overall trends show a reduction in child lion are victims of trafficking; 5.7 million are
labour, especially in hazardous work.33 in forced or bonded labour; 300,000 children
are involved in fighting forces; 1.8 million in
Hazardous work makes up the majority of the prostitution and pornography; and 600,000 in
worst forms of child labour, and is not permit- illicit activities such as drug trafficking.34
FIGURE 6.2 243

Children in child labour and in hazardous work by age and sex in 2004
70 Females
62 61 62
Males
60
55
51 49 50 51
50
45
Percentage
38 39 38
40
30
20
10
0
5-11 12-14 15-17 5-11 12-14 15-17
Child labour Children in hazardous work
Source: ILO (2006). The end of child labour: within reach. Global Report. Geneva, International Labour Organization.
“If I broke something or did something badly they would beat me with a shoe or a belt. I couldn’t leave
the house, they would lock the door when they left. When my mother came the last time to visit I told her
I wouldn’t stay at that house any more. I said, ‘Either I go with you or I will run away or kill myself ’.”
Boy, 14, domestic labourer, North Africa, 2005 V
CHILDREN IN CERTAIN HIGH-RISK bouring countries to feed urban demand for

WORK SETTINGS domestic help in countries all over the world.36
Increasingly, this has become a form of unreg-
Among workers in informal employment, cer- ulated employment and exploitation, even of
tain occupations in which violence is a par- servitude. This picture is confirmed by several
ticular risk as a result of personal, workplace recent studies pointing to the extreme vulner-
and/or environmental factors require special ability of child domestic labourers.37,38,39,40
examination. Children whose occupations are
on the street or in other ‘open’ locations are The situation of child domestic labourers is
not specifically examined here, because their usually considered by their parents to be safe
major risk is less often occupational than the since the child may live in better accommo-
result of being beyond the safety of a protected dation than at home, may eat better, and is
space. (See the chapter on violence against are under the care of the employers and family
children in the community). members. However, the closed nature of the
244 household, the child’s isolation and the ‘invis-
Child domestic labourers
ible’ nature of the employment puts a child at
The taking-in of children from other house- considerable risk. Children in domestic labour
holds to perform domestic chores has long are at the mercy of the employer and other
been seen in many societies as a form of sur- household members. Child domestics describe
rogacy, adoption or assisting a child from a the relationship as often starting well, but later
less fortunate family. In West Africa, there is becoming intolerant and abusive.41 Where
a tradition of children migrating from rural to social stigma towards lower-status groups is
urban areas to work for others as part of their entrenched, a female employer may behave
upbringing. In most of sub-Saharan Africa, with impunity, subjecting her ‘girl’ or ‘boy’ to
exchanges of children between couples within impossible demands, extreme forms of physical
the extended family used to be standard forms punishment and serious violence. At the same
of mutual support. time, girls in domestic labour may be preyed
on sexually by the men of the household.42,43
Today, such practices have become increas-
ingly commercialised. Millions of children Violence of all kinds is common
live in the households of others at ever further
distances from home, and undertake domes- Violent and abusive behaviour towards child
tic work as ‘helpers’ or employees. Although domestics is much more common than
a small proportion are boys, domestic work realised; this form of child labour first came to
is normally consigned to females and is the the attention of child labour activists a decade
largest employment category of girls under 16 ago, and in several countries has been desig-
years in the world.35 Recruiters and traffickers nated a ‘worst form’ of child labour under ILO
in many regions supply rural girls from disad- Convention No. 182.44 It includes extreme
vantaged groups, depressed areas, and neigh- overwork (16-hour days are not uncommon);
6
“I sleep in one room by myself, at night, the male owner of the house knocks at my room, now I am in
dire straits because I am afraid to report this, I am also afraid that will lose my job. This is because
I have lost both parents, and I would not like to leave this job.”
Girl, 12, domestic labour, 2005 VI
beating, whipping, pulling hair, scalding with or social peers, not being able to play even with
water or an iron, and denial of food. The psy- the employer’s children.50 Child domestics are
chological violence includes shouting, name- often referred to by a derogatory label or denied
calling, insults, threats, and obscene language. the use of their own name. In Haiti, the term
The girls are often subjected to sexual harass- ‘restavèks’ (‘stay withs’) has come to mean some-
ment, and sometimes rape; pregnancy may one unwanted, and is often used as an insult;
also lead to their ejection onto the street by a restavèk girl may also be called ‘la pou sa’, or
the employer.45 Physical health consequences ‘there for that’, meaning available for sex.51 These
can also arise from lack of food, and failure to experiences leave children with deep feelings of
look after injuries or treat sickness. inferiority and chronically low self-esteem.
Consultations with children in domestic For girls who are dismissed or fall pregnant and
labour have revealed these high levels of vio- are excluded from the household the street and
lence. In the Philippines and Peru, almost all prostitution are likely, as few other options are
child domestic workers reported that they had available.52 Lack of resources, lack of knowl- 245
suffered maltreatment consisting of physical edge about how to travel or where to go, and

punishment, discrimination, humiliation and the shame of being ‘spoiled’ 53 prevent them
sexual harassment.46 In Fiji, eight out of 10 from returning home. A report from the United
domestic workers reported that their employ- Republic of Tanzania found that girls arriving
ers had sexually abused them.47 Research in El in support centres for sexually exploited chil-
Salvador found that 66% of girls in domestic dren had been thrown out of homes where they
service reported having been abused, and that were working as domestics and had been sexu-
the threat of sexual advances from employers ally abused and ended up on the streets; some
or visitors was always present.48 In a local study were as young as 10 years old.54
in the United Republic of Tanzania, 43% of
child domestic labourers reported being beaten, Children exploited in the sex industry
insulted, denied food, fined for damages, or The exploitation of children under 18 in pros-
forced to remain out of doors.49 In Nepal, chil- titution, in child and adolescent pornography
dren frequently start work at the age of 8 or 10, or sex shows, constitutes prima facie violence
and if the employer becomes annoyed with the against them.55 Making children perform
girl and abusive towards her, she may arbitrarily sexual acts or acts with sexual overtones, or
transfer the girl to another household. Such providing a child to someone else to use in any
children lose touch with their families entirely. sexual way, is a violation of child rights and
Isolation and psychological distress criminalised throughout the world. Children
of working age have themselves condemned
One of the most painful experiences for child this form of earning, speaking of the sex trade
domestic labourers is that of being consistently as a criminal activity, not to be confused with
treated as an inferior being; of having no friends other types of work.56
“In the seven years I was working, night after night, I thought it was me, that I was wrong.
The police would always chase me and social workers called me a pervert.
There was no one there to validate that I was victimized.”
Child exploited in the sex industry, North America, 2005 VII
Although statistics relating to the number of from husbands of young married girls, who
children used in prostitution are broad esti- will not be accepted back by their parents, or
mates and all statistics concerning prostitution expulsion from the school or workplace.62,63,64,65
should be treated with caution, around one The ways children enter prostitution are there-
million children are thought to enter prostitu- fore intrinsically abusive, and include aban-
tion every year.57 A 13-country study by Save donment and extreme social stigma. Some
the Children suggests that child sexual exploi- children are born into the trade in brothel com-
tation is increasing, with evidence of grow- munities,66 or given to priests in ritual forms
ing criminal activities related to trafficking of of sexual slavery, as in the case of devadasi in
children for sexual purposes, exploitation by India67 and trokosi in Ghana.68 Disability can
tourists and travellers, and pornography and also be a risk factor. Some brothel proprietors
Internet-related crimes.58 In South and East in Thailand reportedly seek out girls who are
Asia, around one-third of those used in pros- deaf, calculating that they will be less able to
titution are thought to be under 18; this is, a protest or escape since they will not be able to
246 sector where youth are often in demand, and communicate easily with customers or employ-
ers.69
one in which girls appear to be entering at an

ever younger age, often via work in bars and
massage parlours. The average age of girls from There is also widespread evidence from every
Nepal entering the sex trade dropped from 14– region that many girls and boys sell sex on the
16 years in the 1980s to 12–14 in the 1990s.59 street simply as a survival strategy in exchange
for food, shelter or drugs.70 In South Africa,
As in the case of child domestic labour, some where 10,000–12,000 children have lost their
girls enter prostitution because traffickers and caregivers to HIV/AIDS and are homeless and
recruiting agents promise golden opportuni- face stigma, the police estimate that 28,000
ties. In West Africa, from Senegal to Nigeria, children are exploited in the sex industry; 25%
thousands of children from destitute families of those used in prostitution in Cape Town are
are reportedly sent to the Middle East each children.71
year, many ending up in prostitution.60 The
trafficking itself may include violence. Accord- Additional exposure to violence
ing to an investigator into the trade from Alba- The violence intrinsic to sexual exploitation is
nia to Greece, children described ill-treatment compounded by exposure to additional physi-
such as being burned with cigarettes, slapped, cal or psychological violence, to which the
insulted, and obliged to sleep outside.61 youngest are most vulnerable. According to an
Risk factors ILO/IPEC study in Vietnam,72 12% of chil-
dren used in prostitution said that they had
A range of predisposing factors for child sexual been subjected to torture, beaten up by cus-
exploitation have been identified: violence in tomers, or by employers/pimps for disobedi-
the home and family, including sexual abuse ence; also that they underwent repeated abor-
6
“I left home because my brother made me go out at two or three in the morning to do things
I didn’t like doing. He offered me to his friends, to our uncles, to strangers.
Then, the day my father tried to abuse me, I left.”
Homeless adolescent girl, East Asia and the Pacific, 2005 VIII
tions, even having an abortion in the morning Forced and bonded labour
and receiving a customer in the afternoon. In
Mongolia, 33% of girls exploited in prostitu- Children in forced and bonded labour represent
tion indicated that they had been raped.73 In two-thirds of children in the unconditional
Jamaica, boys in prostitution reported that worst forms of child labour, which by a conser-
they were “at risk of violence from individuals vative estimate amount to 5.7 million children
who abhor homosexuals and think they should world-wide according to ILO.78,79 An unknown
be eradicated.” 74 but significant proportion are victims of traf-
ficking; most cases are in Asia, but the practice
In recent years, unknown individuals in Hon- exists in all regions. Forced and bonded labour
duras made a practice of abducting sexually are classified as slavery according to the 1956
exploited children, torturing and sometimes Supplementary Convention on Slavery, and
murdering the victims. Surviving victims although they are universally regarded as crim-
described how the perpetrators pretended to inal, these cases are very rarely prosecuted.
be prospective ‘clients’ for sex, then took the 247
The definition of forced labour comprises two
victims to lonely places where they were sexu-

basic elements: work or service exacted under
ally assaulted, tortured, insulted and humili-
the menace of a penalty, and work undertaken
ated. The aggression had the characteristics
involuntarily. The menace or penalty can take
of ‘moral’ punishment or collective revenge
many forms; its most extreme form involves
against the bodies of children who were
physical violence or restraint, or even death
socially abandoned and excluded – as if the
threats addressed to the victim or relatives.
girls or boys represented the social evil to be
There can also be a subtler form of menace,
eliminated. The abductors taunted their vic-
for example, threats to denounce illegal work-
tims: “If you disappeared, nobody would ask
ers to the police, or tell village elders about
after you.” 75
girls forced to prostitute themselves in distant
Social condemnation is another critical aspect cities.80
of the violence children in prostitution suffer.
Bonded servitude
Even where deception has been practised
and the work awaiting the child falsely por- A bonded child works in conditions of servi-
trayed, the stigma of having been sexually tude to pay off debts, which may have been
active makes it impossible for the child to passed down through generations. Normally, a
return home. Young people exploited in the child worker is bound to an employer or pro-
sex industry are often ashamed and are not prietor in return for a ‘loan’. In areas where the
aware that they are victims of abuse, believing practice is common, workers are from socially
themselves to blame. An underlying sense of inferior groups or castes, have no say over
guilt makes it difficult for them to talk about terms of any employment, and their families
their exploitation.76,77 are excruciatingly poor. In this situation the
child is a commodity, and works in conditions groups in the now outlawed kamaiya system
tantamount to slavery. in agriculture. A study which looked into this
practice found that 30% of the children who
Though bonded labour survives elsewhere, had left their employer had done so because
much of the problem is concentrated in South of ‘harassment or punishment’.86 In all such
Asia. India, with its vast population, has the feudal settings, the writ of law or the assertion
largest number of children in bonded labour of rights are absent. Intimidation, physical
(some estimates suggest that the figure may be punishment and verbal humiliation reinforce
as high as 15 million,81 mostly from the dalit a deep sense of inferiority and powerlessness.
or scheduled caste community). This practice
has long been illegal, and since 1997, under Indigenous groups
a new Supreme Court injunction, there have
been efforts to regulate it, bring perpetrators In Latin America, as elsewhere, high levels of
to justice, and rescue children from servitude. forced labour are endured by indigenous peo-
ples and their children, who typically also face
248
These actions were inspired by strong local high rates of poverty, discrimination and exclu-
activism. Sector-specific surveys have found sion. People in remote areas are particularly
bonded child labour in small-scale mining, susceptible to coercive recruitment and debt
brick making, fish processing, gem cutting, bondage due to the weak presence of the State.
carpet weaving, tanneries and fireworks pro- In remote parts of Brazil, children are cheaper
duction. Carpet-weaving manufacturers employ to hire and considered more docile. They work
children in conditions of severe bondage, and in tree-logging, wood-cutting, sugar cane plan-
coercion is often used for discipline and to curb tations, mining, distilleries, and coal produc-
protests.82 According to Human Rights Watch tion, all of which are dangerous.87 Since they
surveys conducted in the silk industry in Uttar have been invariably hired deceitfully, they
Pradesh in 1996 and 2003, the level of violence are indebted and have no chance of returning
suffered by children is high. They report that home. The intolerable situation of children
loom owners abuse the children on a routine in small-scale gold mining in Madre de Dios,
basis; the children are often locked up, and Peru, is well-known to human rights organisa-
their food is far from adequate.83 tions and the authorities. Around 20% of the
miners are 11–18 years old.88
A similar picture emerges in Pakistan.84 Feudal
social structures give landowners power to Vulnerability is enhanced by lack of official
exact labour from indebted families, and may identity. Since they do not register births, indig-
‘gift’ a bonded servant to another landlord. enous people are invisible to national authori-
In Sindh, documentary evidence of murder, ties and are therefore unable to denounce
sexual assault, kidnapping and physical assault forced labour or seek redress. In Peru’s remote
has been collected by human rights groups.85 labour camps in the Amazon basin, 20,000
In Nepal, bonded labour involves minority workers may be in forced labour, many accom-
“At 4:00 a.m. I got up and did silk winding. I only went home once a week.
6
I slept in the factory with two or three other children. We prepared the food there and slept in the space
between the machines. If I made a mistake – if I cut the thread – he would beat me.
Sometimes [the owner] used vulgar language. Then he would give me more work.”
Child, 11, bonded at around age 7 for Rs. 1,700 (US $35), South Asia, 2003 IX
panied by children who are expected to work banned by law.93,94 These people are usually
for free.89 According to an ILO study of 19 descendants of slaves, and their degree of
countries in the Latin American region, nearly actual ‘slavery’ is locally disputed and open
10% of the total child and adolescent popula- to interpretation. However, a range of services
tion aged 5 to 17 is working in worst forms of can be required of slave descendants, includ-
labour where violence is routine.90 ing children, both in the household and in the
fields; and they suffer severe limitations on
Traditional forms of slavery
their behaviour, rights, and entitlements.95
Africa has the highest incidence of informal
Children in such families are the property of
child work, and there is evidence to suggest
their masters and can be passed on from one
that a higher proportion may be ‘forced’
owner to another as ‘gifts’. Girls start work
than in other regions.91 However, coercion
very young and are at the beck and call of their
is mostly related to the importance attached
masters, including sexually, and as bearers of
to kinship and client-ship in economic rela-
additional slave children by designated part- 249
tions, and to the fact that most people, espe-
ners. Slavery was only legislatively banned in

cially in rural areas, do not make their living
Niger in 1999, and progress towards its elimin-
in an industrialised, monetised, or standard
employer–worker economy. Distance from ation is slow. A survey conducted in 2004 by
the modern economy is furthest in moun- a local organisation established that around
tain, desert or semi-desert environments. Life 43,000 men, women and children are still
is hard, and coping mechanisms for times of enslaved.96 Many of the 11,000 interviewees
calamity well-honed. Kin and client relation- had been subjected to violence, rape, degrad-
ships can be invoked to demand services from ing treatment and threats. Humiliating pun-
extended family members and those of lower ishments controlled every aspect of their lives,
status; these arrangements may be considered and prevented them from fleeing.
‘natural’ and sanctioned by social and reli- In African countries which have seen a col-
gious beliefs.92 lapse of governance and the rule of law, condi-
Abuse within or perversions of customary tions arise in which forced labour can flourish,
arrangements for the exploitation of children and children be abducted to provide working
occurs in a few countries of Eastern Africa, service of some kind. This has included sexual
such as Ethiopia; but is more extensive in slavery to warlords.97
the Sahelian countries where feudal forms of Illicit activities
governance persist. Mauritania and Niger are
the last countries in the world where regular Every Regional Desk Review undertaken for
slavery – direct ‘ownership’ of people, not by the Study recorded the involvement of chil-
means of commercial trade, but by customary dren in activities of a petty or serious criminal
arrangement – continues, though nominally nature, mostly on the streets. The Caribbean
Regional Desk Review, for example, expresses use among minors is common found that the
concern about a ‘growing population’ of street majority of children involved in drug dealing
children in countries like Jamaica and Haiti or trafficking are users of cannabis, heroin or
who become involved in illicit activities to amphetamines themselves.102 Although not
earn money, including packaging and selling addicted when they start pushing drugs, they
drugs, or acting as ‘look-outs’ for both police soon experiment with the products they are
and criminals.98 selling.
In some countries of Europe and Central Asia, In Somalia, the trade in khat, a narcotic leaf,
the growing presence of children working on is openly practised and is one of the most prof-
the streets, and their involvement in illicit itable businesses in the country. Working in
activities including petty theft, begging and the khat trade is sought after by boys, because
prostitution has prompted similar concern.99 it is the highest-paying form of entrepreneur-
In Saint Petersburg, some 10–30% of working ship.103 In the Philippines, a study found that
250 street children are involved in illicit activities nearly 20% of children involved in the drug
such as trade in stolen goods and drug traf- trade were hurt or injured in the process, and
ficking.100 17% witnessed other children being physi-

cally punished.104 Reasons included losing the
In many parts of the world, police assume that
drugs, or failing to remit the money to the
children trying to earn money on the street are
handler. About 25% of the children said that if
necessarily involved in illegal activity, adding
they failed to perform well, the consequences
to the violence in these children’s lives. In some
countries, such children are legally defined as would be beating, scolding or threats.
potentially deviant or criminalised as outcasts, A study on children in the drug trade in Rio
and the police are entitled to arrest them.101 de Janeiro is one of the few extensive surveys
(Arbitrary and violent arrest for offences such on children in illegal activities.105 Since the
as vagrancy is covered in the chapter on on 1980s, increasing numbers of children have
violence against children in care and justice become involved as the trade has become
institutions.) more open, more centred on cocaine, more
Children involved in trading drugs established in the favelas (poorer city quar-
ters), and more heavily armed. Children are
The trade in drugs has become one of the most drawn into the trade through social associa-
pervasive categories of illicit child labour. tion with dealers on the street and through
In this type of street-based work, violence the lack of alternative opportunities. The rise
or being on the end of violent behaviour is in young people’s involvement is reflected by
common, and drug trading also exposes chil- the dramatic rise in registered convictions
dren to risks of substance abuse and harm. A (of under 18s) for drug dealing or trafficking
study in the two regions of Estonia where drug – from 110 in 1980, to 1,584 in 2001. Inten-
‘Violence is when children are made to work like animals’.
Urban children, Latin America, 2005 X
6
tional harm and carrying illegal firearms also children with disabilities are at elevated risk
rose significantly during this period (see also of violence. Children are also less likely than
the chapter on violence against children in the adults to physically resist violence or make
community).106 complaints, making them easy targets. Young
workers, whether they have attained the legal
working age or not, are usually at the bottom
of the workplace hierarchy.
TO VIOLENCE
Disability may also play a part in violence
The ILO has developed a conceptual frame- against working children. In many parts of the
work for analysing violence at work among the world, for example, there are frequent reports of
general worker population, viewing it as func- children with visible disabilities (from congen-
tion of four interrelated factors: ital disfigurements to open wounds) being sent
• characteristics of the victims out to earn a living as beggars, often suffering
• characteristics of the perpetrators physical violence if they do not earn enough 251
• factors in the working environment during their ‘working day’. Such practices are

• risks related to the environment not only painful, exploitative and humiliating
external to the place of work.107 for the children, but frequently contribute to
worsening their disabilities and undermining
Though not developed with child workers in their health.109
mind, this framework is helpful in capturing
a number of interactive features, including The power relationship of employer over
individual and social risk factors, the context worker exacerbates risk; this power is absolute
in which certain types of work are performed, since the job is in the boss’s hands. Available
and individual and social outcomes, and work- information on recorded cases of workplace
place costs. violence against children implies that most
consists of violence inflicted by employers,
CHARACTERISTICS OF WORKERS since the majority of children work informally
AND PERPETRATORS for ‘employers’, a term that includes anyone
who has a controlling relationship over a work-
Children are by definition more vulnerable to ing child. Perpetrators also include foremen,
violence than adult workers due to their gen- co-workers, customers, police, and criminal
erally small size, developmental immaturity, gangs. Vulnerability is enhanced where the
and state of dependence. The distance of the working situation is isolated or illegal; chil-
employer in terms of space, social and ethnic dren in the sex trade often fall under the con-
affiliation from the child’s background affects trol of pimps or brothel owners.
whether he or she feels responsibility for the
young worker’s well-being. In addition, girls Traditional systems of apprenticeship – in the
are more vulnerable to sexual violence108 – and Caribbean, for example110 – can also be the
“No child should have to fight a war or carry heavy loads and neither should a child have to work long
hours without pay or be abused or treated unfairly. Children deserve to be treated as equals
in the workplace and those who abuse them should be severely punished. Equality and quality
in the workplace is what the children want.”
Child, Eastern and Southern Africa, 2005 XI
context of abuse. However, apprenticeship of Children in unsafe working environments

this kind may be the only path out of dire pov- are at constant risk of violence. Such envi-
erty for young workers trying to obtain skills ronments include glass factories, mining, and
in the informal economy.111 Where apprentice- plantation agriculture, especially where health
ship schemes exist in industrialised settings, and safety regulations are lax or non-exis-
there are also some reports of abuse. One tent.115 Severe injuries can result from danger-
study in France found that 16% of apprentices ous machinery, guns, accidents, toxic fumes
reported physical or verbal violence,112 and a and explosions. All such ill-effects affect
European Union study in 2000 found that 2% young and growing bodies and minds more
of apprentices were victims of physical violence than those of adults. Reports from a range of
from fellow workers.113 countries of systemic workplace abuse against
children include for example: inhumane con-
WORKPLACE CHARACTERISTICS ditions in the cotton industry116 and unsafe
252 Risks related to the workplace itself vary accord- use of pesticides around agricultural workers,
ing to whether the working activity takes place including children117,118, 119
in an organised setting, such as a factory or an

informal setting, such as a backroom enterprise; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
whether the workplace has special character-
istics of remoteness or danger, such as mines, Where the environment is itself full of risk,
fishing, quarrying, and some types of agricul- children who work in open spaces are con-
ture;114 whether it consists of a closed environ- stantly exposed to violence. In some places,
ment such as a household; or whether it is part work in the service industries such as restau-
of an illegal activity, such as sexual exploitation rants and shops may expose young workers to
or drug dealing. The most extreme examples armed robbery or customer aggression. When
of workplace violence against children occur working children feel constantly threatened
within the worst forms of child labour. by violence in the environment, they may also
SCAVENGING: A WORKPLACE FULL OF RISK
In many countries in Asia and Latin America, large numbers of under-age children
work on garbage dumps as scavengers. In the Philippines, in Metro Manila’s Quezon
City, thousands of children and their families make a living from dumpsites and live in
satellite communities. In 2000, one of the garbage mountains collapsed under torren-
tial rains, killing between 500 and 1,000 adults and children who were buried in the
trash. Even on a daily basis, injury from truck manoeuvres or sharp objects is common,
as is infection from rotting material.120
6
to make workplace violence against children a
more visible issue, and give it a higher priority
with policy-makers.123 The Regional Consulta-
tion in South Asia similarly observed that the
violence implicit in many working children’s
UNICEF/HQ95-0674. Nicole Toutounji
situations has not been adequately noticed or

challenged.
There is nonetheless experience in dealing
with abuse and violence within many exist-
ing programmes related to child labour. Most
such programmes are multi-pronged, address-
ing economic and cultural causes, the promo-
tion of education and alternative occupations,
HAITI, 1995, A girl works at the crowded Solomon Food social mobilisation around children’s needs 253
Market in Port-au-Prince. and rights, and advocacy to change attitudes

towards the acceptability of child labour.
learn violent behaviours themselves or become Within such programmes, the violence cer-
behaviourally disturbed, exhibiting sexual or tain children experience in the workplace
personal aggression.121 should be better researched and given more
attention.
Work on the street or in transport, shops, bars
or hotels based in shanty-town areas known for Appropriate responses will depend to a consid-
their violence presents special risks to the chil- erable extent on key differences concerning the
dren involved. Illicit activities such as trade in nature of the work or workplace, and therefore
illegal goods are by their nature conducted in of the violence within it. These can be grouped
high-risk areas where criminal enterprises are as follows:
part of the environment.122
v Worst forms: In the case where
violence is an integral component of
RESPONSES TO VIOLENCE the hazardous and exploitative nature
AGAINST CHILDREN IN of the labour, covered under ILO
PLACES OF WORK Convention No. 182, children should
not be in the workplace. Therefore,
Violence as a specific issue has not been given the principal response will be to enable
much attention by programmes concerning them to leave it and take up a new
child labour. A global challenge that emerges course of life, with parental, social and
from the Study, according to the Study’s State support. This requires a multi-
Regional Consultation in the Caribbean, is pronged approach, including measures
to combat poverty, promote education, logical or sexual abuse and suffer risks to their
and enforce labour regulations.124 health, safety or morals.
v Work in informal settings:
Where there is no ‘employment’ in However, as already observed, efforts directed
a contractual sense, and where the at taking children out of the workplace need
workplace is not easy to access or to be accompanied by measures which elimi-
consists of streets and open spaces, nate the economic and social reasons for them
children’s immediate need for to work or earn, or otherwise their removal
protection from violence may best will be short-lived. Experience has shown
be addressed by programmes which that, where under-age children are ejected
provide services such as shelters from the formal workplace without provisions
and drop-in centres, non-formal in place for them to re-direct their lives, they
education, development of life skills to often end up in more hazardous informal sit-
resist sexual advances, peer activities uations. This occurred in Bangladesh in the
254 such as sports and recreation, and early 1990s, following the abrupt dismissal
of under-age girls from the garment export
opportunities to gain qualifications and

schooling.125,126 industry, under the threat of a US boycott of
v Children who are working within goods made with any involvement of child
the law: In cases where children and labour.127 The range of interventions required
adolescents are working legally, either therefore includes:
because they are undertaking light
v Legislative and enforcement measures,
work, or are above the minimum age
in accordance with the international
of employment, and where they face
framework encompassed by the
potential violence from employers or
CRC and key ILO Conventions;
from other workers as an incidental
establishment of workplace regulations,
hazard, efforts can be made to increase
inspectorates, and stiff legal sanctions
their protection and reduce their
against the employment of under-age
vulnerabilities and risks.
workers; and crack-downs on criminal
In the case of ‘worst forms’ of child labour, it activities involving children, with child
is not possible to make a distinction between rehabilitation.
reducing violence and eliminating the work- v Programmatic effort with families and
ing circumstances, since to focus exclusively communities to reduce the need for
on violence would imply that children might and likelihood of parents sending boys
be left in hazardous and exploitative labour if and girls to work or earn, including
the violence alone were stopped. No children preventive measures such as poverty
should be employed in circumstances and reduction, family support, scholarship
occupations where they face physical, psycho- funds or school fee reduction, and
6
universal access to basic services, LAWS AND THEIR IMPLEMENTATION
especially quality education.
v Interventions to respond directly to International standards guide national legisla-
working children’s need to be removed tive action on child labour. All but two coun-
from workplaces that expose them tries have ratified the CRC and more than 80%
to violence, hazard and exploitation, of the world’s children now live in countries
targeted at a wide-ranging audience which have ratified the two key ILO Conven-
including employers, parents, tions. Since its adoption in 1999, Convention
community leaders and enforcement No. 182 has enjoyed a rapid pace of ratification,
officials. which in turn has helped to double the rate
v Advocacy and social mobilisation by of ratifications of the Minimum Age Conven-
civil society to promote the right of tion, No. 138.129 This reflects a strong political
children not to be treated with violence consensus and significant new momentum on
in the workplace, and for all children urgent action to eliminate child labour. Many
to have access to quality education and Governments have undertaken reviews of their 255
appropriate preparation for a future legislation, and shown greater resolution in

working life free from exploitation and addressing the many issues involved.
abuse. There are still major challenges in bringing cus-
tomary law and traditional codes concerning
‘work’ and ‘employment’ into conformity with
international law. One important action at the
national level has been determining the list of
KENYA: ADDRESSING WORK, POVERTY AND EDUCATION IN TANDEM
In recent efforts to reduce child labour, acknowledgement has been made of the dif-
ficulties faced by seriously poor families, including those affected by HIV/AIDS. Even
where primary school fees have been abolished, some African families still find that they
need children to supplement the family income by working instead of going to school.
In an effort to address this situation, Kenya – with two million working children aged
5–17 years – has tried compensating parents for the loss of their children’s economic
contribution; the money is conditional on children attending school. US$ 7–14 per
month per child is given as an incentive to parents of those working in plantations, sub-
sistence farms and fisheries, as well as for orphans and other vulnerable children.128
hazardous occupations and tasks, and prohibit- the East Asia and Pacific Regional Consulta-
ing them for all under 18s, as called for under tion noted that in general the enforcement of
ILO Convention No. 182. A recent review indi- child labour laws appears to lag behind other
cates that this has been an area of high activity; legal measures enacted to protect children.
so has legislative action against trafficking and
the involvement of children in prostitution and Many impediments to the enforcement of laws
pornography. However, attention from Govern- exist. One is the lack of an effective and uni-
ments to forced and bonded labour has been versal birth registration system, which con-
more modest, and there has been little action stricts enforcement of laws on minimum age
on improving legislation against the use of chil- of employment.133 Another is that the labour
dren engaged in illicit activities.130 inspectorates which helped remove children
from the workplace in industrialising coun-
Labour law enforcement tries in the West have generally not proved
In many countries, lack of law enforcement, to be as effective in the developing world.134
256 Although successful in some instances, most
including bringing perpetrators to court, is a
more acute problem than that of the nature of do not extend their reach beyond organised
legislation on the statute book. For example, new urban workplaces, where the minority of child
laws were passed against bonded labour in India workers are to be found. Many inspectors
(1976) and Pakistan (1992), but the numbers of are overwhelmed by their caseloads, short of
prosecutions and releases of bonded labourers by resources and means of travel, and poorly paid.
the courts show that neither is vigorously pros- Both employers and child workers may resort
ecuted. In India, the National Human Rights to pay-offs, and there can also be pressure from
Commission was ordered by the Supreme Court official sources not to undertake the kind of
in 1997 to oversee the enforcement of the 1976 rigorous inspections which might damage the
Act, and has been able to pressure officials into investment climate.135
freeing and rehabilitating bonded children in
Avenues for legal redress regarding violence
some areas, primarily in Uttar Pradesh’s carpet
inflicted on working children are almost inacces-
belt.131 But the Commission’s resources and
sible to them, given their inferior status. Cases of
power are limited, and States have been slow to
fulfil their obligations. In Pakistan, where fines serious injury, such as burning with a hot iron,
are far higher than in India, prosecutions have and of gross abuse, may attract media attention;
been minimal in recent years.132 in which case employers of children in domes-
tic labour, for example, are prosecuted, usually
The South Asian Regional Consultation for the with NGO assistance. Attempts are also made
Study has pointed to the need for a supervisory by NGOs such as the South Asian Coalition
system to ensure effective implementation of on Child Servitude to gain for released Indian
child labour laws by all entities charged with bonded child workers their legal entitlement to
enforcement throughout the region. Similarly, Rs. 20,000 (US$ 420) for rehabilitation; but
6
such attempts are few and far between.136 Cases and international organisations in bringing an
of sexual abuse against working children are also end to the trafficking and employment of chil-
rarely prosecuted.137 Moreover, those who cham- dren in an exploitative occupation.
pion rescued child workers in the courts often
put themselves at risk from retaliation by vested Backing for law enforcement within
interests. civil society
There are specific situations where enforcement As noted throughout the Study, law enforce-
has been effective, with the necessary program- ment is problematic in environments where
matic and back-up interventions in place, but formal legal, administrative and judicial sys-
these are rare. It can be done, however, in cir- tems have little influence over most people’s
cumstances where the work is exclusive to chil- lives. This is the case in areas where child
dren on the pretext of their small size, manual work is common. Application of the law
dexterity or need to learn a skill at a very young requires popular acceptance and the coopera-
age (as in carpet-weaving or decorative craft). tion of civil society in applying it. Violence 257
In a closed workplace or occupation, removal of is particularly difficult to outlaw; there is no

the entire child workforce may be practicable. guarantee in societies where interpersonal vio-
lence is commonly used in dispute resolution
One example is the agreement made with the that a legal prohibition on a practice will be
United Arab Emirates (UAE) in May 2005 treated with respect, even by those expected to
concerning the release and repatriation to enforce it. Until social attitudes condemn vio-
their countries of origin of 3,000 young boys lence against children absolutely and in every
employed as camel jockeys and stable boys (see circumstance, the enforcement of laws against
box). This initiative illustrates the complemen- child labour may inadvertently lead to further
tary roles that can be played by campaigning discrimination against working children, for
THE LONG STRUGGLE TO END THE USE OF BOYS AS CAMEL JOCKEYS
The trafficking of small boys from certain countries in South Asia (Bangladesh and
Pakistan), and Africa (Mauritania, Somalia and Sudan), for use as jockeys in camel
races in the UAE and other Gulf States (Kuwait, Qatar and Saudi Arabia) came under
protest for many years by Anti-Slavery International (ASI). A Bangladeshi NGO cal-
culated that nearly 1,700 boys had been trafficked to the Middle East during the 1990s
for this purpose, the vast majority under the age of 10. The boys were tied onto the
camel’s saddles during the races, and often sustained injuries and falls. They were also
frequently starved before races to reduce their weight, and suffered other forms of
physical and psychological violence, including occasional sexual abuse.
>>>
THE LONG STRUGGLE TO END THE USE OF BOYS AS CAMEL JOCKEYS
ASI was unable to make significant progress until it joined forces with the Interna-
tional Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) and the ILO. In 2001, the ILO
persuaded the UAE to ratify Convention No. 182. This led to a ban in 2002 on the use
of camel jockeys aged under 15 and lower in weight than 45 kg. Even then, progress
was slow and some trafficking continued. However, in March 2005 the age limit was
legally revised upwards to 16 years (later to 18), and in May 2005 UNICEF reached
an agreement with the UAE Governments to facilitate the repatriation of the boys to
their countries of origin over a two-year period. Within eight months well over 1,000
boys had been identified. Many began to return home to Pakistan and Bangladesh later
in 2005.
The boys were initially received at special centres, from which they were to be reunited
258
with their families if possible. If these were not able to be found, education and rein-
tegration within the society were to be undertaken by care organisations. Other boys,
including workers at the stables, were subsequently also returned to Sudan and Mau-
ritania. In all four countries, support was provided to families and communities and
permanent mechanisms set up to help prevent further trafficking or re-trafficking. The
reintegration of the children was subject to monitoring with emphasis on strengthen-
ing community care and creating a supportive environment to prevent discrimination
against them.138,139,140
example by official persecution of the children children, both by educating families about the
themselves on the basis of their stigmatised dangers of trafficking, and by working with
social status. the police when a child from the village goes
missing.142 However, a number of lessons were
Some efforts to implement child labour laws learned from this programme.143 It was nec-
with civil society cooperation have been made. essary not to use fear-inducing messages, but
In areas where trafficking is common, com- to try to convince people about the harmful
munity groups or community-based watch/ nature of something they currently accepted.
vigilance systems have been set up; they may Surveillance committees did not function
also report breaches of child labour legislation well if they were seen as agents of oppression
and non-attendance of children in school.141 against local families and children.
For example, in Benin, village surveillance
committees backed by the provincial adminis-
tration have helped to reduce the trafficking of
“She is so young, hardly 8 years old, carrying charcoal, and in school uniform,
when asked why she has not gone to school, she says she is working.”
Boy, 15, Eastern and Southern Africa, 2005 XII
6
UNIVERSAL EDUCATION AND LIFE In many settings, however, working children do
SKILLS not attend school. For this reason, many pro-
grammes to end child labour focus on bring-
Universal access to schooling is a key compo- ing children into school, or returning them to
nent of ending child labour. There are many school, as an alternative to work. For example,
arguments in favour of making basic education the Child Workers’ Opportunities Project
compulsory for both boys and girls, including (CWOP), a large-scale community-based pro-
the requirement on the State to increase edu- gramme in three states of India used a multi-
cational investment and impetus to reach the pronged strategy to enable children to leave the
international goal of Education For All (see the workplace, in which the promotion of school-
chapter on violence against children in schools going was the prominent strand (see box). In
and educational settings). The attainment Benin, the Groupe de recherche et d’actions pour
of this goal is closely related to many others, le développement humain (GRADH) works
including poverty reduction, gender equal- mainly with boys, some as young as seven, who
have been placed by their parents or guardians 259
ity, and improved maternal and child health.

Universal education also has a track record in with artisans such as car mechanics, carpenters,
helping end child labour. For example, in both and masons. The NGO carries out surveys on
the Indian state of Kerala and in Sri Lanka, artisans in collaboration with the artisans’ asso-
progress towards universal education has been ciation, identifying the younger children and
accompanied by the departure of some chil- those in especially difficult working conditions.
dren from full-time work, despite little effort It then arranges formal apprenticeships for the
to implement child labour laws.144 older children and reinsertion of the younger
children into schools, working closely with the
It is important to note that schooling and work Ministry of Labour and the ILO.146
are not mutually exclusive: going to school does
not exclude all types of work at all times of day Child workers in their teens are usually very
for children of working age. Children in many aware of the disadvantages they face if they
societies undertake part-time earning activities have not attended school; if practicable, they
in order to help pay for schooling expenses, or usually want to gain education and training,
as a useful part of their socialisation. Studies and the future job advantages which these
in industrialised societies confirm the long- imply. Even if they continue to work, they
term value to the adolescent child of steady tend to seek opportunities in which they may
part-time earning during secondary school as learn, and raise their status and prospects.147
part of their preparation for future adult life.145 But where children are totally dependent on
However, such working and earning opportu- street-based income to survive, they tend to
nities must be done within boundaries that place the need to earn at a higher level than
support, rather than diminish, developmental their need for education, however much they
opportunities. would like to be able to read and write.148
Universal attendance at school is difficult to violence against children in schools and edu-
enforce where the quality of education is poor, cational settings). Life skills-based education
families and children perceive in it nothing of in both settings, should be made accessible to
advantage, or teachers are verbally or physically working boys and girls whether or not they
abusive. Unless schooling is child-friendly, are able to quit work, to learn about gender
and adds value in terms of useful learning and equality, avoidance of coercive or oppressive
qualifications, it can be difficult to attract and situations, sexual behaviour, and the need to
retain children from working situations. adopt non-violence within relationships. The
reduction of gender-based violence, unsafe
Schooling itself provides an opportunity for sexual practices, street violence and misogyny
the promotion of self-protection, non-violence requires challenging dominant forms and per-
and peaceful conflict resolution, as do non- ceptions of masculinity, by reaching out to
formal education programmes (see chapter on boys and men.149
260
CHILD WORKERS’ OPPORTUNITIES PROJECT (CWOP), MAHARASHTRA
This four-year programme in India supported by Save the Children Canada targeted
10,000 working children, including 4,000 in two project sites in Maharashtra. These
children were identified during baseline surveys in the 94 intervention communities
covered by the two local operational NGO partners; the intention was to bring an end
to child labour in the communities in question.
The strategy centred on shifting children out of work and into school or training, by
simultaneously addressing the reasons why they worked, and by offering them other
opportunities. Working children under 14 were to be enrolled in the formal primary
system, and those aged 14–18 in vocational training. Community-based non-formal
education classes, to which all children identified in the survey were invited, were the
starting-point. At the same time, initiatives were made to foster income-generation for
women in households with working children, and build awareness in the community
to render the concept of child work socially unacceptable. Village education commit-
tees were established, and communities encouraged to improve school buildings, and
to demand high quality teaching and child-friendly behaviour from teachers.
Child participation was a fundamental principle in all project activities. Child groups
were set up, in which working and ex-working children participated. Members took on
6
CHILD WORKERS’ OPPORTUNITIES PROJECT (CWOP), MAHARASHTRA
such responsibilities as mentoring children new to the classroom who needed motiva-
tion to stay; and in the case of a teacher being lax, drunk, or using violence in class,
report the behaviour to the village authorities. Children themselves helped transform
attitudes about work and school; in one community they postered every house in the
village with the message: “No working children, every child in school.”
Over the four-year programme, 75% of the 10,000 children gained access to school or
vocational training, and 3,000 children left work entirely. Project managers in Maha-
rashtra concluded that improving educational quality and making schools more child-
friendly is the most important activity, and that if more investment in basic educa-
tion is made at state level, the results would be more impressive. The project’s success
has subsequently influenced other projects to end child labour run by state Govern-
ments.150,151 261

THE PARTICIPATION OF CHILDREN develop their own organisations through
which they seek to improve their lives, gain
One of the most important steps towards skills and education, enjoy sports and cul-
enabling children to remove themselves from tural programmes, and perform socially useful
exploitative work and abuse in the workplace is activities. Some have become sophisticated
to facilitate their participation in programmes advocates: working children’s movements have
developed and carried out on their behalf. Par- formed an international network, and were
ticipation should consist not only of systematic represented at the UN World Summit for
consultation with children and their families Children in 2002.153 Many such organisations
from the data-gathering stage through pro-
provide young people with an opportunity to
gramme implementation and evaluation, but
develop and demonstrate qualities of social
should also include enabling them to use their
responsibility, taking a lead on issues such
own considerable powers of agency.152 This
as illegal employment of under-age workers,
includes organising their own programme
alcohol abuse in the community,154 changes in
activities, such as drives to remove children
the law to provide young workers with better
from exploitative workplaces, as well as advo-
protection including against sexual abuse,155
cacy on their behalf. Participatory activities
rescuing domestic workers from abusive
can be used to raise awareness of the violence
households,156 and persuading employers to
to which children may be subjected.
give their adolescent workers time off for stud-
In a number of settings, NGOs have helped ies and recreation.157 For example, in Nica-
working children and non-working children ragua the National Movement of Working
“We have reduced the heavy work that we used to do. We can now say to our family and
employers that this is too much for a child and that it is an adult’s job.
We now can negotiate what is and isn’t acceptable.”
Teen-aged worker, West and Central Africa, 2004 XIII
Children and Adolescents (NATRAS) began mentation of appropriate policies, laws, pro-
in 2003 to work on preventing sexual abuse of grammes and services; on the other, it is as
children and adolescents, especially of work- important to challenge the social acceptance
ing children. Eighteen of NATRAS’ member of damaging child work by influencing popu-
organisations have participated in a variety of lar opinion. A transformation in the attitudes
activities – from carrying out surveys to direct and behaviours which condone the presence of
lobbying with municipal officials – aimed at children in the workplace is a pre-condition of
reducing sexual abuse in 13 targeted munici- children’s departure from it on a sustainable
palities and at increasing awareness of the issue basis. Governments have been loathe to inter-
within the society and the State. In all of these vene in child labour issues unless confident of
organisations’ activities, the role of adults is public and political support.
limited to being facilitators and companions
to the young members.158 Children and young people are often their own
best advocates and should be given a promi-
262 The opportunities created by children’s organ- nent role as spokespersons on their own behalf,
isations allow participants to gain confidence, to policy makers, employers, communities,
self-esteem, leadership and social skills, a legislators, media and the society at large. The
broader view of the world and a sense of their participation of children in the Technical Sub-
own potential within it. These attributes are Council on Child Work in Honduras led to
essential in overcoming the self-denigration changes in the National Plan of Action, notably
and deep sense of inferiority felt by many chil- to include deep-sea fishing as a ‘worst form’ of
dren in violent and abusive situations. These labour, because of the possible harm associated
and other community groups provide a vehicle with it.160 Many opportunities exist to engage
for changes in attitudes by children, families children, even those in invisible occupations
and communities that enable the children to such as domestic labour or child prostitution,
leave work and go to school instead. In some in advocacy campaigns. Children can be more
settings, ‘poverty’ as a blanket reason for send- effective than organisational intermediaries in
ing children to work melts away when the alter- addressing police, administration or justice.
native of going to school is socially endorsed
and backed by community support.159 Theatre, drama and role plays performed by
children have been used with great success as
ADVOCACY vehicles for advocacy.161 Messages can be put
across in a non-blaming way, and actors can
The role of advocacy in relation to workplace feel free to show incidents of abuse which they
violence against children is two-fold. On would be unlikely to mention in an interview.
the one hand, it is necessary to draw policy- Similarly, parents and community members
makers’ attention to the abuse children endure who may have not understood the abuse their
and set in motion the development and imple- children are likely to experience if they send
6
them away to work are more able to absorb and Many NGOs, responding to an emergency
believe that there are real reasons not to do so.162 need such as providing shelter for seriously
Parents’ Days at school, local Children’s Day abused and traumatised runaway children,
celebrations, and similar events at the national start with a small-scale project such as a
level can be used to promote awareness of the centre, and base their service development,
worst forms of child labour and showcase action data collection and advocacy on that. Where
against it. The World Day against Child Labour they are able to develop a sizeable range of ser-
initiated in June 2002 has adopted a particu- vices, they may also provide legal assistance for
lar aspect of the worst forms of child labour to abused child workers to take their employers
campaign against each year; for example, traf- to court. Handbooks exist with ‘good practice
ficking (2002), child domestic labour (2004), principles’ for programme interventions in
and mining and quarrying (2005). some ‘worst form’ child labour contexts such
as child domestic labour.164 These interven-
TARGETED INTERVENTIONS: tions largely constitute secondary prevention,
responding to violence as and where it occurs. 263
CONTACT, RESCUE, AND

REHABILITATION In contrast, larger-scale programmes initiated
by international organisations often include
Taking action on violence against children, par-
primary prevention measures to avoid violence
ticularly the worst forms of child labour, requires
before it takes place.
the integration of practical programme interven-
tions with advocacy, and both types of action They start with a planning process: they are
with data collection. A variety of approaches not in immediate contact with abused working
is possible, depending on the size and type of children. A planning methodology has been
organisation undertaking the action, and the developed by ILO/IPEC for ‘Time-Bound Pro-
situation to which they are responding. grammes’ (TBPs) to eliminate child labour.165
“WE’RE TIRED!” – A DRAMA FOR CHILD DOMESTIC WORKERS
A playlet entitled Sanayo (“We’re tired” in Wolof ) was written by and for girl domes-
tic workers in Dakar, Senegal, with support from the NGO ENDA Tiers Monde. In
the playlet, a patronne (employer) takes on a house-girl, and then subjects that girl to
abuse in front of her friends for failures of service, food preparation, and other tasks.
The friends join in the mockery of the girl, and the patronne’s young daughter accuses
her unjustly of stealing. The girl is eventually fired, without receiving her salary. This
playlet was performed at a preparatory meeting for the OAU Conference in 1993 on
Assisting the African Child. It has since been staged in many locations in Dakar.163
TBPs comprise a package of interventions cov- Hotlines and help-lines have become a well-
ering prevention, withdrawal, rehabilitation known technique for enabling children to
and future protection, with which States that report violence against themselves. Some
have ratified Convention No. 182 can tackle organisations working to eliminate child
‘worst forms’ of child labour within a set time- labour have established hotlines for child work-
frame. They start with data collection and ers to use. The Kasambahay (domestic worker)
other actions to create an ‘enabling environ- programme run by Visayan Forum in the Phil-
ment for the elimination of the wost forms of ippines operates hotlines to receive reports of
child labour’.166 abuse and facilitate rescue.168 In Cambodia, a
local NGO organises the distribution of cards
El Salvador, Nepal, and the United Republic with pop stars’ pictures on the front and tele-
of Tanzania were the first three countries to phone numbers and addresses of centres to con-
implement TBPs, starting in 2002. Seventeen tact on the reverse. These are left in places such
other countries have since followed suit, sev- as phone booths, bars, markets, and discos.169
264 eral more are preparing similar programmes. However, hotlines are resource-intensive: they
As an example, the United Republic of Tan- need to be manned round the clock, by well-
zania set out to reduce the number of children trained personnel, and have effective processes
involved in the worst forms of child labour by for involving police or emergency services.
75%, and the overall child labour participa-
tion from the current 25% to less than 10% by Rescue operations
2010. Mid-term evaluation found these objec-
Efforts to remove children from workplace vio-
tives to be on course.167
lence may require emergency action. Key steps
Contact in a process of rapid response to emergency
cases include: setting up systems to receive
In spite of the hidden nature of much child information about abuse, including from chil-
labour, a variety of mechanisms can be used to dren themselves via hotlines and drop-in cen-
make contact with child workers. These include tres; planning the rescue; the rescue operation;
child-to-child contact in places where young post-rescue rehabilitation; and post-rescue legal
workers go at off-duty times. Such places include redress.170 In removing children from danger-
parks, churches, temples or mosques, evening ous workplaces, interventions must ensure that
classes, shops or markets. Several organisations, the situation of children is not worsened – that
including those taking part in ILO/IPEC and their physical well-being and self-respect are
UNICEF programmes, run awareness-raising not further damaged by the trauma of the
sessions for local leaders, police, householders rescue.171 Many rescue operations are not prop-
and children, in which they learn about report- erly prepared nor are the necessary follow-up
ing, handling cases, the need to avoid violence support and services in place, such as health
in removing children from abusive situations, care and counselling for women and children
and to retain the cooperation of employers. rescued from the sex industry.172
6
RESCUE OPERATION IN ATHLONE, CAPE TOWN
In early 2004, an NGO campaigning against the abuse of domestic servants (Anex-
CDW) began to receive referrals from the local police station of girls who had run
away from an agency called ‘Excellent Domestics’. The agency brought girls in from
the countryside, housed them and found them jobs. When Anex visited the premises,
they found appalling living conditions, under-age girls, and cases of workers not given
any pay. They reported their findings to the Department of Labour. A few weeks later,
an article in the newspaper about a girl trapped at the agency finally led to action. The
agency was found to be operating illegally and closed. The girls at the premises were all
traumatised and wanted to return to their homes, even when offered skills-training in
town. The police and Anex found them shelter and food, and they received free tickets
home. The proprietors of ‘Excellent Domestics’ were taken to court.173
265

Rehabilitation
A number of organisations’ primary activity is
to remove children from child labour and rein-
tegrate them with their families. The South
Asian Coalition on Child Servitude (SACCS)
has a mission to identify, liberate and rehabili-
tate children in servitude. In India, a number
of human rights organisations attempt to
gain release of, and rehabilitate children in
forced and bonded labour. WAYS in Kam-
pala, Uganda has had notable success in reset-
tling over 300 former child domestic labour-

ers. They regard counselling of the families in
advance of resettlement and reunification as
essential. Whenever possible, children should
have access to services that aim to bring them
closer to their family.174
Organisations working with victims of work-
VIET NAM, 1999, A girl selling postcards on the street shows
place abuse maintain that it is always impor-
one of her cards to a social worker who works with street children tant to contact the family, but not to force the
in Ho Chi Minh City. child to return if she or he does not want to.
This may not be in the child’s best interests Much more is known about street children; as
if social stigma and rejection are likely to be they are visible and accessible, children work-
the outcome; or the child will be again sent to ing in streets and public spaces have been stud-
work, or re-trafficked. In the case of girls res- ied in a number of settings, and even though
cued from the sex industry, there is likely to be numbers are usually estimates, a considerable
heavy stigma from families and communities body of information about them now exists.
to whom they are returned, and they may be Some street child programmes now include
looked upon as carriers of HIV.175 Cases of re- components for monitoring, verification and
trafficking, for example, from Nepal to India, tracking.179 Far fewer extended surveys have
are common. been conducted into bonded child labour in
South Asia, or into traditional forms of slav-
IMPROVED DATA COLLECTION ery or forced labour affecting children in
Africa and Latin America. Those studies that
Much progress has been made since the mid exist have mostly been conducted by NGOs
266 -1990s in developing methodologies to obtain and, with some notable exceptions, are rela-
reliable data on child labour. A major initia-
tively small-scale. Very little is known about

tive to improve understanding on the hidden, violence within a family work setting (mostly
illegal and often criminal abuse of children small-scale agriculture), which is where most
in the workplace has been through the joint children work.
development by ILO and UNICEF of a Rapid
Assessment methodology.176 Action research and monitoring
NGOs have played a major role in uncovering Effort has recently been invested in research
some of the worst abuses of children in the work- methodologies that aid in designing interven-
place. For example, Anti-Slavery International tions or monitoring the impact of existing
led initiatives on children in domestic labour, interventions in order to improve them. For
initially focusing on simple research method- example, action research on boys and girls
ologies for local NGOs to use as a basis for involved in drug trafficking has been conducted
advocacy.177 Subsequently, an active network of in Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand,180 and
practitioner NGOs working in the field of child Brazil, with an emphasis on collecting data
domestic labour was developed, and through about these children that is of direct use in
this, consultations were conducted with child developing interventions. One study by IPEC
domestics which shed much insight into the on drug use and trafficking in Estonia illus-
violence and abuse they suffered. Since this is a trated the difficulties of obtaining information
notoriously difficult group of children to reach, on the experiences of children in extreme situ-
much can be learned from these experiences ations, concluding: “Violence is one of the few
about how to contact invisible child workers topics which young drug users do not want to
and collect data with and from them.178 discuss with strangers. It seems that the topic
6
of violence is taboo, and one interview is just sations to take ongoing action against child
not enough to build up mutual trust.”181 labour. Partners in the movement include
international and regional organisations, bi-
In recent years, the concept of child labour mon- lateral agencies, the Inter-Parliamentary Union
itoring has shifted from monitoring of industries (IPU), workers’ and employers’ organisations,
or organised workplace settings, to monitoring NGOs, the media, academics, and organisa-
of the children removed from work and provided tions representing working children.
with protection services. IPEC has developed a
‘tracer’ methodology to assess long-term changes An important dynamic has been the growing
(two years and more after the completion of an concern (and consumer action) over corporate
intervention) that have occurred in the lives of social responsibility. Action has come largely
working children as a consequence of the inter- through self-regulation via sectoral alliances
vention. Impacts examined include educational and voluntary codes of conduct to ensure that
status, economic well-being, employment, members of supply chains in globalised man-
health, and attitudes; working children on the ufacturing industries – garments, footballs, 267
streets (Turkey), mining (Ecuador), domestic sports shoes, tobacco products – are not using

labour (Uganda), fishing (Indonesia) and traf- child labour.183 Employers’ organisations in, for
ficked children (Sri Lanka).182 In the informal example, Azerbaijan, the Republic of Moldova,
economy, community-based monitoring is Malawi and Uganda, have promoted media
increasingly being used to provide reliable data campaigns against child labour; in Ghana, they
and the tracking of working children. All these have been involved in discussions with parlia-
initiatives represent opportunities to identify mentarians on a new draft of the Human Traf-
children’s experience of physical and psychologi- ficking Bill. In Brazil, the National Confedera-
cal violence, its impact and the necessary steps tion for Industry (CNI), in collaboration with
to be taken for redress. local NGOs, has set up a prevention and reha-
bilitation programme for children in prostitu-
BUILDING MOMENTUM tion. In China’s Yunan Province, 74 influential
FOR CHANGE employers in Kunming City have called on pri-
vate sector managers to comply with child labour
Since the mid-1990s, a worldwide movement laws and contribute to anti-trafficking efforts,
against child labour has emerged, in which a including a street advocacy campaign.184
wide range of protagonists have been active.
Manifestations of the momentum behind this Trade unions have a long association with efforts
movement are the rapidity at which ILO Con- to reduce child labour, and are well-placed to
vention No. 182 has been ratified around the act as watchdogs and monitors of violence and
world, and the success of such initiatives as the abuse within the workplace. However, few trade
Global March against Child Labour, which in unions are operational within the informal
1998 brought together a network of organi- economy, or in those parts of the worldwide
“The protection of children involves major financial resources but the life and well-being of millions of
children depend on the willingness of governments to put in place the necessary measures.
In our view, violence committed against a single child is one instance of violence too many.”
Children, Regional Consultation, West and Central Africa, 2005 XIV
working scene where children facing violence RECOMMENDATIONS

are most often found. In Bulgaria, trade union
centres have begun to address the worst forms A wide range of measures is needed to address
of child labour and workplaces in the informal the problem of workplace violence against chil-
economy. In the Ukraine, the Independent dren. The issue has to be tackled as a liveli-
Trade Union of Miners (ITUMU) has taken hood, human rights, labour, health and safety,
the lead to end child labour in 500 unregistered and law enforcement issue, starting with efforts
small-scale mines as part of an internation- to prevent under-age children from entering
ally brokered sector agreement involving both the workplace in the first place. Support for
sides of industry. The agreement was signed on universal access to basic education and action
World Child Labour Day, 2005. to end children’s employment in ‘worst forms’
of labour are important preventive actions, but
A long way to go actions on a broader front, particularly those
related to poverty and family need, are also
268 Despite increased engagement in child protec- required.
tion issues by the UN system and NGOs since
the advent of the CRC, and the new momentum The key departure point has to be a policy of
to end ‘worst forms’ of child labour since the zero tolerance of violence against children who
ratification of ILO Convention No. 182, there are working, whether within the law or outside
is still a long way to go. There has been a failure it, in organised workplaces or in the informal
to acknowledge sufficiently working children’s economy. The issue has to be brought out into
varied experience of violence – physical, psycho- the open, and perpetrators of acts of violence
logical and sexual – and take it fully into account towards children in the workplace brought
when developing plans and programmes. There to account. Children who are under working
is still a need give greater weight internationally age need to be helped to leave work, receive
and nationally to those forms and situations of education and training, and improve their life
work that are intrinsically hazardous and vio- chances. Where they are working legally, pre-
lent, especially those in remote, illicit or hidden vention of violence should be explicitly built
into the regulation and inspection process,
locations. There is also a need to work with
with access of young workers to reporting sys-
trade unions and employer organisations to
tems, complaints procedures and the courts.
improve protection for the youngest members
of the regular workforce where they are facing Legislation
more risks than their older peers.
1. Violence against working children
Within organisations working to end child should be condemned. Governments
labour, an enhanced focus on the violence suf- should ensure that the reality that child
fered by child workers may help build renewed workers in many settings, both under- and
momentum for change. above the minimum legal age of employ-
6
ment, routinely suffer violence in the workforce. Employers, trades unions and
workplace is brought to public attention labour authorities should promote zero tol-
and systematically condemned in law and erance towards those who victimise young
in practice. workers.
2. Relevant international legal instru- 5. Set up services for children to report

ments should be ratified and applied. violence and escape from it. Govern-
Governments should harmonise national ments should ensure that working children
legislation concerning child labour with should have a means of reporting violence
international standards, notably ILO against them to people whom they can
Conventions Nos 138 and 182 and the have trust, and who can help them to leave
Convention on the Rights of the Child. the workplace or obtain redress. These ser-
Legislation should specify enforcement vices may include hotlines so that children
mechanisms and impose penalties that act can summon assistance, and if necessary
as an incentive to eliminate ‘worst forms’ be rescued and placed in emergency care. 269
of child labour as a first priority.

6. Provide services for working children
Policy and programme development and those leaving the workplace. Gov-
ernments should ensure that working
3. Develop national action plans to address children’s rights to education, health, and
child labour. Governments should create social services are fully respected. Chil-
and implement plans of action to tackle dren should be encouraged and enabled
the many issues connected with child to leave work and attend school or voca-
labour. These plans should be integrated tional training, by transitional education
into national development plans and poli- programmes and other initiatives which
cies; this should be done with the neces- ensure that learning is relevant, accessible
sary range of partners (including working and child-friendly. Life skills should be
children’s representatives), appropriate part of non-formal education for working
expertise, and resources. In order to base children.
these plans on solid evidence, high priority
should be given to building a knowledge 7. Mainstream the participation of work-
base about violence against working chil- ing children in the creation and imple-
dren (see recommendation 14). mentation of policies, programmes and
services for their benefit. Governments
4. Tackle violence in the workplace gen- should ensure that children’s right to, and
erally. Governments should ensure that capacity for, participation is respected.
workplace violence is tackled as a whole, Working children’s views, energies, creative
with an emphasis on the special vulner- skills, and effectiveness in advocacy should
abilities of the youngest members of the be deployed in ways that enable policies
and programmes to end child labour to be Advocacy and social mobilisation
effective and sustainable.
11. Increase public awareness of the damag-
8. Build the capacity for all who come into ing effects of child labour. Governments
contact with working children. Govern- should ensure that public awareness of the
ments should ensure that the capacity of right of all children to be protected from
programme partners, Government agen- all forms of violence is increased, and infor-
cies, trades unions, employers, police, judi- mation about the risks of violence and its
ciary, labour inspectorates, NGOs, com- damaging impacts on working children are
munity organisations, children’s groups, disseminated to parents, families and com-
and researchers to address violence in the munities. Social dialogue should be encour-
workplace is enhanced. aged around the concept of decent work,
and the value of schooling underlined.
Enforcement
12. Enlist the support of the private sector
270 9. Perpetrators of violence against chil-
and civil society. Governments should
dren in the workplace should be brought
make efforts to stimulate corporate social

to account. Governments should ensure
responsibility to tackle workplace violence
that the impunity frequently enjoyed by
against children, including by the adop-
employers of under-age children, and
the perpetration of physical, psychologi- tion of ethical guidelines in the workplace.
cal and sexual violence against them, is In particular, the tourism industry and
ended by the real prospect of prosecution media should be encouraged to campaign
and meaningful penalties. Criminal sanc- against sexual exploitation and trafficking
tions against the use of children for sex, of children.
prostitution or pornography, and against Information and research
recruiters and traffickers of children need
to be vigorously enforced. 13. Collect data about violence against chil-
dren in the workplace. Given the almost
10. Enforcement and judicial procedures total lack of data about violence against
should be child-friendly. Governments children in the workplace, Governments
should ensure that in the enforcement of should ensure that all possible means of
legislation concerning the removal of chil- collecting such data are deployed within
dren from workplaces or the prosecution programmes and services and by specific
of employers or co-workers, the rights of studies and surveys. Especially vulnerable
children not to suffer further violence, children should be targeted for research,
trauma or discrimination are respected. notably those in home-based, street-based
In addition, the principle of ‘best interests and illicit work.
of the child’ needs to be observed in all
actions involving child workers.
6
14. Interventions should be monitored and REFERENCES
evaluated. Governments should ensure
that the impact of interventions is moni- 1 ILO (2006). The End of Child Labour: Within Sight.
tored over a period of time extending
beyond the conclusion of any intervention, 2 Walvin J (1982). A Child’s World: A Social History of
English Childhood, 1800–1914. London, Penguin Books.
and good practice lessons widely dissemi-
nated. 3 Tolfree D (1998). Old Enough to Work, Old Enough to
Have a Say. Save the Children Sweden.
4 Boyden J et al. (1999). What Works for Working
Children. Save the Children Sweden and UNICEF.
6 Black M (2003). Good Practice in Working Children’s
Participation: A Case Study from CWOP, Maharashtra
India. Prepared for the Save the Children Alliance
271
Task Group on Children and Work. London, Save the

Children UK.
7 Liebel M (2004). A Will of Their Own: Cross-Cultural
Perspectives on Working Children. London and New York,
Zed Books. Cited in: Bourdillon M (2006). Violence
against Working Children. Stockholm, Save the Children
Sweden.
8 Bourdillon M (2006). Violence against Working
Children. Stockholm, Save the Children Sweden.
10 Black M (1996). Children First: The Story of UNICEF
Past and Present. UNICEF, Oxford University Press.
11 ILO (2002). A Future without Child Labour. First Global
Report. Geneva, International Labour Organization.
12 Delap E (2001). Economic and Cultural Forces in
the Child Labour Debate: Evidence from Urban
Bangladesh. Journal of Developmental Studies, 37(5):
1–22. Cited in: Bourdillon M (2006). Violence against
Working Children. Stockholm, Save the Children
Sweden.
13 Burra N (1995). Born to Work: Child Labour in India.
Oxford, Oxford University Press.
14 Cunningham H (2001). The Rights of the Child and 25 Black M (2004). Opening Minds, Opening up
the Wrongs of Child Labour: A Historical Perspective. Opportunities. London, Save the Children UK.
In: Lieten K, White B (Eds). Child Labour: Policy
26 Declarations of the World Movement of Working
Options. Amsterdam, Aksant Academic Publishers,
Children, Including the Kundapur Declaration, India
pp 1–11.
(1996), the Dakar Declaration, Senegal (1998) and
15 Cunningham H (1995). Child Labour and the Final Declaration of the 2nd Meeting of the World
Industrialisation. Working Conditions and Environment Movement of Working Children and Adolescents,
Department Working Paper No. 1. Geneva, Berlin, Germany (2004). Cited in: Bourdillon M
International Labour Organization: Cited in: ILO (2006). Violence against Working Children. Stockholm,
(2006). The End of Child Labour: Within Sight. Save the Children Sweden.
27 Woodhead M (2004). Psychosocial Impacts of Child
16 Bourdillon M (2006). Violence against Working Work: A Framework for Research, Monitoring and
Children. Stockholm, Save the Children Sweden. Intervention. International Journal of Children’s Rights,
17 ILO (2006). The End of Child Labour: Within Sight. 12(4): 321–377.
272 28 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
18 Fallon P, Tzannatos Z (1998). Child Labor: Issues and against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: East Asia
Directions for the World Bank. Washington DC, World and the Pacific. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.
Bank. org/r27.
19 Wood G (2003). Staying Secure, Staying Poor: 29 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
The ‘Faustian Bargain’. World Development, 31(3): against Children (2005). Regional Regional Desk Review:
455–471. East Asia and the Pacific. Available at: http://www.
20 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence violencestudy.org/r27.
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: 30 Government of India (2005). Country Report on Violence
Eastern and Southern Africa. Available at: http://www. against Children 2005. New Delhi, Ministry of Human
violencestudy.org/r27. Resource Development, Department of Women and
21 UNICEF (2003). Africa’s Orphaned Generations. New Child Development.
York, UNICEF. 31 Bourdillon M (2006). Violence against Working
22 Mushingeh A et al. (2002). HIV/AIDS and Child Labour Children. Stockholm, Save the Children Sweden.
in Zambia: A Rapid Assessment on the Case of the Lusaka,
32 Blanchet T (2001). Child Work in a Bihari Camp and in
Copperbelt and Eastern Provinces. Paper No. 5. Geneva/
the Benarasi Sari Industry of Mirpur. Stockholm, Save the
Lusaka, International Programme on the Elimination of
Children Sweden.
Child Labour, International Labour Organization
33 ILO (2006). The End of Child Labour: Within Sight.
23 UNRISD (2005). Gender Equality: Striving for Justice
in an Unequal World. United Nations Research Institute
for Social Development. 34 ILO (2002). A Future without Child Labour. First Global
Report. Geneva, International Labour Organization.
24 The Consortium for Street Children (2003). Each Child
is Unique. Available at: http://www.streetchildren.org. 35 LO (1996). Child Labour: Targeting the Intolerable.
uk/faq/. Geneva, International Labour Organization.
6
36 Anti-Slavery International (2005). Child Domestic 49 Anti-Slavery International (2005). Child Domestic
Workers: A Handbook on Good Practice in Programme Workers: A Handbook on Good Practice in Programme
Interventions. London, Anti-Slavery International. Interventions. London, Anti-Slavery International.
37 Human Rights Watch (2004). Abuses against Child 50 Anti-Slavery International (2005). Child Domestic
Domestic Workers in El Salvador. New York, Human Workers: A Handbook on Good Practice in Programme
Rights Watch. Interventions. London, Anti-Slavery International.
38 Human Rights Watch (2005). Always on Call: Abuse and 51 Anti-Slavery International (2005). Child Domestic
Exploitation of Child Domestic Workers in Indonesia. New Workers: A Handbook on Good Practice in Programme
York, Human Rights Watch. Interventions. London, Anti-Slavery International.
39 Human Rights Watch (2005). Inside the Home, Outside 52 UNICEF (1999). Child Domestic Work. Innocenti Digest,
the Law: Abuse of Child Domestic Workers in Morocco. No. 5. Florence, UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre.
New York, Human Rights Watch.
53 Heissler K (2001). Background Paper on Good Practices
40 Blanchet T (1996). Lost Innocence, Stolen Childhood. to Combat Sexual Abuse and Exploitation of Children in
Dhaka, University Press Limited. Bangladesh. Ministry of Women and Children’s Affairs,
and UNICEF Bangladesh.
41 Anti-Slavery International (2005). Child Domestic
Workers: A Handbook on Good Practice in Programme 54 ILO/IPEC (2004). Helping Hands or Shackled Lives?
273

Interventions. London, Anti-Slavery International. Understanding Child Domestic Labour and Responses To
It. Geneva, International Programme on the Elimination
42 UNICEF (1999). Child Domestic Work. Innocenti Digest,
of Child Labour, International Labour Organization.
No. 5. Florence, UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre.
55 Declaration of the First World Congress against
43 ILO/IPEC (2004). Helping Hands or Shackled Lives?
Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children. 27–31
Understanding Child Domestic Labour and Responses To
August 1996, Stockholm. (For a full definition of the
commercial sexual exploitation of children.)
Available at: http://www.csecworldcongress.org.
44 ILO/IPEC (2004). Helping Hands or Shackled Lives?
56 The 2004 Declaration of the World Movement of Working
Understanding Child Domestic Labour and Responses To
Children in Berlin. 19 April–2 May 2004, Berlin. Cited
in: Bourdillon M (2006). Violence against Working
45 Blagbrough J (1995). Child Domestic Work in Indonesia:
57 UNICEF (2001). Profiting from Abuse: An Investigation
A Preliminary Situation Analysis. London, Anti-Slavery
into the Sexual Exploitation of Our Children. New York,
International.
UNICEF.
46 Anti-Slavery International (2005). Child Domestic
Workers: A Handbook on Good Practice in Programme
Interventions. London, Anti-Slavery International.
47 Save the Children UK (1996). Kids for Hire: A Child’s the Children Alliance to the UN Study on Violence
Right to Protection from Commercial Sexual Exploitation. against Children. Oslo, Save the Children Norway.
London, Save the Children UK.
48 ILO/IPEC (2004). Helping Hands or Shackled Lives? Mapping Save the Children’s Response to Violence against
Understanding Child Domestic Labour and Responses To Children in the South Asia Region. Kathmandu, Save the
It. Geneva, International Programme on the Elimination Children Sweden.
60 Association pour le Progrès et la Défense des Droit des 69 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
Femmes Maliènnes (APDS) et la Fondation Friedrich against Children (2005). Summary Report of the
Ebert (2000). La Situation de la Femme Maliènne: Thematic Meeting on Violence against Children with
Cadre de Vie, Problèmes, Promotion, Organisations. Mali, Disabilities. 28 July 2005, New York. Available at:
Association pour le Progrès et la Défense des Droit des http://www.violencestudy.org./r180
Femmes Maliènnes (APDS) et la Fondation Friedrich
Ebert – Bureau de Mali. Cited in: UNICEF (2000).
Domestic Violence against Women and Girls. Innocenti
Digest, No 6. Florence, UNICEF Innocenti Research
the Children Alliance to the UN Study on Violence
Centre.
against Children. Oslo, Save the Children Norway.
61 Terre des Hommes (2003). The Trafficking of Albanian
Children in Greece. Terre des Hommes.
62 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence and Boys. Global Submission by the International Save
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: Latin the Children Alliance to the UN Secretary-General’s
America. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org./r27. Study on Violence against Children. Oslo, Save the
Children Norway.
274 63 Save the Children Alliance (2005). 10 Essential Learning
Points: Listen and Speak Out against Sexual Abuse of Girls 72 ILO/IPEC (2002). Vietnam – Children in Prostitution
and Boys, Global Submission by the International Save in Hanoi, Hai Phong, Ho Chi Minh City and Can Tho: A
the Children Alliance to the UN Secretary-General’s Rapid Assessment. Geneva, International Programme on
Study on Violence against Children. Oslo, Save the the Elimination of Child Labour, International Labour
Children Norway. Organization.
64 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence 73 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: East Asia against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: East Asia
and the Pacific. Available at: http://www.violencestudy. and the Pacific. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.
org./r27. org./r27.
65 Farid M (1998). Sexual Abuse, Sexual Exploitation and 74 ILO/IPEC (2001). Jamaica, Situation of Children in
CSEC in Indonesia. Cited in: United Nations Secretary- Prostitution: A Rapid Assessment. Geneva, International
General’s Study on Violence against Children (2005). Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour,
Regional Desk Review: East Asia and the Pacific. Available International Labour Organization.
at: http://www.violencestudy.org./r27.
75 ILO/IPEC (2002). Commercial Sexual Exploitation
66 International Save the Children Alliance (2004). of Boys, Girls and Adolescents in Honduras. Project for
Mapping Save the Children’s Response to Violence against the Prevention and Elimination of Commercial Sexual
Children in the South Asia Region. Kathmandu, Save the Exploitation of Children and Adolescents in Central
Children Sweden. America, Panama, and the Dominican Republic, San
Jose. International Programme on the Elimination of
Child Labour, International Labour Organization.
Asia. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org./r27. 76 ECPAT (2003). A Situational Analysis of Child Sex
Tourism in Nepal (Katmandu Valley and Pokhara), by
68 Ameh RK (2001). Lessons from the Ghanaian Anti-trokosi
Child Workers in Nepal-Concerned Centre (CWIN).
Campaign. Paper prepared for the 1st West African
ECPAT International.
Workshop on Female Ritual Servitude, February 2001,
Accra, Ghana, Simon Fraser University.
6
77 Save the Children Alliance (2005). 10 Essential Learning 86 ILO/IPEC (2001). Nepal – Bonded Labour among Child
Points: Listen and Speak Out against Sexual Abuse of Girls Workers of the Kamaiya System: A Rapid Assessment.
and Boys. Global Submission by the International Save Geneva, International Programme on the Elimination of
the Children Alliance to the UN Secretary-General’s Child Labour, International Labour Organization.
Study on Violence against Children. Oslo, Save the 87 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
Children Norway. against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: Latin
78 ILO (2005). A Global Alliance against Forced Labour. America. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27.
Global Report under the follow-up to the ILO Declaration 88 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, Report against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: Latin
I(B). International Labour Conference, 93rd Session. America. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27.
Geneva, International Labour Organization. 89 ILO (2005). A Global Alliance against Forced Labour.
79 ILO/IPEC (2002). Every Child Counts: New Global Global Report under the follow-up to the ILO Declaration
Estimates on Child Labour. Geneva, International on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, Report
Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour, I(B). International Labour Conference, 93rd Session.
International Labour Organization. Geneva, International Labour Organization.
90 ILO (2005). Build the Future, Invest in Childhood. 275
80 ILO (2005). A Global Alliance against Forced Labour.

Economic Study of the Costs and Benefits of Eradicating
Global Report under the follow-up to the ILO Declaration
Child Labour in Ibero-America. Executive Summary.
on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, Report
I(B). International Labour Conference, 93rd Session.
Geneva, International Labour Organization. 91 ILO (2005). A Global Alliance against Forced Labour.
81 Human Rights Watch (2003). Small Change: Bonded on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, Report
Labour in India’s Silk Industry. New York, Human I(B). International Labour Conference, 93rd Session.
Rights Watch. Geneva, International Labour Organization.
82 ILO (2005). A Global Alliance against Forced Labour. 92 ILO (2005). A Global Alliance against Forced Labour.
Global Report under the follow-up to the ILO Declaration Global Report under the follow-up to the ILO Declaration
on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, Report on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, Report
I(B). International Labour Conference, 93rd Session. I(B). International Labour Conference, 93rd Session.
Geneva, International Labour Organization. Geneva, International Labour Organization.
83 Human Rights Watch (2003). Small Change: Bonded 93 Anti-Slavery International (2002). Forced Labour in
Labour in India’s Silk Industry. New York, Human Mauritania. Submission to the UN Sub-Commission
Rights Watch. on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights,
Working Group on Contemporary Forms of Slavery.
84 Human Rights Watch (1995). Contemporary Forms of
Anti-Slavery International. Available at: http://www.
Slavery in Pakistan. New York, Human Rights Watch. antislavery.org/ archive/submission/submission2002-
85 Anti-Slavery International (2001). The Enslavement of mauritania.htm.
Dalit and Indigenous Communities in India, Nepal and 94 Anti-Slavery International (2004). Slavery in Niger,
Pakistan Through Debt Bondage. Submission by Anti- Historical, Legal and Contemporary Perspectives. London,
Slavery International to the UN Sub-Commission on Anti-Slavery International and Association Timidria,
the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights. London.
95 ILO (2005). A Global Alliance against Forced 104 ILO/IPEC (2002). Philippines – Children’s Involvement
Labour. Global Report under the follow-up to the in the Production, Sale and Trafficking of Drugs in
ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Cebu City: A Rapid Assessment. Geneva, International
Rights at Work, Report I(B). International Labour Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour,
Conference, 93rd Session. Geneva, International Labour International Labour Organization.
Organization. 105 Dowdney LT (2003). Children of the Drug Trade:
96 Anti-Slavery International (2004). About Timidria. A Case Study of Organised Armed Violence in Rio de
Anti-Slavery International. Available at: Janeiro. Rio de Janeiro, Viva Rio / ISER, 7 Letras. Cited
http://www.antislavery.org/homepage/antislavery/ in: Bourdillon M (2006). Violence against Working
award/timidriabackground2004.htm. Children. Stockholm, Save the Children Sweden.
97 ILO (2005). A Global Alliance against Forced Labour. 106 Dowdney LT (2003). Children of the Drug Trade: A Case
Global Report under the follow-up to the ILO Declaration Study of Organised Armed Violence in Rio de Janeiro. Rio
on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, Report de Janeiro, Viva Rio / ISER, 7 Letras.
I(B). International Labour Conference, 93rd Session. 107 Chappell D, Di Martino V (2000). Violence at Work.
Geneva, International Labour Organization. Geneva, International Labour Organization.
276 98 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence 108 Save the Children Alliance (2005). 10 Essential Learning
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: the Points: Listen and Speak Out against Sexual Abuse of Girls
Caribbean. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27. and Boys. Global Submission by the International Save
99 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence the Children Alliance to the UN Secretary-General’s
against Children (2005). Violence in the Community.
Children Norway.
Regional Desk Review: Europe and Central Asia. Available
at: http:// www.violencestudy.org/r27. 109 Wonacott P (2004). Qian Qian’s Tale in Beggars’ Village.
The Wall Street Journal, 7 December, 2004. Available at:
100 ILO/IPEC (2000). In-depth Analysis of the Situation
http://www.uoregon.edu/~caps/wonacott.htm#19.
of Working Street Shildren in St. Petersburg (2000).
Saint Petersburg, International Programme on the 110 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
Elimination of Child Labour, International Labour against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: the
Organization. Caribbean. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27
101 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence 111 ILO (2005). Youth: Pathways to Decent Work.
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: Middle International Labour Conference, 93rd Session. Geneva,
East and North Africa. Available at: http://www. International Labour Organization.
violencestudy.org/r27. 112 Paoli P, Merllié D (2000). Troisième enquête européenne
102 ILO/IPEC (2002). Estonia. Children and Adolescents sur les conditions de travail. Dublin, Fondation
Involved in Drug Use and Trafficking: A Rapid Assessment. Européenne pour l’amélioration des conditions de vie et
Geneva, International Programme on the Elimination de travail. Eurofound.
of Child Labour, International Labour Organization. 113 Paoli P, Merllié D (2000). Troisième enquête européenne
Cited in: United Nations Secretary-General’s Study sur les conditions de travail. Dublin, Fondation
on Violence against Children (2005). Violence in the Européenne pour l’amélioration des conditions de vie et
Community. Regional Desk Review: Europe and Central de travail. Eurofound.
103 UNICEF (2003). From Perception to Reality: A Study on against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: Latin
Child Protection in Somalia. UNICEF Somalia, Ch. 7. America. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27.
6
115 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence 125 Anti-Slavery International (2005). Child Domestic
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: Latin Workers: A Handbook on Good Practice in Programme
America. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27. Interventions. London, Anti-Slavery International.
116 The International Crisis Group (2005). The Curse of 126 Save the Children Alliance (2005). 10 Essential Learning
Cotton: Central Asia’s Destructive Monoculture. Asia Points: Listen and Speak Out against Sexual Abuse of Girls
Report No. 93. Bishkek, The International Crisis Group. and Boys. Global Submission by the International Save
117 Human Rights Watch (2002). Tainted Harvest: Child the Children Alliance to the UN Secretary-General’s
Labor and Obstacles to Organizing on Ecuador’s Banana Study on Violence against Children. Oslo, Save the
Plantations, Human Rights Watch. New York, Human Children Norway.
Rights Watch. Cited in: Bourdillon M (2006). Violence 127 ILO and UNICEF (2004). Addressing Child Labour
against Working Children. Stockholm, Save the Children in the Bangladesh Garment Industry, 1995–2001: A
Sweden. Synthesis of UNICEF and ILO Evaluation Studies of the
118 Human Rights Watch (2001). Underage and Bangladesh Garment Sector Projects. New York, UNICEF
Unprotected: Child Labor in Egypt’s Cotton Fields. New and Geneva, International Labour Organization.
York, Human Rights Watch. Cited in: Bourdillon M 128 Mulama J (2006). Spare the Plough, and School the Child.
(2006). Violence against Working Children. Stockholm, Nairobi, International Press Service. Available at: http:// 277
Save the Children Sweden. www.ungei.org/SFAIdocs/SFAI_press_clipsMay12.pdf.

119 Human Rights Watch (2000). Fingers to the Bone: 129 ILO (2006). The End of Child Labour: Within
United States Failure to Protect Child Farmworkers. New Reach. Global Report. Geneva, International Labour
York, Human Rights Watch. Cited in: Bourdillon M Organization.
(2006). Violence against Working Children. Stockholm,
130 ILO (2006). The End of Child Labour: Within
Save the Children Sweden.
120 Racelis M et al. (2005). Making Philippine Cities Child- Organization.
friendly: Voices of Children in Poor Communities.
131 Human Rights Watch (2003). Small Change: Bonded
Innocenti Insight. Manila, Institute of Philippines Ateneo
Labour in India’s Silk Industry. New York, Human
de Manila University and Florence, UNICEF Innocenti
Rights Watch.
Research Centre.
132 ILO (2005). A Global Alliance against Forced Labour.
121 Save the Children (2004). Planning Working Children’s
Education: A Guide for Education Sector Planners.
on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, Report
London, Save the Children UK.
I(B). International Labour Conference, 93rd Session.
122 ILO/IPEC (2000). In-depth Analysis of the Situation Geneva, International Labour Organization.
of Working Street Children in St. Petersburg 2000.
133 ILO/IPEC (2002). Every Child Counts: New Global
St Petersburg, International Programme on the
Estimates on Child Labour. Geneva, International
Elimination of Child Labour, International Labour
Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour,
Organization.
International Labour Organization.
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: the
Caribbean. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27.
Organization.
136 Human Rights Watch (2003). Small Change: Bonded 146 Prywes M et al. (2004). Costs of Projects for Orphans
Labour in India’s Silk Industry. New York, Human and Other Vulnerable Children: Case Studies in Eritrea
Rights Watch. and Benin. Social Protection Discussion Paper Series.
Washington DC, World Bank. Available at: http://
siteresources.worldbank.org/SOCIALPROTECTION/
Resources/SP-Discussion-papers/Safety-Nets-DP/0414.
pdf.
Study on Violence against Children. Oslo, Save the 147 Groves L (2004). Good Practice in Working Children’s
Children Norway. Participation: A Case from Senegal. Save the Children.
138 Mehmood AS et al. (2005). Camel Jockeys of Rahimyar 148 Tolfree D (1998). Old Enough to Work, Old Enough to
Khan: Findings of a Participatory Research on the Life Have a Say. Save the Children Sweden.
and Situation of Child Camel Jockeys. Pakistan Rural 149 Karlsson L, Karkara R (2006). How to End the
Workers Social Welfare Organisation, Save the Children Violence. CRIN Newsletter, No. 19. Available at: http://
(Sweden). Available at: http://gaatw.net/reference- www.crin.org/docs/CRIN_Newsletter_19_Eng.pdf.
trafficking-reports/camel-jockeysorahimyarkhan16%5B
150 Delap A, Rashid L (2005). Children and Work in South
1%5D_0.pdf.
278 Asia: An Analysis of Save the Children’s Experience. Save
139 UNICEF (2006). Former Camel Jockeys Reclaiming Their the Children South and Central Asia.
Lost Childhood. Available at: http://www.unicef.org/

infobycountry/pakistan_30655.html.
140 Anti-Slavery International (2003). Trafficking and India. Prepared for the Save the Children Alliance
Forced Labour of Children in the United Arab Emirates Task Group on Children and Work. London, Save the
(UAE). Submission to the UN Sub-Commission on the Children UK.
Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, Working
152 Black M (2004). Opening Minds, Opening Up
Group on Contemporary Forms of Slavery. Anti-Slavery
Opportunities. London, Save the Children UK.
International. Available at: http://www.antislavery.org/
archive/submission/submission2003-UAE.htm. 153 Miljeteig P (2000). Creating Partnerships with Working
Children and Youth. SP Discussion Paper, No. 21.
Washington, DC, World Bank, 2000.
Central Africa. Available at: http://www.violencestudy. 154 Concerned for Working Children (no date).
org/r27. The Makkala Panchayat Closes Liquor Shops in
Keradi Panchayat. Available at: http://www.
142 UNICEF (2002). La traite d’enfants en Afrique de
workingchild.org/interven6.htm.
l’Ouest : réponses politiques. Florence, UNICEF
Innocenti Research Centre. 155 Save the Children (2006). Betrayal of Trust - An overview
of Save the Children’s findings on children’s experience of
physical and humiliating punishment, child sexual abuse
and violence when in conflict with the law. Save the
Central Africa. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.
Children.
org/r27.
156 Visayan Forum Foundation (2004). Beyond Closed
Doors. A Primer on Child Domestic Labour in the
Philippines. (Cited therein: Activities by SUMAPI, an
145 Mortimer JT (2003). Work and Growing Up in America. association for domestic workers.) Manila, Visayan
Cambridge, Harvard University Press. Forum Foundation.
6
157 Asociación Grupo de Trabajo Redes. La Casa de 169 Anti-Slavery International (2005). Child Domestic
Panchita, Lima, Peru. Available at: http://www. Workers: A Handbook on Good Practice in Programme
gruporedes.org/. Interventions. London, Anti-Slavery International.
158 Save the Children (2005). Children’s Actions To End 170 ILO/IPEC (2003). Time-bound Programmes: Manual for
Violence against Girls And Boys. A contribution to the Action Planning. Guidebook IV. Geneva, International
UN Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour,
Children. Save the Children Sweden.
171 Bourdillon M (2006). Violence against Working
India. Prepared for the Save the Children Alliance
Task Group on Children and Work. London, Save the 172 Save the Children Alliance (2005). 10 Essential Learning
Children UK. Points: Listen and Speak Out against Sexual Abuse of Girls
160 Black M (2004). Opening Minds, Opening Up and Boys. Global Submission by the International Save
Opportunities. London, Save the Children UK. the Children Alliance to the UN Secretary-General’s
161 ILO (2002). Supporting Children’s Rights through
Children Norway. 279
Education, Arts and the Media (SCREAM) – Stop Child

Labour Education Pack. Geneva, International Labour 173 Anti-Slavery International (2005). Child Domestic
Organization. Workers: A Handbook on Good Practice in Programme
162 Black M (2002). Child Domestic Workers: Finding a Interventions. London, Anti-Slavery International.
Voice (A Handbook on Advocacy). London, Anti-Slavery 174 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
International. against Children (2005). Regional Consulation Outcome
163 Black M (2002). Child Domestic Workers: Finding a Report: Eastern and Southern Africa. Available at: http://
Voice (A Handbook on Advocacy). London, Anti-Slavery www.violencestudy.org/r27.
International.
164 Anti-Slavery International (2005). Child Domestic Points: Listen and Speak Out against Sexual Abuse of Girls
Workers: A Handbook on Good Practice in Programme and Boys. Global Submission by the International Save
Interventions. London, Anti-Slavery International. the Children Alliance to the UN Secretary-General’s
165 IPEC (2003). Time-bound Programmes: Manual for Study on Violence against Children. Oslo, Save the
Action Planning. Guidebook I–V. Geneva, International Children Norway.
Labour Organization.
176 ILO and UNICEF (2005). Manual on Child Labour:
166 ILO/IPEC (2003). Time-bound Programmes: Manual for Rapid Assessment Methodology. Geneva, International
Action Planning. Guidebook IV. Geneva, International Labour Organization and UNICEF.
Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour,
177 Black M (1997). Child Domestic Workers: A Handbook
for Research and Action. London, Anti-Slavery
International.
Reach. Global Report, Geneva, International Labour
Organization. 178 Anti-Slavery International (2005). Child Domestic
Workers: A Handbook on Good Practice in Programme
168 Visayan Forum Foundation (2004). Beyond Closed
Interventions. London, Anti-Slavery International.
Doors. A Primer on Child Domestic Labour in the
Philippines. Manila, Visayan Forum Foundation.
179 ILO/IPEC (2003). Facts on Children Working in the IV Blanchet T (2001). Child Work in a Bihari Camp and in
Streets. Geneva, International Programme on the the Benarasi Sari Industry of Mirpur. Stockholm, Save the
Elimination of Child Labour, International Labour Children Sweden, p 97.
Organization. Available at: http://www.ilo.org/public/
V United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
english/standards/ipec/publ/download/factsheets/fs_
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: Latin
streetchildren_0303.pdf.
180 ILO/IPEC (2004). The Use of Children in the
VI Human Rights Watch (2005). Morocco: ‘Hidden’ Child
Production, Sale and Trafficking of Drugs: Intervention
Workers Face Abuse. New York, Human Rights Watch.
Models Developed in Indonesia, the Philippines and
Available at: http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/12/21/
Thailand. Bangkok, International Programme on the
morocc12278.htm
Elimination of Child Labour, International Labour
Organization. VII United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review:
181 ILO/IPEC (2002). Estonia. Children and Adolescents
Eastern and Southern Africa, p 25. Available at: www.
Involved in Drug Use and Trafficking: A Rapid Assessment.
Geneva, International Programme on the Elimination of
Child Labour, International Labour Organization, p 50. VIII United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
280 against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: East Asia
and the Pacific, p 49. Available at: www.violencestudy.
Reach. Global Report, Geneva, International Labour

org/r27.
Organization.
IX Save the Children Alliance (2005). 10 Essential Learning
183 There are many examples of codes covering: garments
Points: Listen and Speak out against Sexual Abuse of Girls
(1995), soccer ball stitching (1997), tobacco (1999),
cocoa (2001) and small-scale mining (2005). See also:
code on conduct for tourism: ‘Child-Safe Tourism’ in
Brazil, Cambodia, the Dominican Republic, Kenya,
Children Norway, p 58.
Mexico and Tanzania. ILO/IPEC has been a major
sponsor of these sector initiatives. See also ILO Global X Human Rights Watch (2003). Small change: bonded
Report (2006). labour in India’s silk industry. New York, Human Rights
Watch, p 4.
Reach. Global Report, Geneva, International Labour XI United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
Organization. against Children (2005). Regional Consultation Outcome
Report: Eastern and Southern Africa, p 18. Available at:
QUOTES XII Groves L (2004). Good practice in working children’s
I United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence participation: A case from Senegal. Save the Children.
against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: Latin XIII Government of Kenya (2005). Second Periodic Kenya
America, p 46. Available at: www.violencestudy.org/r27. Country Report on Implementation of the UN Convention
II Bhima Sangha (2005). Submission to the United Nations on the Rights of the Child. 11 November 2005, CRC/
Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Children. C/65/Add.39.
Bhima Sangha. XIV United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
III UNICEF (2003). From perception to reality: A study on against Children (2005). Regional Consultation Outcome
child protection in Somalia. UNICEF Somalia. Ch. 7, p 11. Report: West and Central Africa, p 7. Available at: www.
6

281
KEYSTONE/AP- Photo/Dolores Ochoa
ECUADOR, 2001, Children attend soccer school at El Juncal, north of Quito.

7
IN THE COMMUNITY
Introduction 285
Physical violence 287
Homicide 287
Non-fatal physical violence 290 283
Violence within adolescent intimate and dating relationships 291
VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN IN THE COMMUNITY

Sexual violence 292
Coerced first sex 292
Sexual violence by strangers in the community 293
Issues of special concern 294
Violence against children living on the street 295
HIV and violence in the community 296
Violence by police 297
Violence by other authority figures 298
Violence against sexual minorities 298
Violence against child refugees, returnees and
internally displaced persons 299
Trafficking of children 300
Individual and family factors 301
Situational factors 302
Firearms 302
Alcohol 303
Physical environment 303
Gangs 304
Situations of unrest or conflict 307
Societal factors 309
Urbanisation 309
Poverty, inequality and social exclusion 310
Responses to violence against children in the community 317
Individual and family-level 318
Community-level 318
Community-level support for education and socialisation 318
284 Community-level situational prevention 321
Services for victims of violence 326

Societal-level 330
Economic opportunity and equality 330
Reducing access to alcohol and illegal drugs 330
Reducing access to, and demand for weapons 331
Reducing exposure to violence in the media 332
Children’s participation at all levels 333
Data collection and research 333
Recommendations 335
References 339
7
INTRODUCTION alcohol and firearms, increases in trafficking
of children for labour or sexual exploitation,
No community is free of violence. However, the and growing exposure to violent and porno-
risk of encountering violence, both against as well graphic images through globalised media and
as by children, is much higher in some commu- new information and communications tech-
nities than in others. In some settings, especially nologies.
those where weapons are in wide circulation,
violence has today assumed frightening propor- Yet it is important to emphasise that the com-
tions. These are primarily urban areas in regions munity can also be a source of protection and
with high levels of poverty, economic disparity solidarity. Indeed, without the cooperation of
the community – however it is defined – little
and social inequality, sometimes complicated
can be done to stop violence against children.
by ongoing political or economic instability.
In many minds, the weakening of social and
At the same time, also in relatively wealthy and
community cohesion in today’s world is at the
stable societies, especially where there are clear
heart of the violence which threatens so many 285
inequalities, alarming levels of violence against
young lives today. Equally, the building of

children have been documented.
child-friendly communities by supporting the
Much of this chapter focuses on older children, delivery of basic infrastructure and services,
particularly those in their teenage years. Chil- and by offering communities help in building
dren tend to experience their teenage years as a or rebuilding positive group values and neigh-
time of excitement, when they begin indepen- bourhood solidarity, is a promising remedy.
dent exploration both of the physical spaces For the purposes of this chapter, the commu-
of their community, and of the roles they will nity includes any space used or occupied by
assume in adulthood. For some, the daily walk children other than homes, schools, institu-
or bus-ride to school, or going out to shop for tions, and organised workplaces, which are
their family, may be their first independent the subjects of other chapters in the report.
exposure to the community; it may also be However, it must be remembered that the
their first exposure to its risks of violence. community is not only a physical space, but
a social environment. Children are born and
Communities everywhere are subject to stresses
grow up under its framework of behaviours,
which have the effect of reducing the protec-
attitudes, customs and beliefs and are thereby
tions available to children. These include rapid
socialised through it to engage with the wider
urbanisation, political instability, environ-
world, including learning how to deal with the
mental insecurity, and large-scale population
network of relationships and institutions that
movement. In some parts of the world, the provide the non-familial context of their lives.
AIDS epidemic has greatly increased numbers
of orphaned children. Many communities have The issues considered here include physi-
also had to cope with rising misuse of drugs, cal and sexual violence, assault by authority
“A paradigm shift is needed. We have the knowledge to prevent violence against children
from occurring. We must do more to balance our investment so that the same level of attention is paid
to prevention as to the punishment of perpetrators.”
Dr Etienne Krug, Director of the Department of Injuries and Violence Prevention, WHO
figures such as the police, violence associated BACKGROUND AND

with gangs and traffickers, and the special risks
CONTEXT
faced by certain groups such as children living
on the street and those living in camps for dis- A child’s vulnerability to violence in the com-
placed persons. Also examined is violence in munity increases with age and maturity and
the mass media, including new information increased contacts with the wider world.
and communications technology. Homicide and violence-related injury among
children occur in community settings all over
the world, but are more frequent in poverty-
stricken urban areas characterised by lack of
employment, poor standards of housing, over-
286 HUMAN RIGHTS INSTRUMENTS

Provisions in the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), the International Cov-
enant on Civil and Political Rights, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms
of Discrimination against Women, the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel,
Inhuman and Degrading Treatment and Punishment and other treaties, in particular
regional human rights treaties, apply to violence against children in the community.
These address harmful traditional practices, slavery, servitude, torture and cruel, inhu-
man or degrading treatment and punishment. The Palermo Protocol to Prevent, Sup-
press and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children establishes
legal obligations to address trafficking, and the CRC’s Optional Protocol on the Sale
of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography sets out standards relating to
prostitution and pornography.1
The obligations contained in these treaties are imposed on States, and only States or
their agents can commit human rights violations. State obligation for human rights
violations is incurred if the State or its agents violate the terms of a treaty which the
State has accepted. State obligation is also incurred if the State fails to ensure children’s
rights to protection against violence by permitting such violence, or failing to take
appropriate measures, or to exercise due diligence to prevent, punish, investigate or
redress the harm caused by the acts of individuals, groups or entities. Therefore, where
violence in the community is concerned, States are required to put in place appropriate
laws, policies and programmes to prevent such violence, investigate it if it takes place,
ensure that perpetrators are sanctioned and redress the harm which may result.
7
crowding and low standards of education and especially high risks of violence, including
social amenities. Young and rapidly growing children living on the street, young members
populations – particularly boys – in these of ethnic minorities, children in camps for
areas may express frustration, anger and pent- refugees or displaced persons, and those victi-
up tension in fights and anti-social behav- mised by trafficking or abduction.
iour. Where firearms and other weapons are
widely available, fights are more likely to lead It should be noted that, in the quantitative data
to severe injuries and death. Violence may be discussed below, data are rarely aggregated in
more common in situations where boys are ways that clearly distinguish children (defined
encouraged to exhibit aggressive masculinity, as being under 18 years of age) from adults.
weapons skills, private codes of loyalty and More often, data are collected and aggregated
revenge, and general risk-taking.2,3,4 in four-year age groups: 0–4; 5–9; 10–14, and
15–19. Sometimes inferences have to be made
In many places children – particularly girls – from data covering young people up to the age
face increased exposure to violence in the com- of 25. 287
munity as they grow older and the domestic

tasks they are required to perform take them PHYSICAL VIOLENCE
further and further away from the household.
Many children in rural Africa and Asia report In countries with reliable data, a sudden, steep
feeling threatened or being attacked when they increase in the rates of violent victimisation
fetch water, fuel or fodder, tasks which may and perpetration is noted at around the age of
require walking a considerable distance in iso- 15, indicating that a number of factors come
lated areas.5,6 Older children may encounter together at adolescence to make physical vio-
violence in intimate and dating relationships, lence – including much that is between teen-
peer groups, sports and other recreational agers – more common.7 Such violence follows
activities, as well as in the context of religious clear patterns in respect of where it occurs,
groups, traditional associations, and political when it occurs, whom it is most likely to affect,
or social movements. and factors (such as alcohol use and economic
inequality) associated with its occurrence. Being
highly predictable, in principle, it is preventable
NATURE AND EXTENT
through population-level interventions.
OF THE PROBLEM
Homicide
The following sections examine the types of
violence faced by children in the community, The WHO global burden of disease estimates
including both physical and sexual violence, for the year 2002 indicate that 52,904 chil-
and violence that occurs within intimate and dren aged 0–17 years died as a result of homi-
dating relationships between young people. cide.8 Of these child homicide victims, 21,995
It also considers groups of children who face or nearly 42% were aged 15–17 years, nearly
75% of whom were boys. These global esti- and economic change. The countries with
mates do not indicate the settings in which low rates of adolescent homicide tend to be in
homicides occur, but country-level data from Western Europe or in Asia, while the countries
police statistics, injury surveillance systems with high rates tend to be in the Americas and
and special studies suggest that a majority of Africa (see Table 7.1).
homicides in the 15–17-year age group occur
in community settings. The marked variation in homicide rates across
regions at different levels of social and eco-
In some regions, notably in Latin America, the nomic development mirrors even sharper dif-
highest homicide rates of any age group across ferences in homicide rates observed between
the population occur among 15–19-year olds. communities within countries. For instance,
In others, including Africa, Eastern Europe and provincial and city-level studies from high-
Central Asia, homicide rates continue to rise and low- to middle-income countries includ-
after the age of 15–19, peaking among young ing Brazil,9 Colombia,10 Jamaica,11 the Russian
288 adults in their twenties, or even later. In every Federation,12 South Africa13 and the UK14 show
region, however, homicide rates in boys aged that homicide rates follow a recurrent geo-
15–17 are at least three times greater than those graphical pattern of inequity, with homicide
of boys aged 10–14, while homicide rates in girls rates in the most deprived communities being
aged 15–17 are nearly twice those of girls aged many times greater than in wealthier com-
10–14. This sudden increase in violence in the munities. For instance, in Cape Town, South
over-15 age group occurs even in regions with Africa, just a few kilometres separate shanty
low overall homicide rates, and implies that towns where male homicide rates exceed 200
measures to curtail violent behaviour are criti- per 100,000 from wealthier, well-established
cal before and during the early and mid-teens, suburban areas where male homicide rates are
to prevent further increases in later years. four times less, at around 50 per 100,000.15
Over 95% of homicides in 15–17-year olds Relatively few studies have examined the
occur in low- and middle-income countries, victim–perpetrator relationship and the typi-
where the homicide rate for boys aged 15–17 cal scenarios that underlie homicide in 15–17
years is 9.8 per 100,000 population compared year olds. Those which have been conducted
with 3.2 per 100,000 for boys in high-income suggest that perpetrators are often friends or
countries. Girls in high-income countries have acquaintances of the victim, and that much of
a homicide rate of 1.5 per 100,000 popula- this homicidal violence occurs in neighbour-
tion, versus 3.5 per 100,000 for girls in low- hoods and local hang-outs, and is linked to
and middle-income countries. Apart from the inter-personal arguments which develop into
USA, most of the countries with the highest fights – over girls, possessions, rivalries, broken
adolescent homicide rates are either developing loyalties or group codes – and to intoxication
countries or those experiencing rapid social with liquor or drugs. The availability of fire-
7
arms may mean that this violence results in cide rates are similar), homicide rates among
serious injury or death.16,17,18,19 children are substantially higher among males
than females. Homicide rates among boys aged
Sex differences in adolescent homicide rates 15–17 are nearly three times greater than those
raise questions about how male socialisation and among girls of the same age. In the Americas,
norms regarding masculinity contribute to vio- Africa, and Eastern Europe, where some of the
lence against children in community settings. highest adolescent homicide rates are found,
In almost all countries (and with the exception the rates among 15–17-year-old boys are two to
of young children whose male/female homi- six times higher than those among girls of the
TABLE 7.1 – Homicide rates by region for males and females:

estimated adolescent homicide rates by UN region, 2002
MALES FEMALES 289

REGION (AGE GROUP, YR) (AGE GROUP, YR)
10 – 14 15 – 17 10 – 14 15 – 17
All 2.08 9.06 1.49 3.28
High-income countries 0.56 3.25 0.40 1.53
Low-income countries 2.25 9.75 1.61 3.48
Africa 5.09 15.64 4.62 9.45
Asia 1.21 3.93 0.69 1.48
Australia/New Zealand* 0.41 1.60 0.31 0.48
Europe 0.89 5.72 0.75 1.67
Latin American & Caribbean 4.01 37.66 1.81 6.50
Northern America 1.09 6.37 0.72 1.60
Oceania** 2.00 0.13 0.85 2.14
* Rate is based on less than 100 cases
** Excluding Australia and New Zealand. Rate is based on less than 100 cases.
Source: WHO (2006). Global Estimates of Health Consequences Due to Violence against Children. Background
Paper to the UN Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Children. Geneva, World Health Organization.
same age group. Preliminary data from the City Non-fatal physical violence
of Cape Town and Burden of Disease Unit of
South Africa’s Medical Research Council show The consequences of non-fatal physical vio-
that a boy celebrating his 15th birthday in the lence occurring in the community and involv-
Cape Town informal settlement of Nyanga ing children range from minor to severe
would have a greater than 1 in 20 chance of injuries. Severe injuries may require resource-
being shot dead by the age of 35.20 Data from intensive emergency medical treatment and
Colombia show that a youth celebrating his inpatient care and result in lifelong disabilities
18th birthday in the Department of Antioquia such brain damage, paraplegia, or may require
would have a greater than 1 in 20 chance of amputation. Additionally, physical fights often
being shot dead by the age of 25.21 precede even more serious forms of violence
such as homicide.
WITNESSING VIOLENCE
290
In addition to those who suffer violence directly, large numbers of children witness
violence in the communities in which they live (for a discussion on children who wit-
ness domestic violence see the chapter on violence against children in the home and
family). A wide range of research has established that children who witness community
violence are at risk of a variety of psychological, behavioural, and academic problems,
as well as difficulty in concentrating, impaired memory, anxious attachments to care-
givers, or aggressive behaviour.22,23,24
Much of the pioneering research on children’s exposure to violence in the community
and consequences of such exposure has been carried out in the USA, focusing on
urban communities where high levels of violent crime and multiple risk factors are
present. For example, in a study of 95 ‘high-risk’ boys aged 6–10 in New York City,
35% reported witnessing a stabbing, 33% had seen someone shot, 23% had seen a dead
body in their neighbourhood, and 25% had seen someone killed. 25
Even when they have not directly witnessed the violence, children can be harmed when
the victim is someone close to them. In Colombia, a 2001 study of 5,775 children aged
12–18 found that 11% of these adolescents reported having had a family member mur-
dered or kidnapped, or receiving a death threat in the past year. This figure doubled
for adolescents residing in Medellin, a city with particularly high levels of gun crime.26
In Jamaica, 60% of 9–17-year-old children reported that a family member had been a
victim of violence, and 37% had a family member who had been killed.27
7
Few countries have information systems to violence-related injuries leading to hospital
monitor non-fatal violent injuries, and existing treatment are sustained largely in the course
systems typically record only data on violent of male-on-male violence, with the majority of
injuries with victims presenting at hospital the perpetrators being friends or acquaintances
emergency departments. Data from those sites of the victim, and a large proportion of victims
cannot be compared directly, given the marked and perpetrators having consumed alcohol
differences among and within countries in the shortly before or during the violent incident.
availability and accessibility of emergency Unlike homicidal violence, however, the larg-
medical services. Furthermore, most studies est proportion of non-fatal violent injuries are
do not report their findings using age cat- not caused by firearms, but by knives, blunt
egories that comply with the definition of the objects, fists and feet.36
child in the (CRC) as a person aged between
0 and 18 years. Violence within adolescent intimate
and dating relationships
Special studies on youth violence occurring 291
among 10–29-year olds do, however, pro- Intimate and dating relationships with peers

vide some insight into the magnitude of the of the opposite sex (and, less frequently, of the
problem. For instance, it is estimated that for same sex) are part of growing up for many ado-
each of the approximately 200,000 homicides lescents. The forms the relationships take range
among youths aged 10–29 years that occurred from simply spending time together and casual
in the year 2000, around 20–40 victims of dating to more formal courtship and marriage
non-fatal physical violence received hospital (for partner violence within early marriage,
treatment.28 In other words, between 4 and 8 see the chapter on violence against children in
million young people are treated in hospitals the home and family). Dating is common in
for violence-related injuries each year. As with industrialised countries, whereas other cultural
homicide, rates of non-fatal violent victimisa- traditions may prohibit relationships between
tion are substantially higher among males than boys and girls before marriage.37
females; for instance, in Eldoret, Kenya, there
were 2.6 males for every female victim of vio- The Global School-Based Student Health
lence who received hospital emergency treat- Survey, conducted with students aged 13 to
ment; in Jamaica, the ratio was 3 males per 15, collected information on dating violence
female, and in Norway the ratio was between between 2003 and 2005. Preliminary analy-
4 and 5 males per female.29,30,31 sis of the data has shown significant levels of
physical violence within intimate relationships
Studies on non-fatal physical violence leading in a wide range of countries. Asked if they had
to hospital emergency room treatment show been hit, slapped or hurt on purpose by their
that, as in the case of homicide, rates increase boyfriend or girlfriend in the past 12 months,
dramatically during mid-adolescence and 15% of the girls and 29% of the boys in Jordan
early adulthood.32 33,34,35 Also as for homicide, responded ‘yes’. This was also reported by 9%
of the girls and 16% of the boys in Namibia, Coerced first sex
6% of the girls and 8% of the boys in Swazi-
For many adolescents, the first experience
land, and 18% of the girls and 23% of the boys
of sexual intercourse is unwanted or actively
in Zambia (see Figure 7.1).38
coerced; Figure 7.2 shows the prevalence of
A 2001 study of intermediate and secondary forced sexual initiation reported in stud-
school students in the USA (75% of them ies from several countries, and illustrates the
under the age of 18) found similarly high levels extent of sexual violence among adolescents.
Outside child marriage (see the chapter on
of physical violence, and also psychological
violence against children in the home and
violence. It also found that physical violence
family), much of this initial sexual coercion is
rarely occurred in the absence of psychological perpetrated by peers, including in the context
violence, such as name-calling, insults, swear- of an intimate relationship.
ing, and threats of physical violence.39
Research indicates that the younger the age of
292
The International Dating Violence Study, sexual initiation, the more likely that it was
conducted at 31 universities in 16 countries coerced in some way.42,43,44,45 This is particularly

across Asia, Latin America, the Middle East true for girls, who face a greater risk of forced
and North America, found a high prevalence first sex than boys. The WHO’s Multi-Coun-
of physical violence perpetrated by both males try Study on Women’s Health and Domestic
and females against their dating partners (17% Violence against Women found that women
to 38% of males and 17% to 48% of females).40 reporting first sex before the age of 17 were
Although this study surveyed young adults more likely to report forced sexual initiation
than women who reported later sexual initia-
(mean age: 22 years), the findings point to
tion. Of women who reported first sex prior to
the reality that intimate relationships among
age 15, between 11% and 45 % reported that
young adults and adolescents worldwide are it was forced.46
characterised by high levels of aggression.
In addition to forced sexual initiation, many
SEXUAL VIOLENCE children experience ongoing sexual coercion
from boyfriends or girlfriends (see Table 7.2).
Sexual violence against children can have a dev- While available studies suggest that physi-
astating impact on both physical and mental cal violence in intimate relationships (see
health, and can lead to suicide, HIV infection, above) occurs at similar rates for girls and
or murder of the victim in the case of ‘honour boys, girls are at much greater risk than boys
killings’.41 Far too often, the violence is carried of sexual violence within intimate and dating
out with total impunity for the perpetrator. relationships.47 One study of sexual coercion
among young people in Kenya found that for
females who had experienced sexual coercion,
7
boyfriends were the most common perpetra-
FIGURE 7.1 tors (51%), followed by husbands (28%) and
acquaintances (22%).48 A study in Thailand
Percentage of students whose boyfriend found that 54% of adolescent and young wom-
or girlfriend hit, slapped or hurt them
en’s experiences of forced sexual intercourse
on purpose in the last 12 months
occurred with steady or casual partners, and
30 29 an additional 27% with acquaintances.49 The
Australian Study of Health and Relationships
Females found that most sexual coercion of both males
Males
23
and females occurred at or before the age of 18.
Among women who reported sexual coercion,
20 one-third said that the first experience occurred
18
between the ages of 9 and 16, and 40% of men
Percentage
16 reporting sexual coercion were between the

15 293
ages of 9 and 16 at the first occurrence.50

10
Sexual violence by strangers in the
9
8 community
6
Sexual violence against children is more com-
monly perpetrated by someone known to the
child, either from the family or within the
0
Swaziland Namibia Zambia Jordan family circle, but people outside these circles
(N=7341) (N=6367) (N=2257) (N=2457)
also perpetrate a significant number of sexual
Source: Analysis provided to the Study by the Global assaults on children in many countries.52 Per-
School-Based Student Health Survey: The World Health petrators can include a wide variety of people,
Organization (http://www.who.int/chp/gshs or http://www. some who may have planned the assault. A
cdc.gov/gshs) for surveys conducted in 2003-5 for Jordan,
Namibia, Swaziland, Zambia.
selection of available studies shows the range
and seriousness of sexual violence by people
the child did not know. In a survey of South
African women who reported having been
raped before they were 15 years old, 21% iden-
tified strangers or recent acquaintances as the
assailant57. Chinese college students in the
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of
China reported that 28% of the perpetrators
of sexual abuse were strangers.58 In Hungary,
34% of under-18 girls treated at a hospital
“In all countries children with disabilities continue to experience violence at equal to or higher rates
than children without disabilities. They are often perceived as not worthy of dignity and respect.
We must remember that children with disabilities are first and foremost children. They, like children
without disabilities, must have the right to be free from violence, they too have the right to be respected
and protected. It is our legal responsibility to ensure that this happens”.
Charlotte McClain-Nhlapo, Editorial Board of the UN Secretary-General’s Study
FIGURE 7.2
Rates of forced sexual initiation involving adolescents for the period 1993–1999
Cameroon (N=646) 30
37
Caribbean (N=15695) a,b 32

48
Ghana (N=750) 5
21
Mozambique (N=1659) 7 Females

19
Males
New Zealand (N=935) c 0
7
Peru (N=611) 11
40
294 South Africa (N=1975) 6

28
United Republic of Tanzania 7

(N=892) 29
USA (N=2042) 9
0 10 20 30 40 50
Percentage
Rates are based on those who have had sexual intercourse.
a) Antigua, Bahamas, Barbados, British Virgin Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica and Saint Lucia
b) Percentage adolescents responding that first intecourse was forced or “somewhat” forced
c) Longitudinal study of cohort born in 1972-1973. Subjects were questioned at 18 years of age and again at 21 years of
age about their current and previous sexual behaviour
Source: Krug EG et al. (Eds) (2002). World Report on Violence and Health. Geneva, World Health Organization
following sexual assault reported having been lence, were received by the Study. Children
assaulted by a stranger.59 In some cases, sexual with disabilities may be targeted by others in
violence is accompanied by or associated with the community, fuelled by stigma and preju-
abduction or trafficking. dice. Services that cater well for their needs
are still the exception. The vulnerability of
ISSUES OF SPECIAL CONCERN children living on the street was strongly
emphasised in Regional Consultations. Physi-
Reports of violence experienced by specific cal and sexual violence by figures of authority
groups of children, or particular situations in such as coaches, religious leaders and teach-
which children seem to be at high risk of vio- ers was widely mentioned, although hard data
“It is easy to get beaten if you are a street boy. People can rape you. Men can beat a boy and rape him.
There is nothing you can do but run away if you are lucky.”
Boy, 12, living in the street, Eastern and Southern Africa, 2005 I
7
TABLE 7.2 – Adolescents reporting sexual coercion: selected surveys, 1999 – 2005
PERCENTAGE
REPORTING
SAMPLE
STUDY FORCED SEXUAL
COUNTRY YEAR INTERCOURSE
POPULATION
Sample Age group
Females Males
sizea (yr)
China51 Hong Kong 1999 8,382 15 – 18 16.9 17.0
Kenya52 Nyeri District 2001 2,712 10 – 24b 20.8 11.0
Nigeria53 Plateau State 2000 4,218 12 – 21 45.0 32.0
Chiang Rai 295
Thailand54 2001 832 15 – 21 28.1 n/a
Province

USA55 National 2005 13,953 13 – 18c 10.8 4.2
a) Total number of adolescents in the study. Rates are based on those adolescents who have had sexual intercourse.
b) Of the 1753 respondents included in the analysis, about 6% of the males and 30% of the females had never been married.
c) High school students grades 9 to 12 reporting on coerced sexual intercourse.
are scarce. In regions with large numbers of – of those visible on the streets have actually
refugees and displaced persons, concern was adopted the street as their habitat. This group
voiced about the safety of children in camps is normally characterised by the term ‘street
or dispersed within the community, while con- children’; although the term can be used pejo-
tributors from all regions were concerned about ratively, it is also used by many children and
trafficking, and the plight of children affected their representative organisations, sometimes
by HIV/AIDS. with considerable pride.
Violence against children living on In the past, it was thought that millions of
the street rootless children lived on the streets in various
‘Street children’ are a large and ill-defined cat- countries of Asia and Latin America. However,
egory of children. Since the 1980s, analysts research established that many of these chil-
have drawn a distinction between children dren actually have functioning families. None-
on the street and children of the street.60,61 A theless, there are cities in many regions where
relatively small proportion – less than 10% large numbers of children have become based
“They treat you badly. You don’t feel like walking in the street, they give you names. They whisper
when you pass. They take it that when one person in the house is sick, all of you in that house are sick.”
Girl, 16, Eastern and Southern Africa, 2003 II
in the street, and who rarely or never go home.

In Nairobi, for example, local NGOs estimate
numbers to be as high as 20,000.62 In China,
one countrywide estimate was 150,000,63 and
in Indonesia it was 170,000.64 The majority
of children living on the street everywhere are
boys.65
Discrimination and violence against children
living on the street often stems from the stigma
associated with having no family (of course,
many do have families) and with the activities
they may have to adopt to survive. Children
living on the street everywhere report being
296 demonised for activities which – even they
involves petty offences – in no way warrant the UKRAINE, 2005, Two boys sniff glue in a sewage pipe in
the port city of Odessa.

kind of cruel and gratuitous violence to which
they are often subjected.66
Murder of children living on the street has been Girls and boys living on the street are vulner-
reported from Colombia, Brazil, Guatemala, able to sexual abuse from many individuals,
and the Philippines.67 Appalling brutality has including from passers-by and from those
been documented in the Haitian capital of Port- who offer them shelter.70 They also risk being
au-Prince where the 3,000 children who live recruited by pimps and traffickers for sexual
on the streets are frequently targeted by armed and economic exploitation, or having to resort
vigilantes.68 The extent of serious human rights
to ‘survival sex’ (sex in exchange for food or
violations may be much greater than the few and
shelter).71
unreliable available figures indicate. Many cases
are not reported because of the lack of witnesses, HIV and violence in the community
or because victims or their relatives live on the
fringes of society, and tend to remain anony- Children whose parents are ill because of HIV/
mous. The World Organisation against Tor- AIDS or those who have been orphaned by the
ture reported that in Ciudad Boliviar, Bogota, disease face psychological violence, stigma and
Colombia, 850 children and adolescents were discrimination. They may be rejected by their
assassinated between 2000–2004, and that 620 friends and schoolmates, as well as at health
were abducted between August 2003 and August centres. In addition to the grief and loss they
2004. The national police force was among feel, the estimated 15 million orphans due to
those cited as being responsible for this.69 AIDS face growing up without adequate bond-
7
ing and emotional support from parents. Many in many other parts of the world, police vio-
of these children find themselves without family lence against children (or inaction against per-
or extended family support, either because the petrators) is rarely investigated. The level of
initial solution was unsustainable or because impunity such conduct enjoys is an important
they had no options available. While there are reason for its continuation.77 Without inde-
no meaningful estimates of the numbers or pro- pendent monitoring systems, children have no
portions of children orphaned by HIV/AIDS one to report police violence to, except other
who live on the street, there are clear indications police, from whom they understandably fear
that the overall numbers of street children are reprisals. This, combined with the perception
rising in many sub-Saharan towns and cities, that children’s presence on the street equates
most likely because of the increasing number with ‘juvenile delinquency’, places many chil-
of children orphaned by HIV/AIDS. In Braz- dren at risk of police violence.
zaville, Congo, almost 50% of street children
are orphans. In Lusaka, Zambia, the majority Since the 1990s, international human rights
of children living on the street are orphans.72 NGOs have drawn attention to police violence 297

against children living and working on the
Psychosocial trauma can continue even when street. Studies in Bulgaria, Egypt, Guatemala,
orphans move to foster families or to extended Papua New Guinea, Sudan and elsewhere
families. They may be treated as second-class reveal widespread brutality, including beat-
family members – discriminated against in ings, sexual assault, and torture. This may take
the allocation of food, perhaps, or in the dis-
place casually on the street; during arrest on
tribution of work. Orphans in Zambia have
the way to the police station; and subsequently
reported a lack of love and a feeling of being
in police lock-ups.78 Kenya reported in its ques-
excluded, as part of outright discrimination.
tionnaire response to the Study79 that children
Many of these children are vulnerable to
living on the street are frequently harassed and
abuse (physical, emotional and sexual) from
arrested by police; they may be charged with
extended family members and other members
loitering or petty offences, and without repre-
of their communities, and girls are particularly
sentation in court, deprived of their liberty for
vulnerable to sexual abuse.73
years in corrective institutions.
Violence by police
In Honduras, a total of 59 children and young
The level of violence against children by police people under the age of 23 died in detention
was rated a serious issue in a number of Gov- centres between May 2002 and March 2004.
ernment responses to the Independent Expert’s Local NGOs allege that 41 of these victims
questionnaire76, and was a common theme in were extra-judicially executed by agents of the
regional reviews and consultations. Even in State.80 Following her visit to Brazil in 2004,
societies where systems of justice are far more Asma Jahangir, the UN Special Rapporteur on
deeply embedded and socially accessible than extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions,
WHEN TRADITION MEETS SUPERSTITION
Violence against children labelled as witches or sorcerers has been documented in

many countries. Reports from West Africa (notably Benin, Cameroon, Gabon, Liberia
and Nigeria) have documented cases of children who have been driven out from their
families, marginalised by society, and subjected to physical violence including torture,
sometimes resulting in fatalities.74 In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where
churches specialising in the exorcism of evil spirits have increased in number, accusa-
tions of sorcery are no longer exclusively made against older women living alone (the
traditional target of such charges) but also against children, many of whom swell the
30,000 children already living on Kinshasa’s streets.75
298 reported that victims of police violence and sum- negative and uncomfortable experiences, rang-
mary executions tend to be young Afro-Brazil- ing from mild sexual harassment to abuse. A
ian males between the ages of 15–19 years, who Danish pilot study (1998) also revealed that
are often involved in criminal gangs.81 about 25% of athletes under 18 knew about or
had experienced situations of harassment by a
Violence by other authority figures coach or trainer. A Norwegian study compar-
While police are the authority figures most ing the prevalence of sexual harassment in and
often mentioned in relation to community outside the context of sport suggests that twice
violence against children, it is clear that many as many athletes as non-athletes have experi-
other people with responsibility to supervise enced sexual harassment from coaches and
or defend children regularly abuse the trust other authority figures.82 In the case of faith-
implicit in their positions. These include sports based orgsanisations, information tends to be
coaches, religious authorities, youth club work- limited to media reports and systematic data
ers, and teachers (the latter are discussed in the from various faiths is seriously lacking.
chapter on violence against children in schools Although these cases do not represent the com-
and educational settings). plete spectrum of situations, they are warning
In recent decades, long-held assumptions signs that should be taken very seriously.
about the purely positive impacts of organised Violence against sexual minorities
activities for children have been shattered by
reports of physical and sexual violence against Media reports, cases documented by human
children in sport- and faith-based activities. In rights groups, and anecdotal evidence by vic-
1998, studies in Canada and Norway revealed tims themselves indicate that violence against
that over one-third of young athletes had had young lesbians, homosexuals, bisexuals and
7
“At the river we are beaten by the owners of the wells, the women. They shout at us
“Why didn’t you come with your own wells from [your own country]?”
They beat us with hands but also beat us with bottles and sticks.”
Girls, Eastern and Southern Africa, 2005 III
transgendered individuals is widely prevalent, In 2006, the United Nations High Commis-
with perpetrators including family members, sioner for Refugees published a study carried
peers, teachers, clergy and police.83,84,85 out in 13 countries (Bangladesh, Côte d’Ivoire,
Ethiopia, Guinea, Kenya, Mexico, Nepal,
Laws outlawing same-sex behaviour which Pakistan, Sierra Leone, the United Republic
exist in some countries, as well as stereotypi- of Tanzania, Thailand, Yemen and Zambia),
cal attitudes, can encourage violence against including information on violence against chil-
sexual minorities. Discriminatory attitudes are dren in refugee camps.92 These countries cur-
also ingrained in both traditional and popu- rently have 52 camps and a total population of
lar culture, in much the same way as attitudes nearly one million refugees.
that accept domestic violence and corporal
punishment. Of particular concern was the study’s finding
that a high proportion of crimes and disputes
Violence against child refugees, in all the surveyed refugee camps fall under the
returnees and internally displaced broad category of sexual and gender-based vio- 299
persons lence. Domestic violence – which can include

violence against spouses, children, and other
It is estimated that there are 19.2 million refu-
members of the family such as daughters-in-
gees and displaced people globally. Although
law – was widespread in all the countries sur-
well-run camps can be safe havens for their
veyed, and was the most commonly reported
inhabitants, physical insecurity can be a seri-
form of sexual and gender-based violence. In
ous problem in camps and settlements for
Sierra Leone for example, domestic violence
refugees and displaced persons, particularly in
was second only to theft as the most pervasive
terms of gender-based violence.86,87,88,89 Many
justice issue arising in the camps.
camps lack secure buildings, good lighting,
regular law enforcement, sanctuary for sur- In many cases, little formal protection or
vivors of attack, and means of reporting and redress was available to victims of such vio-
redress.90,91 Moreover, the traditional assign- lence through camp dispute resolution systems,
ment of certain jobs to women and children many of which are administered by traditional
– notably the fetching of firewood, water and elders from among the refugees themselves.
other domestic supplies – creates conditions For example, the study found that rape of girls
of high risk of sexual assault as they carry and women often draws only negligible pun-
out these tasks. Communities may be forced ishments. Some rapists were absolved if they
to rely on informal or traditional methods of agreed to marry the survivor, although if the
security, and where fathers or husbands are not victim was a minor, a small fine or a minimal
present (as is the case for many refugee fami- length of detention might be imposed. The
lies, particularly those displaced by war), this study cites two examples from one refugee
represents particular difficulties. camp, where men confessed to raping young
girls who were described respectively as “one for children to recover and regain a sense of
physically and one mentally handicapped routine and normalcy. Although many factors
minor.” As punishment, the men received six can affect children’s coping mechanisms, cul-
months detention for crimes which would have turally relevant forms of counselling and spe-
resulted in far lengthier prison terms under the cific support to restructure the way they think
national law of their host countries.93 about their experiences and develop positive
skills can be of assistance.97
Violence may also be perpetrated by people
in authority or in support positions. A recent Trafficking of children
report from Liberia found that girls between
the ages of eight and 18, especially from age Since the 1990s, the substantial traffic in
12 upwards, had been regularly selling sex to human beings, including children, within
camp officials, humanitarian workers, peace countries and across international borders has
workers, and Government employers, usually aroused major international concern. Statistics
300 because of extreme want.94 on trafficking are imprecise, but the Interna-
tional Labour Organization (ILO) estimated
When dispersed in urban settings, it is much in 2003 that 1.2 million children are trafficked
more difficult for assistance programmes to every year.98 The phenomenon is complex, and
identify, monitor and support displaced per- interacts with poverty, labour migration flows,
sons. They may be hidden among already under- demand for cheap labour, and perceptions or
served, poor local populations in shanty towns misinformation relating to a better life ‘else-
or scattered over broad, densely populated areas where’. Where children are not registered, the
with limited infrastructure and access. lack of identification documents compounds
the trafficking problem in that children
Children who are resettling in their home
become easy targets for traffickers, and once
country can also be at higher risk of violence.95
trafficked they are effectively ‘lost’.99
A study of children in Zambia, South Africa
and Angola who had been long-term refugees In certain settings, infants are at particular
reported children suffering from violent dis- risk of abduction for trafficking. For example,
crimination because of their status both as ref- in Central America there are reports of infant
ugees and as returnees.96 This treatment comes kidnapping for the US adoption market, some-
on top of the harrowing violence witnessed (or times directly from the hospital shortly after
experienced directly) by many children in their birth.100
country of origin or on the journey to their
host nation, a problem which was not always In some areas, there are reports of young
addressed by the services available. However, children being trafficked for begging. At the
emerging studies on resilience suggest that Cambodian border, parents sell or lease their
family support and having structured educa- children for use as members of begging groups
tion and recreational activities are important in Thai venues.101 Begging in transport hubs,
7
“My job was to make 2-3,000 beedis (cigarettes) in 24 hours. I didn’t know how to make beedis
so they used to beat me up and I was in a lot of pain because of that. I realized they were trying to traffic me
somewhere else so I tried to run away, but they noticed and I was tortured.”
Boy, 13, trafficked from Bangladesh to India, South Asia, 2001 IV
car parks and public places is a characteristic Europe into Western European cities is simi-
of child work in Romania and is ‘exported’ larly well documented.104
through the trafficking of children domesti-
cally and into other parts of Europe. 102 Victims often face stigma if they manage to
escape: because they are viewed as immoral or
Trafficking may involve abduction, but in ‘unclean’, girls are often rejected by their family
many cases it begins with deception or entice- and community, and may return to a life of
ment. For example, many recruiters and traf- prostitution. A trafficked child is generally
fickers deal directly with the parents, who may undocumented and often unable to speak the
believe they are being offered an opportunity to language of the host country, so will have dif-
improve the child’s chances in life, gain a well- ficulty in finding or reaching home. In many
paid job, and that the child can remit money cases, children go home to unchanged social
home to help the family. Once the child is away circumstances, and so risk being re-trafficked.
from the home and the community, however,
he or she is vulnerable to many forms of vio- Where trafficked children are rescued or 301
lence. These include physical and sexual abuse escape, they may be detained by the police or

experienced by a significant proportion of vic- immigration authorities, and risk deportation
tims during the course of their voyage, being to their country of origin.105 This has been
held captive while waiting for ‘job’ placement, reported from countries in every region and
and the kind of situations into which they are typically occurs without referral either to the
trafficked. Such situations range from low-paid courts or other authorities. Repatriation takes
domestic work to prostitution, or labour on place without any attention paid to the child’s
agricultural plantations in conditions of servi- best interests or to their right to be consulted
tude or debt bondage (see the chapter on vio- when making decisions affecting their future.
lence against children in places of work).103 Child victims of trafficking are often treated
as if they were criminals because of their sup-
For example, in India, reports of professional posed or actual involvement in offences com-
traffickers recruiting girls from poor village mitted as a result of being trafficked, or of
communities in coastal areas suggest that, coercion by their captors, such as theft, prosti-
while the girls’ expectation is of domestic tution, or illegal immigration.
employment and city life, the reality is entry
into the sex trade in various cities. Traffickers
similarly operate in Nepal for outlets in India,
and in Myanmar for Thailand. Thousands TO VIOLENCE
of children from Bangladesh have been traf- INDIVIDUAL AND FAMILY FACTORS
ficked into sexual exploitation in Pakistan and
the Middle East, as have teenage girls from Many key factors contributing to violence
West Africa into Italy. The trade from Eastern against children are found or begin in the
“When I come out of my house the people point at me and say. Why don’t you stay in, look at you!
You cannot walk properly.”
Boy, 12, with physical disabilities, South Asia, 2005 V
home, and have therefore been covered at some tors in the community can precipitate violent
length in the chapter on violence against chil- events that might not otherwise occur. Three
dren in the home and family. For the purposes of the most important are: widespread access to
of the present chapter, it is important to point firearms, alcohol consumption, and the char-
out that these include individual factors (bio- acteristics of the physical environment. In situ-
logical make-up and personal history of both ations where these factors are present, young
the child and his or her family members) and people who have no prior history of violent
relationship factors (how the child interacts behaviour and who are not continuously vio-
with parents and siblings) which affect the lent may nevertheless react violently, and with
likelihood that a child will become a victim serious consequences. A fourth important situ-
or perpetrator of violence. For example, chil- ational factor is the presence of gangs or organ-
dren who show early signs of hyperactivity ised armed groups within the community.
and poor attention span (individual factors),
or who grow up with poor parental supervi- Firearms
302 sion, parental aggression and harsh discipline
(relationship factors), are at a higher risk of It is estimated that several hundred thousand
involvement in violence either as victims or people die from firearm-related injuries each
perpetrators in later years. year. A large proportion of these deaths are
due to homicide and suicide.106 The number of
Many of these factors – as well as the physical and non-fatal firearm-related injuries is unknown,
psychological symptoms that indicate a child’s but is likely to be many times greater than
experience of violence –may be identifiable by the number of deaths. Adolescents and young
trained professionals such as teachers, social adults are the primary victims and perpetra-
workers or medical staff, but also by members of tors of firearm-related violence in almost every
the community. This is particularly true if com- region of the world.107
munity members’ awareness of violence against
children has been raised by interventions. For instance, firearm-related mortality in
Brazil has increased significantly for all age
The important point to draw from this is that
groups since 1991, but death rates due to fire-
while these risk factors are located at individual
arms have risen the most among children and
and family level, it is at community level that
adolescents aged 10 to 19. In 1991, 55.7% of
many of the key preventive interventions and
homicides involving 15–19-year-olds were
responses to violence must be delivered. These
firearm-related, while in 2000 the proportion
are discussed below in the section on responses.
amounted to 77%.108 In the State capitals with
the highest adolescent firearm-related mortal-
SITUATIONAL FACTORS
ity rates (between 102 and 222 per 100,000),
Many years of research and experience confirm rates are 5 to 11 times those of the overall rate
that the presence of several key situational fac- for all age groups.109
7
Alcohol ing on the part of the perpetrator and/or
victim.113 In the Philippines, where 14% of
Alcohol is a known factor in intimate part- 15–24-year-olds reported physically injuring
ner violence, and children are often directly someone through violence in the previous
affected by this. Alcohol is also an important three months, such violence was significantly
factor in violence against and by older chil- associated with drinking.114 Among 10–18-
dren in community settings. In many societ- year-olds participating in the Caribbean
ies, alcohol is common in social situations. Youth Health Survey, having used alcohol in
Young people may use alcohol to bolster their the last year was significantly associated with
self-confidence, and their aggression levels weapon-related violence for both males and
may increase and escalate to produce violent females.115
confrontations, while impaired physical con-
trol and ability to interpret warning signals in Studies in Finland, England and Wales and
dangerous situations may make some young Australia have shown that levels of alcohol-
drinkers targets for perpetrators.110 related involvement in violence increase with 303
age throughout adolescence and usually peak

Patterns of alcohol use by children and young
in the early twenties.116,117,118
people vary widely among countries, and are
partially determined by wider cultural norms Physical environment
regarding the social acceptability of alco-
hol consumption. In general, young people The nature of a community’s physical fabric,
are more likely than the older population to its density of settlement and layout, and the
engage in heavy episodic drinking, and there availability of services and amenities support-
is a growing concern that a youth culture of ive of family well-being, have an important
alcohol abuse is spreading.111 The Health bearing on social relationships within the
Behaviour in School-Aged Children Study community and on whether or not adults and
found that across 32 European countries, children become prey to violence. For example,
regular alcohol consumption was reported by research on refugees in Africa cites the lack
5% of 11-year-olds, 12% of 13-year-olds and of safety in public spaces as a risk for sexual
29% of 15-year-olds. More than one-third of and gender-based violence, most of it against
the children reported having been drunk twice girls.119,120,121,122
or more, with boys more likely to use alcohol
and report drunkenness than girls in all age The physical design of public spaces can
groups.112 determine whether they are potential settings
for violence. Environmental design, such as
Several studies have demonstrated the links improved street lighting, can help prevent
between alcohol and violence for adoles- crime as well as reduce fear of victimisation.123
cents: in Finland, 45% of all violent incidents Evidence is emerging that improved street
reported by 12–18-year-olds involved drink- lighting achieves reductions in crime through
increased community pride and informal social million children). One in five does not have
control rather than as a result of increased sur- access to safe water (approximately 400 million
veillance and deterrence. children). While child homelessness is perhaps
the most visible and dire violation of children’s
Seriously inadequate housing, and overcrowd- housing rights, all violations of housing rights,
ing within both dwellings and neighbour- from forced eviction to inadequate housing con-
hoods can have a damaging effect on child ditions, have special ramifications for children.
nurture.124,125 Among the most frequent com-
munity health concerns related to family While forced evictions are universally detrimen-
housing are the inadequate supply of afford- tal to all their victims, they have special impli-
able housing for low-income people and the cations for children. Forced evictions are often
increasing spatial segregation of households accompanied by violence, particularly against
by income, race, ethnicity, or social class into women and children who are most likely to be
unsafe neighbourhoods.126 The increasing at home when such a procedure is carried out.
304 concentration of poverty can result in physical Evidence suggests that in response to the vio-
and social deterioration of neighbourhoods, lence, panic and confusion so often characteris-
resulting in housing disinvestment, deterio- tic of forced eviction, many children experience
rated physical conditions, and reduced ability recurrent nightmares, anxiety and distrust. The
of formal and informal institutions to main- impacts on family stability and the emotional
tain public order. well-being of children can be devastating, even
when evictions are followed by immediate relo-
Forced evictions cation. Children also have recounted increased
incidents of violence within their own homes
Recognition of the right of the child to a stan-
after a forced eviction had taken place.127,128
dard of living adequate for his or her physi-
cal, mental, spiritual, moral and social devel- Gangs
opment is set out in article 27 of the CRC,
and is fundamental to ensuring children’s Gangs are an important factor in violence
security and to protecting them from violence. among and against children in many parts of
Adequate housing, along with adequate food the world. UNICEF Country Offices in the
and clothing, is considered to be an element Philippines, Vietnam, Mongolia and Cambodia
constituting the right to an adequate standard all report worrying levels of gang fights and vio-
of living (article 11 International Covenant on lent gang initiation practices among some of the
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights). poorest communities, often involving children
living on the street.129 In addition to violence
In its 2005 State of the World’s Children Report, directed outside the gang, it may also be used
UNICEF reported that more than one out of against members who fail the gang, refuse to
every three children in the developing world carry out a leader’s order, or are in breach of its
live in inadequate housing (approximately 640 internal rules.130
7
Gang membership may be drawn exclusively zones. These include organised crime organi-
from among school students, exclusively from sations (including those in the drug trade),
among non-school-goers, or from both. How- ethnic or religious militias, vigilante groups,
ever their membership is drawn, gangs operat- and paramilitary organisations.
ing in and around schools can expose students
and teachers to criminal activity and extreme A recent study that investigated such groups
violence. Research shows that, in many societ- in 10 countries (Colombia, El Salvador, Ecua-
ies, physical and verbal aggression, including dor, Honduras, Jamaica, Nigeria, Northern
fighting, is considered a healthy and normal Ireland, the Philippines, South Africa, and
way for boys to prove their manhood and that the USA) found that the average age at which
explains, in part, why boys are more inclined boys tended to join such groups was 13, with
to join gangs than girls and why boys’ gangs the exception of Nigeria, where the average
enter into aggressive competition with other was 15–16.134 Alarmingly, however, the age
gangs.131 However, there are also gangs made of gang members appears to be decreasing.135
The study found that children working for 305
up of girls and, like gangs of boys, they may

also engage in violence.132 armed groups were directly involved in acts of
violence, including the murder of fellow group
Although gangs of boys on the streets are members and non-involved parties.136
almost universally associated – in the public’s
mind – with violence, crime, and other forms of Many Governments have tried using repres-
antisocial behaviour, it should be remembered sive law enforcement tactics to deal with chil-
that children – mostly but not exclusively boys dren involved in organised armed violence (see
– join gangs for a variety of reasons. In some box). However, available evidence suggests
cases, lack of nurturing and emotional support that a focus solely on repression will tend to
at home may prompt young teenagers to seek be ineffective for several reasons: it does not
gang membership; in others, gang affiliation deal with the root causes of the problem; the
is the only means of achieving economic suf- juvenile justice and penal systems in most
ficiency or feeling safe. In the USA, an eth- countries affected by this problem are inad-
nographic study of immigrant school children equate and worsen the problem; and armed
from Mexico and Central America found that groups tend to become more organised and
they joined gangs to find a positive cultural increasingly violent when faced only with
identity as Latinos when they felt thwarted by repressive tactics.137 Continued pressure from
negative stereotypes.133 international child protection agencies must
be focused on the eradication of any such leg-
In addition to adolescent street-based youth islation that would place certain minors under
gangs, concerns were raised during the Study harsher legal regimes than others.
process about children’s involvement in organ-
ised armed groups acting outside defined war
REPRESSIVE ANTI-GANG POLICIES IN LATIN AMERICA
Levels of youth violence are high on the agenda of public debate in Latin America.138
Growing concern with youth violence, particularly that associated with gangs, has led
some countries of the region to adopt repressive measures and legislative reforms that
not only contradict human rights principles but that may also have negative effects on
the levels of violence and the organisation of youth gangs.
According to the available data, children are not responsible for the large majority
of crimes of which they are accused, but there is a strong belief that the adoption of
international human rights standards protects children (particularly adolescents) from
justified punishment and is being used as a shield by young criminals. The perceived
synchronisation between the adoption of human rights standards and the increase in
crime in Latin America is sometimes used to undermine important legal advances and
306 even to question the need for accountability in cases of State violence.
The adoption of security strategies which focus on repressive measures is marked by a

harsh rhetoric, the neglect of long-term preventive measures and the lack of data to guide
and determine the impact of such strategies. In a visit to Central America, the Inde-
pendent Expert was informed about recent legal changes lowering the age of criminal
responsibility and repressively penalising young people for gang membership. The lack
of reliable data does not allow an in-depth assessment of the impact of such policies.139
Some of these legal reforms contradicted binding human rights principles relating to
children,140 and were subsequently abrogated. For example, the preemptive detention
of adolescents on the grounds of supposed gang membership identified by tattoos or
signals was ruled as being arbitrary in various cases. Large-scale arrests of supposed
gang members have also resulted in a significant increase in the population of already
extremely overcrowded detention centres, leading to violent conflicts within these insti-
tutions. These institutions also expose young detainees to the gang networks, thereby
increasing the internal linkages of gangs and rivalry among opposing groups.141,142,143
Although criminal networks must be dismantled, the rise of violence in Latin America is
unlikely to be curbed by harsh security policies.144 Rather, this requires long-term invest-
ment in a number of policies to reinforce protective factors and limit risk factors. The
identification of the best strategies to deal with this growing concern is predicated on
reliable data and good data collection systems. The success of security measures is also
linked to the capability of Governments to stop the violence and corruption which may
exist within the security forces, and to ensure access to justice, particularly to the poor.
7
Situations of unrest or conflict ‘semi-formal’ structure in which groups based
on ethnic affiliation compete for authority
Some situations in which conflict or unrest are over territory, and over lucrative forms of trade
ongoing – such as in Northern Uganda and (especially drugs), or other resources. During
Nepal – have exposed children to mass kid- turbulent times in Somalia’s southern and cen-
napping and abduction, so they can perform tral regions, for example, one of the only ‘jobs’
as fighters, porters, or be in support positions; available to young men was in clan militias,
girls have been used as sexual slaves.145,146 Other without whose protection civilian businesses
countries in which systems of public security or aid operations cannot function. These fail-
have broken down in the wake of actual war ures of Governments impact heavily on their
such as Afghanistan, the Democratic Republic communities.
of the Congo, and Somalia, have developed a
VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN IN SITUATIONS OF ONGOING 307

CONFLICT – THE CASE OF THE OCCUPIED PALESTINIAN

TERRITORY
Political violence in the community tends to affect the risks of violence in other con-
texts not related with the ongoing conflict. More than four decades of conflict have
deeply affected the lives of Palestinian children from the Occupied Palestinian Ter-
ritory (OPT). Development and human rights indicators for children, who comprise
53% (1,954,000) of the total population of the OPT, have deteriorated sharply since the
start of the second intifada (September 2000). For example, in 2005 42.1% (822,634)
of Palestinian children were living below the poverty level,147 and in 2003 data related
to the psychosocial well-being of Palestinian children indicates that nine out of 10 par-
ents report symptomatic traumatic behaviour among at least one of their children.148
The increasing pressure the Israeli occupation has on the lives of those in the OPT,
and the renewed and reinforced restrictions on mobility which apply deeply affect rela-
tions between and within communities and families, leading to an increase in violence
against children in different settings. Addressing the root causes of this violence in the
OPT, rather than its symptoms, only requires contextualising the violence within the
ongoing conflicts.
>>>
VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN IN SITUATIONS OF ONGOING
TERRITORY
Violence threatens children in the streets, at school, and in the home. While there is
a paucity of quantitative data on the OPT related to violence within families and the
larger community, one-fifth of the children surveyed in a qualitative study indicated
that the number one source of violence in their lives was the family, with community
violence ranked as being the second most common source of violence.149 Notably, when
asked to identify the perpetrators and places of violence in their lives, 43% of surveyed
Palestinian children reported having experienced violence at the hands of more than
one perpetrator; and almost half of them indicated having experienced violence in
more than one place, including their homes and schools.150
308
More than 50% of the Palestinian children surveyed affirmed that their parents were
unable to meet their care and protection needs.151 This sentiment was echoed by the
parents themselves, with more than 43% of Palestinian parents feeling that they were
unable to provide adequate protection and care for their children.152 Studies contextu-
alising the root causes of violence in the family found that the combination of lack of
resources in the family and subsequent stress that this places on the family caregivers is
a significant predictor of family violence in the OPT.153
At home and in the classroom, adult caregivers have noted signs of increasing anger
and aggression among children.154 In school, teachers have noted higher levels of stress,
disobedience, irritation, and reduced concentration and confidence among students.155
Teachers also report an increase in violence between students, particularly boys, while
parents report that children are acting in an increasingly aggressive manner towards
friends and siblings.
Safe areas for children
The lack of safe places for children to play and interact seems to be related to the
prevalence of various forms of violence that take place in areas marked by conflict.
Local-level partnerships between municipalities, NGOs and local authorities have
been forged under the Child-Friendly Cities initiative in four locations in the OPT:
two in the Gaza Strip (Rafah and Gaza City), and two in the West Bank (Jenin and
Jericho).
7
VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN IN SITUATIONS OF ONGOING
TERRITORY
The approach to planning takes into account the need to respond to emergencies,
while developing comprehensive protection strategies for children. Participatory needs
include assessments and workshops involving children: they have been conducted, and
their results have been fed into City Plans of Action for Children in each location,
endorsed by participating institutions.
Safe Play Areas have been developed in the most deprived areas of Rafah, Gaza and
Jenin. Teams of facilitators have been trained to design and conduct weekly extra-
curricular activities. Children’s Municipality Councils have been established, whereby
children are trained as leaders, and they themselves design and implement small proj- 309
ects to reach larger numbers of children. Activities include fun days, sports competi-

tions, and community campaigns on key issues of concern for children.156
SOCIETAL FACTORS
Urbanisation
During the second half of the 20th century,
the process of urbanisation in the developing
world rapidly accelerated. Cities and towns
are now home to around half the world’s chil-
dren.157 In many regions, notably sub-Saharan
Africa, which now contains more urban chil-
dren than North America, this demographic
UN-DPI #SHD151)
change has come about during a period of

political and economic crisis and environmen-
tal pressure. The process of relocation and its
accompanying social changes, together with
a lack of economic opportunity for those in
WEST BANK, June 2003, On the road between Ramallah and the lowest educational, lowest skilled and
Jerusalem, children wait as their parents try to get permission to
pass through the Israeli checkpoint.
lowest socio-economic groups, has helped to
create circumstances favouring frustration and
unrest, potentially leading to violence.
Although urbanisation has historically been homicide rates are experienced. It may be that
accompanied by lower rates of child mortality, wealthier societies are able to provide a higher
increased access to education, and improve- level of protection and social support for their
ments across all social indicators, it also has poor communities than those at a lower level
negative aspects including poverty, inequality, of overall economic development.
changes in family structure and the break-
Measures of economic inequality are powerful
down of social networks – factors that all con-
predictors of homicide rates of 10-19 year-olds,
tribute to violence.158 Few of the environments
especially boys, and this association is stronger
inhabited by poor urban families are friendly
in countries with lower overall gross domes-
to children.159 A high proportion of new arriv-
tic product (GDP).162 However, the relation-
als live in informal (and, in the eyes of the ship between absolute poverty (as opposed to
law, illegal) settlements. The pace and irregu- relative poverty) and violence is not entirely
lar form of urbanisation has put under severe straightforward. Growth in GDP is associ-
pressure the capacity of municipal authorities ated with lower homicide rates, as might
310
to provide services and amenities. Much of the be expected, but this effect is in many cases
housing in newly urbanised areas is cramped, negated by the economic inequality and social
flimsy, and insecure, while the surrounding exclusion that often flourish alongside rapid
environment does not offer many opportuni- economic development and urbanisation.163
ties for children to play and interact safely with
the world about them. Outdoor space – which Poorer communities and their children appear
they enter at an early age – is often contami- to be most vulnerable to interpersonal violence
nated by garbage and human waste.160 when exposed to economic and population
changes that contribute to community disor-
Poverty, inequality and social ganisation and, ultimately, to a community’s
exclusion ability to control violent behaviour. Recent
research has supported the theory that the
Around 2.8 billion people today survive on
imbalance between concentrations of affluence
less than US$ 2 a day,161 of whom almost 50%
and poverty in the same urban area could be
are children. Poverty alone, however, is a less
an important predictor of community varia-
significant correlate of violence – as measured tions in interpersonal violence.
by homicide rates – than a combination of
high income inequality and poverty. Although The social exclusion experienced by low-
more research is needed to fully understand the income urban populations in all regions has
links, emerging findings suggest that wealthier been exacerbated by trends at the international
societies have lower homicide rates, even where level. The rapid pace of social and political
there is a large income gap between rich and change, and economic globalisation – the
poor communities. In societies at a lower adoption of domestic deregulation, trade liber-
level of overall economic development, higher alisation and privatisation of services, a policy
7
paradigm which was introduced in the 1980s In view of the strong relationship between
and intensified in the 1990s – has had enor- poverty, inequality and social exclusion, and
mous impacts on society generally, including violence against and among children in com-
on children’s well-being.164 Although many munity settings, the urgency of State obliga-
people have benefited from the creation of jobs tions to fulfil human rights – especially long-
in export manufacturing industries, better neglected social, economic and cultural rights
access to information, and some other aspects – is clear. Althoug that technological advances
of globalisation, the majority of the least well- and other resources have never been greater to
off have suffered a widening gap in economic accommodate these needs, worldwide there are
exclusion. Low-income rural people in 60 still communities where few individuals enjoy
countries surveyed in the World Bank’s 2000 their right to an adequate standard of living,
Voices of the Poor Study stated that life had their right to the highest attainable standard
become less secure, more marginal, and more of health, their rights to social security, educa-
threatened in recent decades. This was due tion, participation, and non-discrimination. In
to the growing precariousness of livelihoods, these communities, violence against children 311
flourishes and significant prevention gains will

exclusion from services and institutions, the
loss of social cohesion, the higher exposure to not be made until these rights are better pro-
negative influences such as crime and alcohol, tected, respected and fulfilled.167.
powerlessness and humiliation at the hands
of authority, constant worry at home and the
greater frequency of family disputes, among
other factors.165
Social exclusion is a problem that is by no
means confined to countries in the develop-
ing world. A recent UK report estimated that
one million people could be described as being
socially excluded, and that 5% of the popula-
tion were at risk. The characteristics of social
exclusion were described in similar terms to
those in Latin America: unemployment, dis-
crimination, poor housing, low incomes, poor
skills, high crime, ill-health, family break-
down. In the USA, one in four children is
living in poverty, with ethno-cultural minor-
ity families representing a high proportion of
those at risk, mostly in urban neighbourhoods
with inadequate housing and few resources.166
CYBER-SPACE AND CYBER-THREATS – THE CHALLENGES OF
INTERNET AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES
Access to information is a child’s right and has an important role in transmitting new
knowledge and facilitating the adoption of life-enhancing pro-social behaviours and
values. In terms of protecting children, technology has certainly helped in making
information and advice more available, for example through ‘child help lines’ (http://
www.chiworld.org), and also via the Internet, although the quality is difficult to regu-
late. Better communication has also increased the potential for protecting children.
However, where children’s access to the media and printed images is not appropriately
supervised by parents or other caregivers, it allows exposure to violent, abusive and
pornographic material.
Many contributors to the Study voiced concern that Governments were not doing
312 enough to limit children’s exposure to images of violence and male domination of
women and girls on television, films, video games and the Internet, that endorse ideas
of violence, verbal aggression and sexism as norms and lower sensitivity to violence.168
A review by the International Centre for Missing and Exploited Children found an
urgent need to need increase the number of countries with laws in place related to
Internet child pornography.169
The specific threats to children from the internet and communications technologies
(ICTs) stem from exposure to violent imagery including through video and online
games, and also the production, distribution and use of materials depicting sexual vio-
lence and more specifically, child sexual abuse and pornography. While the problems of
exposure have been well documented in industrialised countries, little is known about
what takes place in developing countries. A study in three cities of Pakistan – Karachi,
Lahore, and Peshawar – in 2001, showed that many children are exposed to pornog-
raphy in Internet cafes. Almost 50% of the children interviewed in the study reported
visiting pornographic sites, and over 80% could name a number of such sites. Most of
the children interviewed were from poor neighbourhoods, or were child workers.170
Online solicitation of children or ‘grooming’ (securing a child’s trust in order to draw
them into a situation where they may be harmed) for such purposes is difficult to
curtail in any jurisdiction, let alone across international borders. In addition, the phe-
nomenon of ‘cyber-bullying’ is emerging in tandem with the proliferation of mobile
phones.171 A 2006 survey in the UK showed that more than one in 10 children aged
7
between 11 and 15 had been harassed, bullied or victimised by threatening messages,
or because someone had published misleading information about them online. Such
actions can be part of complex operations involving the manipulation of photographs
taken on mobile phones, and invitations to anonymous users to attack named victims
on website forums.172
According to experts, the apparent increasing interest in images of abuse may be asso-
ciated with the way the online environments allow for expression that is not generally
tolerated in other environments.173 For example, in the general climate of lowered inhi-
bitions provided by the online environment, users can alter their mood, recreate them-
selves sometimes with multiple self-representations, validate and justify the exchange
of abusive images with others, challenge concepts of regulation, and disrupt conven- 313

tional hierarchies. ECPAT research suggests that children and young people who do
not have adequate parental supervision, who suffer from low self-esteem, or who have
no strong mentor in their lives are particularly at risk of negative outcomes related to
use of ICTs.174
Media violence may give children unrealistic ideas about violence in real life. For
example, there is some evidence that watching action films can lead children to believe
that the human body is much tougher than it actually is, and to underestimate the
serious physical damage that punches and kicks can inflict. It is also suspected that
media-instilled ideas about violence and a feeling of being under threat can predispose
some individuals to resort to destructive aggressive behaviour in situations of stress
or perceived danger.175 In addition, it is hypothesised that access to television and the
Internet may promote consumer envy, and underline the gap between the lifestyles of
the haves and have-nots, and thus lead to petty or violent crime.176
A recent meta-review of scientific studies examined the effects of media violence on
children up to 18 years of age. It concluded that there is “consistent evidence that vio-
lent imagery on television, film and video, and computer games has substantial short-
term effects on arousal, thoughts, and emotions, increasing the likelihood of aggressive
or fearful behaviour in younger children, especially boys.” The effects are not clear in
the case of older children (including teenagers), or regarding the long-term impacts
>>>
CYBER-SPACE AND CYBER-THREATS – THE CHALLENGES OF
INTERNET AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES (ICTS)
on any age group. The researchers emphasised the difficulty of determining causation,
and that aggression is related to a wide variety of factors. A number of issues remain
unresolved, such as the relationship between media violence and crime, and whether
individuals from violent backgrounds, or who are predisposed to aggressive behaviour,
might be more susceptible than others to the effect of watching violent images. Nor is
much known about violent media imagery’s interaction with mental health problems,
or with viewers under the influence of alcohol or drugs.177
During the Regional Consultations convened for the Study, the challenges presented
by ICTs to the safety of children were universally recognised. The Middle East and
North Africa region underscored the importance of the involvement of the private
314 sector, including that relating to tourism and transport industries, in partnership with
others in addressing the serious problem of trafficking of women and children, includ-
ing in relation to sex tourism. Two types of sexual exploitation of under-18s in relation
to tourism are noted by ECPAT International: the minority are sex tourists with a spe-
cific interest in pre-pubescent children (paedophiles); the majority are ordinary tour-
ists who take advantage of the sexual services of children, mostly aged in their mid- or
upper teens, who are made available to them. The methods of organising child sex
tourism have changed over time. Whereas it was initially more common for tourists to
make contact through a brothel or in a well known area of such activity, in recent years
the Internet has been used – transforming and multiplying the risks for exploitation of
children through tourism.178
While some major companies internationally are now committing themselves to the
“Code of Conduct to Protect Children from Sexual Exploitation in Travel and Tour-
ism,” to stop human trafficking, including making the links between HIV/AIDS and
trafficking, Governments need to make sure that a great deal more is done.179
While advances in technology have brought many benefits, efforts to extend these ben-
efits more equitably are still needed – protecting children from the negative potential
of technology is a serious challenge. The need for a focus on prevention as an abso-
lute imperative in addressing child safety and ICTs was a message that was reiterated
throughout the Study process. Greater attention paid to the prosecution of offenders,
7
to increasing the public perception and reality that offenders would be caught was also
emphasised, along with the need for more effort to be dedicated to diversifying the tech-
nology to protect children. Increasing the protection of children while expanding access
to ICTs was specifically included in the Tunis agenda for the Information Society from
the World Summit on the Information Society hosted by Tunisia in 2005. The agenda
reaffirmed the importance of “incorporating regulatory, self-regulatory, and other effec-
tive policies and frameworks to protect children and young people from abuse and
exploitation through ICTs into national plans of action and E-strategies.”180
From the expert meeting hosted by ECPAT, Bangkok, and also at the Study’s Regional
Consultations in the East Asia and Pacific region and in the Middle East and North
Africa region, it was noted that agreement is lacking within and between countries on 315

definitions, laws and perceptions of what is acceptable regarding ICTs and their con-
tent.181 Some countries allow sexualised images of children within mainstream media,
or permit the publication of images of abuse. There is a need for campaigns to sup-
port parents and adults to provide better understanding of ICTs, and the supervision
of children and young people who use them. The vast potential for ICTs to spread
positive and useful messages, including pubic advocacy and education, is also gen-
erally under-studied and underutilised. There is also a need for greater attention to
strong international and national standards, and greater cross-border cooperation in
the implementation of these standards (see Table 7.3).
TABLE 7.3 – Current worldwide Internet usage
CURRENT PERCENTAGE OF
INTERNET INTERNET
POPULATION PENETRATION
Northern Africa 9,585,000 6.30
Sub-Saharan Africa 13,152,000 17
Latin America and
74,735,188 14
the Caribbean
Eastern Asia 150,173,713 11
Southern Asia 58,919,000 4
316
South-Eastern Asia 52,752,600 9
Western Asia 9,320,085 8

Oceania 497,550 6
Commonwealth of
33,301,700 12
Independent States
Developed countries 569,056,865 59
World total 972,828,001 15.20
Source: Microsoft (2006). Current Worldwide Internet Statistics and Trends. Submission to the
United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Children.
“Under the leadership of Her Majesty Queen Rania of Jordan, and growing from the work
of the Arab regional network of ISPCAN, the barriers to discussing and understanding violence against
7
children in our region are crumbling. In addition to excellent work of aawareness-raising and service
provision for victimised children, we look forward to expanding our approach to the prevention
of violence against children in coming years.”
Dr Hussein Abdel-Razzak Al Gezairy, Regional Director for the Eastern Mediterranean, WHO
RESPONSES TO VIOLENCE and adolescents up to 18 years old. Despite these

limitations, important lessons have been learned
AGAINST CHILDREN IN
about the range of policies and interventions
THE COMMUNITY that can be used by low- and middle-income
counties to prevent violence against children
As the challenges facing children are multifac- in community settings. Some practical lessons
eted, so too are the ways in which communi- from the field of violence prevention as well as
ties can respond. While much of the research public health suggest that:
focuses on the individual level, an over-empha-
sis on the individual level too often locates the • Not all prevention strategies
problem within the child alone rather than work, and certainly not in all
examining the broader context of family and communities. The evidence base
community, and other relationships. In terms of identifies a number of strategies
the ecological model, the community facilitates that appear to be effective, and a
interaction on many different levels, and strate- larger group that show promise but 317
gies and services should include attention to the which require more testing. Some are

potential for prevention as well as risks.182 ineffective, while others actually appear
to make things worse.
In middle- and high-income countries, some
• Integrated prevention efforts over
health and criminal justice systems have reli-
time that link the contributions
able and comprehensive data regarding violent
of different sectors are necessary
deaths and injuries dealt with at hospital emer-
(if difficult to achieve). Effective
gency departments. Analysis of these data has
prevention is most likely through a
demonstrated that homicide and non-fatal vio-
range of coordinated approaches that
lent injury rates in young people (including the
integrate legal, social, educational
15–18-year age group) are particularly sensitive
and economic strategies to reduce
to changes in societal and community-level risk
risk factors and strengthen protective
factors. These factors include alcohol availabil-
factors at the levels of the individual,
ity, illegal drug markets, access to firearms, type
the family, the community and society
and intensity of policing, schooling and employ-
with short- and long-term objectives.
ment opportunities, and economic inequalities.
• Top-down and bottom-up approaches
Efforts to prevent violence by and against chil- are both required. Top-down
dren in community settings have been the subject prevention approaches that can influence
of a considerable number of outcome evaluation society-wide risk and protective factors
studies aimed at providing scientific evidence for should be balanced against bottom-
programme effectiveness. Most of these studies up approaches that highlight local
have been conducted in high-income countries, needs and which allocate prevention
and few have focused exclusively on children responsibility to communities.183
With these lessons in mind, the following sec- COMMUNITY-LEVEL
tion discusses strategies for preventing violence
against children in community settings at four Community-level support for
levels of the ecological model, namely the indi- education and socialisation
vidual, family, community and society. Many individual and family-level interven-
tions are provided in community settings or
INDIVIDUAL AND FAMILY-LEVEL use community resources. The following are
Consistent with evidence that a significant interventions which have either proven effec-
proportion of adolescent violence is causally tive in some settings, or are thought to have
rooted in early developmental experiences, a strong potential in preventing violence by
programmes targeted at infants and young supporting high-risk children’s education and
children, their parents and others who influ- socialisation.
ence them during early development have been Reducing truancy and returning
318 shown to be among the most effective in pre- dropouts to school
venting violence by and among adolescents.
More specifically, family-oriented interven- Schooling provides most children with their
tions to change parenting styles (increase pre- second most important source of socialisation
dictability, parental monitoring, and decrease (after the family). Research suggests that one
negative parenting methods) and improve rela- of the most effective means of preventing vio-
tionships within the family (closeness, positive lence and crime among certain high-risk chil-
statements, emotional cohesion and communi- dren is to provide incentives for them to com-
cation clarity) show strong and consistent evi- plete schooling, obtain vocational training
dence for reducing the risk of children going and pursue higher education. Comparisons
on to engage in serious antisocial behaviour of different interventions to reduce youth vio-
and violence.184 The earlier these programmes lence and crime in the USA have consistently
are delivered in a child’s life, the greater the found that providing high school students
benefits, although significant benefits have with incentives to graduate was the most cost-
also been demonstrated when programmes effective intervention.187,188
are delivered to adolescents who have already Programmes in schools are an important strat-
been arrested for violent or delinquent behav- egy, both for divesting schools themselves of
iour.185,186 (Also see the chapter on violence gang culture and interpersonal violence, and
against children in the home and family.) also for preventing violence among young
people in the community. In the Caribbean,
a nine-country study by the Pan-American
Health Orgsanization (PAHO/WHO) found
that truancy was one of the strongest risk fac-
tors for the involvement of young people aged
7
10–18 in violence. The strongest protective fac- peers, tutors, counsellors, law enforcement
tors were positive affiliation with school, includ- officers or other community members. Such
ing liking the teachers, religious belief, and positive relationships can improve the child’s
church attendance.189 The development of such school attendance and performance, decrease
affiliation can begin with pre-school enrich- the likelihood of drug use, and repair his or
ment programmes which have been shown to her relationships with parents. 198,199 These pro-
strengthen bonds with the school and introduce grammes may be particularly valuable for chil-
children early on to the social and behavioural dren from minority groups, or for those from
skills necessary for success in school.190,191,192,193 difficult circumstances such as refugees and
A few long-term follow-up studies of such pro- displaced persons.200
grammes have found positive benefits, includ-
ing less involvement in violence and other Programmes with and for children living
anti-social behaviours.194,195,196 Quality school- on the street. Examples include drop-in cen-
ing, which embraces learning, support for non- tres, shelters, and other places of safety where
discrimination, and activities to support child trusted adults, food, washing facilities, edu- 319
protection in the community, is an essential cation and skills-building, and other support

element in fostering the child-friendly environ- may be available.
ment (see the chapter on violence against chil-
Many children who attend such centres have
dren in schools and educational settings).
suffered injury or been traumatised by their
Non-formal learning opportunities life experience. However, many educational
programmes are primarily directed at children
Children who are from disadvantaged back- living on the street, and aim to assist their
grounds and groups that suffer from dis- withdrawal from the street and their access
crimination are more likely to be involved in to school or vocational training. All such pro-
anti-social behaviour, and are also likely to be grammes can be regarded as helping vulner-
excluded from school or drop out early. Com- able children to safety and providing them
munity-based programmes can reach out to with protection from sources of violence, both
such children and re-introduce them to formal in the immediate sense and in terms of future
education via non-formal or ‘catch-up’ pro- life and work opportunities.
grammes. These can also provide adult men-
tors for children with family problems, who Sport and youth activities. These activities
can do much to redirect such children into a and other structured leisure time are essential
safe, non-aggressive and personally fulfilling for child development. Although there is little
development path.197 research internationally on the subject, it is
widely thought that properly supervised, com-
Mentoring programmes. These can some- munity-based activities for children – from
times match high-risk children or young people sports and youth clubs to social, cultural and
with trusted and caring adults such as older faith-based groups – can be useful in build-
“I used to think that being a girl I don’t have the right to protest when boys and men misbehave with me.
But after joining the child club I came to know that I have all the right to feel safe all the time.
I can protect and protest whenever someone tries to harass or abuse me. My body is mine and I have the
right to protect it.”
Girl, 13, South Asia, 2005 VI
ing protective factors such as self-confidence sports clubs and federations; establishment of
and developing children’s potential to pre- telephone help lines; and research on child pro-
vent violence.201 Children and young people tection in sport issues.205
might also be attracted to places where sport
Life skills-based education
and recreational activities are provided along
with educational activities and programmes Within non-formal or formal education pro-
to reduce violence. In general, better results grammes, life skills-based education can be
can be expected where these programmes are effective in reducing youth violence, especially
implemented along with other effective strate- as part of a comprehensive effort.206,207,208,209,
gies, rather than as stand-alone programmes. 210,211
Aimed at enabling children to adopt self-
protective behaviours, life skills-based educa-
Research cites several ways in which commu-
tion can include a wide variety of topics, for
nity-based activities can support children’s
instance: learning how to avoid unwanted
development and resilience (e.g. ability to
sexual intimacy; gaining practice in forming
320 resist pressure to join gangs or engage in peer views and expressing them; developing prob-
violence), including through mentoring and
lem-solving and negotiating skills, includ-

tutoring, fostering identity development, and ing conflict resolution by non-violent means;
opportunities to interact with trusted adults improving interaction between children and
and positive role models.202,203,204 community authorities (including the police
Proper supervision and other measures are and judiciary), outreaching workers in health
important in avoiding violence in the context and social affairs, and others the children may
of youth activities. For example, since the mid- need to know how to approach.212,213,214 Such
1990s European countries such as France, the programmes have also yielded positive results
Netherlands, Switzerland and the UK have for dating violence.215,216,217,218
taken action to increase protection of children The Safe Dates Project in the USA is a suc-
in sport. In 2000, the Council of Europe’s Com- cessful school-based intervention that aimed
mittee for the Development of Sport adopted a to change attitudes on dating violence within
comprehensive resolution on preventing sexual both the school and the community. This
harassment and abuse of women, young people intervention took a holistic approach, includ-
and children in both recreational and coming both adolescent boys and girls in sessions
petitive sports. A wide range of measures are on the role of gender norms and the positive
possible, including the adoption of child pro- formation of intimate relationships. It included
tection policies and ethical charters; criminal training of teachers, community members and
record checks of adults in charge(e.g. trainers parent groups, a 10-week curriculum covering
or coaches); awareness-raising and training of awareness-raising on healthy and unhealthy
athletes, parents, coaches and other officials; relationships, gender roles, sexual assault,
appointment of child protection officers in and communications development to prevent
7
“Violence against children has incalculable costs to present and future generations and it undermines
human development. We recognize that virtually all forms of violence are linked to entrenched gender
roles and inequalities, and that the violation of the rights of children is linked to the status of women.”
The African Declaration on Violence against Girls, 2006 VII
dating violence. After four years, significantly can make the social climate more conducive to
less physical and sexual dating violence perpe- change by breaking taboos and creating public
tration and victimisation was evident for the debate on issues. However, lasting change tends
adolescents in the intervention group.219 to require a combination of efforts beyond cam-
paigns alone. In general, these types of cam-
Some life skills-based education programmes paign seem to be most effective in increasing
are delivered through peer facilitators. Such knowledge and awareness, as well as in shifts in
programmes utilise children and young people social norms concerning some types of violence
of the same or older ages as the target group and gender relations, and some have led to an
to deliver programmes designed to improve increase in the disclosure of sexual offences.228
knowledge, attitudes or behaviours. While But such campaigns, when implemented in iso-
the active participation of children and young lation, have not consistently led to changes in
people is an important principle from a rights- behaviour or to a reduction in violence.
based perspective, evidence that programmes
facilitated by peers alone reduce violence is Police reform and training 321
ambiguous at best, especially when applied in at community level

isolation from other strategies.220,221 Many of
In places where police ‘culture’ is extremely
these programmes suffer from a lack of ade-
negative and discriminatory against children
quate support, and it appears that the level of
or young people, physical and sexual violence
support required is high for such initiatives.
– among other abuses of their human rights
In addition, peer leaders are constantly ‘aging
– can be a routine occurrence, and entirely
out’ of their role as they mature and move on
unpunished. Often the violence is not towards
to other things.
all children but towards certain groups such
Community-level situational as children and young people who are poor
prevention or living on the street, refugees, returnees or
internally displaced young persons. In such
Promoting norms and values that promote cases, police forces need to be sensitised to
respect and peaceful conflict resolution human rights in general, and children’s rights
and protection issues in particular, in the over-
A large number of efforts are undertaken to
all context of system-wide reforms.
prevent violence by and against children in the
community through public information or pre- With training and motivation, police can take
vention campaigns aimed at changing commu- an active part in bringing about positive change
nity attitudes, beliefs and norms surrounding in the lives of children instead of being ranked
the use of violence. Multi-component preven- among their most frequently cited abusers. In
tion campaigns have been launched to address Mumbai, India, for example, improved rela-
youth violence, gang violence, bullying, and tions between the police and children working
sexual violence.222,223,224,225,226,227 Campaigns in the informal sector has led to employment
“Children are caught between the hate and fury of two groups: local delinquents and police forces (quite
a global phenomenon) reinforces the sense of powerlessness in the poorer communities; and amongst
youth, reinforces the idea that the use of violence is acceptable, and again, something quite pervasive.”
Nancy Cardia, Editorial Board of the UN Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Children
RAISING VOICES IN UGANDA
Over 1,400 children were involved in research in five districts of Uganda in 2004 and
2005. It focused on the various types of violence they experience at home, in schools
and in the community, how it makes them feel, and their ideas about violence-free
childhoods. Also involved were almost 1,100 adults who provided their perceptions of
punishment and discipline, mistreatment and how they also feel about the issues. The
research fed into an evidence-based advocacy campaign, launched in 2006, directed at
protecting and promoting children’s rights to live free from violence. These efforts were
intended to increase public debate and break down the barriers to taking action. The
campaign made an important contribution to the Ministry of Education and Sport’s
initiative on banning all corporal punishment in schools in Uganda.229
322
for some older children as assistants in traffic by, efforts to change attitudes and organisa-
control at peak hours.230 tional culture.232 In terms of health care pro-

viders, training frequently influences changes
The Consortium for Street Children under- in knowledge and awareness in the short term,
took an international research study into police but these changes are difficult to translate
child rights training programmes around the into behavioural change or changes in prac-
world. It documented training programmes tice.233,234,235,236 To improve the potential of
aimed at reducing violence against children training efforts to reduce violence against chil-
living on the street in a large number of coun- dren they have to be part of a wider strategy,
tries, mostly under the auspices of NGOs, including law reform and attitudinal change.
with cooperation from local authorities and Other potential ways to prevent police violence
with some donor support. Having identified include increasing the numbers of women serv-
a number of good practices, the Consortium ing as police officers, providing independent
compiled a manual for such training. The complaints mechanisms, and improving the
Consortium commented: “Widespread, con- pay and status of police officers.
sistent, long-term and sustainable change will
only be possible when child rights and child Accountability, and access to justice
protection is formally recognised and included
in official curricula, manuals and collaborative State violence and corruption are two fac-
agreements.” 231 tors directly associated with violence in com-
munities. Community confidence in local
However, training police has proved largely security and justice systems is central to the
ineffective in changing police behaviour, effectiveness of public policies. International
where it is not accompanied by, or reinforced legal instruments emphasise the importance of
“Religious leaders and communities of faith are well placed to confront violence against children
7
and to work to heal its ravages. Religions for Peace helps the world’s diverse religious
communities to stand together, pooling their collective moral strengths to stop violence
against children in their homes and societies.”
Dr William F. Vendley, Secretary General, World Council of Religions for Peace
ensuring accountability and access to justice Community organisations against

in the fulfilment of human rights obligations. trafficking
In addition to improving training and reform- Community-level activities can be effective
ing law enforcement generally, and ensuring at preventing trafficking, particularly when
that it is functioning in accordance with inter- working in cooperation with law enforce-
national norms, it is fundamental to ensure ment and other authorities. In East Africa,
independent monitoring and thorough inves- there has been some success with community-
tigation in all cases of State violence. Apart based watch/vigilance systems to prevent the
from being a core human right obligation, trafficking of children and breaches of child
ensuring State accountability is crucial in labour legislation. For example, in Benin,
building trust and improving the efficiency of village committees backed by the provincial
security policies. Impunity for perpertrators administration have helped to reduce the traf-
of police violence against street children often ficking of children, both by educating families
allows such abuse to continue. Many police about the dangers of trafficking and by work- 323
who commit violence against children are ing with the police when a child from the vil-

never investigated or prosecuted. Mechanisms lage goes missing.237
must be put in place to ensure that police and
other security personnel implicated in violence In southern India’s Andra Pradesh state,
against children are promptly and thoroughly another example is the Society to Help Rural
investigated, and held accountable. The estab- Empowerment and Education (STHREE),
lishment of permanent mechanisms such as which was established in 1998 to address traf-
ombudspersons or civilian review boards to ficking of women and children from rural areas
independently receive and investigate cases STHREE emphasises the role of the com-
of violence by the security forces can provide munity, and has supported the formation of
important support to ensure accountability. community-based Self-Help Groups (SHGs),
Anti-Trafficking Committees (ATCs), and a
Special measures are also required to ensure Highway Mobile Committee (HMC). When it
access to justice by all communities, particu- becomes known that a woman or girl has been
larly those affected by poverty and high levels offered work outside the community, the local
of criminal activity. It is essential to provide ATCs ask for verification of the employer’s
access to independent and qualified legal assis- name, address and contact number. For those
tance when required. Mechanisms can also be women or children being sent to Kuwait or to
established to facilitate the access of margin- the Gulf, the ATCs try to verify visa status,
alised groups to justice: these vary from spe- help educate communities on the verification
cial services within courts to the placement of of expected payment details and share cases of
special services to facilitate the mediation of villagers being duped. While the ATCs and the
small conflicts within communities. HMC work directly to prevent the trafficking
‘The way to decrease violence is to work together with all our leaders in our village.’
Boy, Solomon Islands, 2005 VIII
of girls and women from the region, the SHGs environment and violence, particularly in
work on the underlying causes of trafficking urban settings. A number of measures can
through educational and awareness generation be taken to alter the physical environment of
activities, as well as through providing viable communities in order to reduce the risk of vio-
livelihood options to the community mem- lence by and towards children. These include
bers. An assessment managed by UNICEF improved lighting, reducing the number of
in Andhra Pradesh found that the number of ‘blind’ locations (alleys, underground cause-
girls/women trafficked from the project area ways, etc.) where violence can be perpetrated
decreased between 2000 and 2004. STHREE unseen, and creating safe routes for children on
has also managed to rescue girls and women their way to and from school and other com-
from places as far away as Delhi, Pune and munity activities. In locations such as shanty
Mumbai by helping families or ATCs to file towns and refugee camps, particular emphasis
complaints with the police and by following is placed on creating safe routes to commu-
up with police and NGO networks in other nal water collection, and to bathing and toilet
324
States.238 facilities.
Other important initiatives to reduce the vul- At a more fundamental and long-term level,
nerability of children to being trafficked centre efforts should be made to improve housing
on taking action to fend off the economic pres- and basic infrastructures (schools, health ser-
sures that face families in difficult situations. vices, etc.) in crowded and squalid urban envi-
In Albania, the Swiss Government Coopera- ronments. A variety of approaches are possi-
tion for Development funds vocational train- ble. Some experts hold that the most effective
ing for young people at risk of trafficking to approach to dealing with severe overcrowding
equip them with marketable skills so that they in poor urban areas is to de-concentrate hous-
can find work at home. In the countries of the ing where possible, change local regulations to
Mekong, ILO–IPEC has supported micro- allow more logical use of space, and improve
credit grants, vocational training, job place- the quality of the surrounding environment.240
ment and small business development for fam- At the same time, efforts must be made to
ilies at risk. All of these initiatives reinforce improve inadequate neighbourhood facilities,
the coping mechanisms of families and ado- such as lack of places for washing and laun-
lescents, and reduce the likelihood that they dry, lack of toilets, lack of recreation spaces
will leave to look for dubious work, or fall prey for children, and lack of community facilities
to recruiters exploiting their desire to improve such as day care and team sports.
their situation.239
From a political point of view, some of this may
Providing safe physical environments be difficult to accomplish if municipal authori-
As discussed above, there is considerable evi- ties are reluctant to improve ‘illegal’ urban
dence of a relationship between the physical settlements through fear that this will act as an
7
enticement to further rural–urban migration. advise the authorities and carry out the work,
Considerable advocacy may thus be required such as architects, urban planners and engi-
to inform such authorities about the need for neers, few of whom may be aware of the impact
such approaches, both from a human rights of the living conditions on child development.
point of view (i.e. the need for decent housing In this regard, the Child-Friendly Cities Initia-
and healthy communities) and as regards the tive (see box) provides a useful tool for chang-
concrete objective of reducing violence. Advo- ing attitudes and placing the needs of children
cacy must also be directed at professionals who at the centre of the urban agenda.
CREATING CHILD-FRIENDLY CITIES
The Child-Friendly Cities Initiative (CFCI) was launched in 1996 to act on the resolu-
tion passed during the second UN Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II) to
make cities livable, and place ‘children first’. The Conference declared that the well- 325
being of children is the ultimate indicator of a healthy habitat, a democratic society

and good governance.
All children in cities have the right to access basic services and enjoy opportunities for
development. CFCI advocates the adoption of governance approaches and participa-
tory urban management that promote the realisation of the rights of the youngest
citizens. In line with the CRC, it challenges cities to conceive of themselves, of the
services, amenities and quality of life they provide, in a new way.
In practice, the movement for Child-Friendly Cities has seen young citizens take part
in municipal decision-making and help planners design “the city they want;” and child-
sensitive quality indicators have been developed to measure progress against child-ori-
ented goals. An International Secretariat for Child-Friendly Cities was created in 2000
at UNICEF’s Innocenti Research Centre in Florence, Italy.
Source: UNICEF (2006). Child-Friendly Cities. Florence, UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre. Available at:
http://www.childfriendlycities.org.
Services for victims of violence ating community confidence and also ensur-
ing timely access. The Thuthuzela Centres of
Improving pre-hospital care systems and South Africa represent an emerging example of
emergency medical responses. In contrast the importance of the integration of a range of
to most of the other settings addressed in relevant services in the interests of earlier and
this report, violence by and towards children higher-quality service to clients.
in community settings includes a majority of
attacks involving firearms, knives and other Although it is frequently feared that children
weapons. Such violence therefore gives rise to who were used in armed groups and who
the largest proportion of homicides across the committed acts of violence during a conflict
0–18-year period of childhood, and accounts may continue this violence in their commu-
for a significant proportion of long-term physi- nities after the conflict, research suggests this
cal and mental disabilities in children who is not necessarily so. A longitudinal study of
survive severe violence-related injuries. former child soldiers in Mozambique shows
326 that former child soldiers who are provided
Efforts to improve pre-hospital and emergency rehabilitative services, and are accepted back
medical responses are therefore likely to be into their families and communities, are able
particularly valuable for reducing case-fatality to become productive, responsible and caring
ratios and disabilities due to violence in com- adults when they have received the required
munity settings. These should be connected to attention by child protection workers at the
a range of services to support the physical and time of demobilisation. Important compo-
psychological rehabilitation of children once nents in successful rehabilitation included the
their immediate medical needs have been dealt care and role modelling provided by trusted
with (see box). adults, traditional practices such as cleansing
Recovery, reintegration and rehabilitation rituals, educational opportunities, apprentice-
services. When children have been exposed ships, income generation projects, and the pro-
to violent and traumatic events, a variety of vision of seeds and tools.243
services may be needed. These may include
physical rehabilitation, counselling services,
and social worker follow-up to assist social
reintegration. Where domestic violence, traf-
ficking or sex work is involved, ‘safe houses’
or shelters may be necessary; however, it is
important that these shelters provide for the
needs of the children as well for those of their
mother/caregiver. Making the access points for
these services widely known, especially to vul-
nerable groups, is an important aspect of cre-
“Violence against children must stop now. All countries can demonstrate greater proactive
7
leadership in this area by increasing resources for child protection, ensuring that schools are child-
friendly spaces, increasing community vigilance against violence and eliminating the stigma
that haunts children affected by HIV/AIDS.”
Cecilio Adorna, UNICEF Representative, India
ASSESSING THE RESPONSIVENESS OF THE CHILD PROTECTION

SYSTEM IN THE FORMER YUGOSLAV REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA
A study was carried out in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, using quantita-
tive and qualitative methods to assess the responsiveness of the child protection system
to violence against children, particularly focusing on formal mechanisms of referral, as
well as mechanisms that promote coordination within the child protection system.
Key informants in 277 institutions were interviewed, including persons from social
work centres, from centres for victims of violence, schools, police stations, hospitals,
residential institutions for children without parental care, and detention and correc-
tional centres.
The pilot study revealed that only a few cases of violence against children had been offi-
cially reported by service providers in the 12-month period. Also, the findings showed 327
that there was a lack of official criteria and procedures for recording cases of violence,

or an official referral system for use by all institutions dealing with child protection.
Furthermore, the findings revealed that the laws and mechanisms for coordination
among institutions were insufficient, as well as the monitoring and evaluation of the
quality of services provided.
The assessment provided recommendations for the strengthening of the child protec-
tion system, which included strengthening of the legislative framework in order to
clearly delineate the responsibilities of various bodies and institutions dealing with
child protection as well as stipulating the conditions of coordination between these
institutions; the establishment of coordination mechanisms among institutions deal-
ing with child protection; the preparation of official guidelines and protocols which
regulate referral of cases and action to be taken; the provision of training for relevant
professionals on violence against children; and the establishment of new centres for
child victims of violence.
Without such an assessment, guided by international standards associated with child
rights, it is difficult for Governments to discern the key areas requiring action, to make all
parts of the system effective and accountable for the quality of the services provided.244
SOUTH AFRICA’S THUTHUZELA CARE CENTRES:
INTEGRATED SERVICES FOR VICTIMS OF SEXUAL VIOLENCE
Thuthuzela Care Centres provide a ‘one-stop’ integrated response to the high rates of
sexual violence against women and children in South Africa, and are increasingly held
up as examples of good practice. The Thuthuzela model – the word means ‘comfort’ in
Xhosa – aims to reduce secondary trauma for the victim (i.e. due to police, legal, medi-
cal or other responses), improve perpetrator conviction rates and reduce the lead time
for finalising cases. Its integrated approach to care of rape victimes is one of respect,
comfort, restoring dignity on the one hand, and ensuring justice on the other. Victims
who arrive at police stations are no longer required to make statements until they are
transported to the Thuthuzela Centre by specially-trained ambulance staff, where they
are examined by doctors and nurses, receive counselling and are given the opportunity
328 to bath or shower. Then, and only if she is ready, does the victim make a statement.
Afterwards she is given transportation home, and a variety of follow-up services are
also offered including HIV testing.

The Thuthuzelas are located in public hospitals in communities where the incidence
of rape is particularly high, and work closely with nearby specialised Sexual Offences
Courts staffed by prosecutors, social workers, investigating officers, magistrates, health
professionals and police. Although subject to funding difficulties, the centres are making
efforts to become more ‘child-friendly’ with tools such as posters, drawings, and ana-
tomically correct dolls to help prepare children to appear in court, should that become
necessary.241 Thuthuzela has improved the process of reporting and prosecuting rape and
other sexual offences, and offender conviction rates are increasing. The Government of
South Africa is working to scale-up this model to a planned 80 centres by 2010.242
Reporting services. Reporting systems that An increasingly popular mechanism for com-
are not only available, but accessible to chil- munity settings is the child helpline, a phone
dren and young people, can be a critical part of service that links children in need of care and
a comprehensive approach to protecting chil- protection to services and resources. In 2003, it
dren. Protecting confidentiality and providing is estimated that about 11.3 million calls were
a high-quality service are also important. Such made to child helplines during that year. Chil-
systems can also provide access or referral, in a dren’s reasons for calling included requests for
coordinated way, to trained professionals and crisis intervention, rehabilitation, counselling
referral to social workers, or health profession- or just needing someone to talk to. Approxi-
als, or law enforcement, as needed. mately 9% of the calls were related to abuse
7
and violence, while a significant number were
from children being exploited commercially,
including those forced to work as beggars or
involved in bonded child labour. 245
EXTENDING ACCESS TO HELPLINES
Child Helpline International (CHI) is a global helpline network which was established
in 2001 and by the end of 2005, comprised 78 network members. The greatest increase
in members has been among developing countries. The global network provides sup-
port for existing helplines as well as for countries interested in initiating them, and has
been active in advocating countries to set up such services. In 2005, the Tunis Agenda
at the World Summit on Information Society called on every country to have a local,
easy to remember, toll-free number for children to call.247 CHI is also extending its
services to the Internet by providing an online counselling service called Chiworld 329

(www.chiworld.org). The website is a multilingual gateway to the helpline in member
countries for children who do not choose to use the telephone, but are still in need of
care and protection (see Figure 7.3).247
FIGURE 7.3
Breakdown of violence reported through ChildHelpLines (globally)

Bullying 67529
Physical 52050
Sexual 36254
Neglect 13123
Emotional 12500
Exposure to violence 7673
Other 31048
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000

Number of children
Source: ChildHelpLine International (2005). Submission to the United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on
Violence against Children. Amsterdam, ChildHelpLine International.
SOCIETAL-LEVEL There is some evidence that policies that reduce
the concentration of poverty in urban areas,
Societal-level interventions can have a signifi- for example by improving employment and
cant bearing on whether interpersonal violence education opportunities, may be effective in
is prevented or reduced, or the extent to which reducing violent behaviour by young people.250
violence is tolerated and encouraged.248 For this For example, in a pioneering study in the USA,
reason, violence prevention among the young young people in families that received rental
needs to be factored into ‘macro-level’ decision- subsidies and assistance to move out of poor
making areas such as national poverty reduction neighbourhoods were significantly less likely
strategies, sectoral policies to reduce social vul- to engage in violent behaviour than those who
nerability, policies for local Government reform did not receive this level of support.251
and administrative decentralisation, the exten-
sion and improvement of services for health, The strong and consistent demonstration of a
education and community infrastructure, as close relationship between high levels of eco-
330 well as specific initiatives to advance women’s nomic inequality and increased homicide rates
and children’s rights. The mechanisms whereby in adolescents and young adults indicates that
such policies are adapted and implemented at policies which reduce economic inequality or
local level via community-based or group-based minimise its effects may be of great value in
approaches require close attention. preventing such violence. This appears to be
especially relevant for males, since research
Economic opportunity and equality indicates that the relationship between eco-
Two of the most critical challenges directly nomic inequality and homicide is much stron-
affecting young people, particularly those in ger in males than in females.252
high-risk settings, are access to positive live- Reducing access to alcohol and
lihood opportunities and the possibility of illegal drugs
upward mobility by non-criminal means. If
young people feel they have a personal stake Interventions which reduce access to alcohol
in building a safe environment and that their or raise its price have been shown to reduce
aspirations are realisable within the law, the both levels of consumption and rates of youth
personal frustration and social tension that violence within the community. In Diadema,
fuel violence may be considerably defused. A Brazil, the prohibition of alcohol sales after
framework of national political, economic and 23:00 helped prevent an estimated 273 mur-
social policies therefore needs to be developed ders (all ages) over a two-year period.253 In
which prioritises growth, equity and sustain- parts of the USA, restricting access to alcohol
ability in the harnessing of natural and human for underage youths has reduced disorderly
resources, and that replaces or rebuilds the conduct violations among 15–17-year olds.254
deficits in social safety and security which Conversely, the end of an anti-alcohol pro-
have emerged.249 gramme that curtailed the supply of alcohol
7
in the mid-1980s, as well as the socioeconomic Reducing access to,
crisis that followed the demise of the Soviet and demand for weapons
Union saw a remarkable increase in homicides
among Russians under the age of 20 in the As described earlier, access to guns and other
early 1990s.255,256 lethal weapons are a major factor in homicides
and serious injuries to children in many com-
There is also evidence that programmes which munities. Interventions to reduce access to
alter peer drinking habits and other social such weapons include bans on certain types of
norms can reduce harmful alcohol consump- firearms, waiting periods, gun buybacks, rules
tion levels among young people, and thus may on licensing and registration, stricter policing
be useful in reducing alcohol-related violence. of illegal possession and trafficking of guns and
Modifying drinking establishments such as rules for storing them safely. In many places,
bars and clubs can be effective. For example, there is a growing recognition of the need to
improving management and staff practice also address the carrying and use of knives.
through training programmes, implementing 331
codes of good practice, and strictly enforcing To date, relatively few interventions to reduce

licensing legislation creates environments less access to lethal weapons have included evalu-
conducive to violence.257,258,259 In wider night- ation components rigorous enough to allow
time environments, the presence of large num- conclusions to be drawn about their impact
bers of intoxicated individuals at the end of the on homicide rates, 263 or to specifically identify
night increases the potential for violent con- impacts on children. However, examples from
frontations.260 Interventions such as provision Australia and Colombia that have been prop-
of safe late-night transport, improvements to erly evaluated suggest that reducing access
street lighting and use of closed circuit televi- to and demand for lethal weapons can be an
sion have been shown to help reduce alcohol- effective means of preventing violence by and
related violence around licensed premises.261 among children in community setting.264,265
The box that follows describes how a combi-
A large proportion of the alcohol consumed nation of interventions to prevent the carry-
in many low- to middle-income societies is ing of firearms in public and to reduce alcohol
produced at home or sold in unlicensed estab- consumption has helped lower homicide rates
lishments.262 For example, it is estimated that in Cali, Colombia.
80–90% of South Africa’s liquor outlets are
unlicensed. In such settings, increasing the
price of alcohol may be less effective than
other approaches such as legislation on the
legal minimum age for purchase of alcohol,
and efforts to regulate liquor outlets.
FIREARMS, ALCOHOL, AND THE PREVENTION OF HOMICIDES IN CALI
The use of evidence-based strategies to reduce situational risk factors is illustrated

by the Colombian city of Cali. Between 1985 and 1992, homicide rates in the city
increased five-fold to reach levels of 100 per 100,000 people. In response, the city
established the Development, Security and Peace Programme (DESEPAZ) in 1992 to
implement strategies to prevent violence and improve security among residents.
An important step was to create a joint-agency surveillance system to identify patterns
and determinants of homicide in the city. Among other important source of informa-
tion, the surveillance data showed that males aged 15–19 years had a homicide rate
of 250 per 100,000, that 79% of all homicides were committed using firearms, that
blood alcohol concentrations in 23% of cases far exceeded the legal limit for drivers,
and that homicides were clustered in specific areas of the city, particularly the most
332 impoverished areas. Homicides were more common during weekends, especially those
coinciding with bi-weekly pay days.

This information informed the development of DESEPAZ prevention policies and pro-
grammes, which had the full support of the municipal Government. Among other ini-
tiatives, the mayor restricted the hours during which alcoholic beverages could be sold,
and prohibited the carrying of guns in public during high-risk weekends, holidays and
election days. Although resource constraints permitted only intermittent application of
the full-range of interventions, evaluation showed clear signs of success. Homicide rates
fell by 14% when the ban on carrying guns in public was strictly enforced. Between 1994
and 1997, the homicide rates in Cali declined by 30%, from 124 to 86 per 100,000.
Furthermore, public opinion in Cali shifted strongly from a passive attitude towards
dealing with violence to a vociferous demand for more prevention activities.266
Reducing exposure to violence rounding violence in and through the mass

in the media media, and particularly about Internet risks
and safe Internet behaviour. Other strategies
Prevention of violence against children
through the media will require cooperation specifically aimed at the Internet include cre-
at the individual and community levels, but ation of ‘watchdog’ organisations which moni-
also the development of national strategies. tor offensive websites, and both regulation and
Many contributors to the Study suggested the self-regulation of the Internet industry. Better
use of education campaigns for children and law enforcement measures are also called for,
parents to inform them about the issues sur- including criminal prosecution of people who
“An evidence-based approach to preventing violence against children is essential for long term success.
7
A priority must therefore be to expand this evidence base by supporting scientific studies that measure
the effectiveness of prevention programmes everywhere, but especially in low- and middle-income
countries where the problem is greatest.”
Dr Catherine Le Galès-Camus, Assistant Director-General, WHO
use the Internet to harm children, monitoring youth empowerment was fundamental to devel-
of known offenders once they have been pros- oping neighbourhood strategies for violence
ecuted, programmes to prevent people becom- prevention.269 Creating associations or support
ing offenders, and treatment for offenders.267 groups for specific groups such as children living
on the street or survivors of child abuse, with
CHILDREN’S PARTICIPATION AT ALL the objective of developing a common identity
LEVELS and solidarity around their own issues, can be
an empowering experience. It can be the spring-
Research has shown that silence is the almost uni- board for taking action on behalf of their own
versal response of children suffering abuse.268 In agendas, including the promotion of other child
such circumstances, special efforts are required rights, and for undertaking joint activity on
to make it possible for them to feel safe to dis- behalf of vulnerable peers suffering from domes-
cuss violent incidents. Systems of local Govern- tic abuse, risk of child marriage, discrimination
ment can play a particularly important role in or school exclusion.270
this regard; whether in the context of centralised 333
systems, decentralisation, or privatisation, they Participation is thus a key principle to be

need to include the views of children and young applied in all efforts to prevent and eliminate
people. A Council of Europe project on the social violence to and by children in the community.
inclusion of young people found that genuine
DATA COLLECTION AND RESEARCH
As in all arenas of violence analysed by the
Study, there is an urgent need for better data
and for further research, particularly in devel-
oping countries and regions. Systems need to be
put in place in the health and criminal justice
sectors to collect and monitor such data, with
UNICEF/HQ97-0963. Jeremy Horner
attention given to the ages and sex of perpe-

trators and victims. Data sources include death
certificates, vital statistics records, medical
examiners’ reports, hospital records, police and
judiciary records, and self-reported informa-
tion from victim surveys and special studies.
Special priority needs to be given to develop-
ing systems for monitoring deaths and serious
PHILIPPINES, 1997, Children outside the Nayon Kabataan
Rehabilitation Centre for street children and victims of child injuries among children and young people in
labour and physical abuse in Manila. regions where homicide data are currently lack-
ing. These include Africa, South-East Asia, the
“If you want to know how to paint, you consult a painter; if you want to eat, consult a chef; so if you
want to know about children’s issues, you have to consult young people.”
Young person, NGO Advisory Panel to the Study, April 2004
CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE TAKING ACTION
In Europe and Central Asia: UNICEF has been supporting the development of mecha-
nisms for the expression of children’s views, and their participation as a distinct group with
their own policy agenda in civil society. In the Republic of Moldova, for examples, Local
Youth Councils have been set up to strengthen their capacities and empower young people
for conscious participation in community life. In Azerbaijan, youth centres have been
established in areas with high concentrations of internally displaced people, and events
organised to promote a dialogue among ethnic groups and the wider community.271
The Government of Kenya: In the response to its questionnaire submitted to the
Study272 , the Government reports that the participation of young people in foster-
ing pro-social attitudes has been promoted through the development of the National
Youth Service (NYS); through training of young citizens to engage in ‘tasks of national
334 importance’, such as in reception centres for children living on the street. This is one
example of a country facilitating the potential of young people to contribute to policy
debates and assume a vanguard role in building a secure society. A similar approach has
been applied under the UNICEF programme of cooperation in Somalia, where young
people participated in training programmes for citizenship and are setting an example
in the renunciation of violence.273
In the Caribbean ‘XChange’– creating a culture of non-violence in the English-
speaking Caribbean: This project seeks to create safe and protective environments
for children and adolescents in the home, school and community where they can live
and reach their full potential. The project covers seven Caribbean countries: Barbados,
Belize, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago. UNICEF teamed
up with well-known Caribbean entertainer Machel Montano in 2005, to conceptualise
the ‘movement’, using entertainment as an entry point for bringing about positive
change among young people and adults. The campaign uses music, sports, and various
forms of arts to reach and empower adolescents to adopt a positive lifestyle. XChange is
a ‘youth-led movement’, and is multilevel, including parenting and building protective
environments in homes, providing health and family life education, peace-building
and child-friendly school initiatives; building protective communities with adolescents
and young people, improving quality and access of service delivery in relevant institu-
tions, policy development and legislative reform, and advocacy and social mobilisation.
Young leaders clearly defined the vision they have for the XChange project. The second
phase will need to reflect this vision by clarifying the role that XChangers will play
within a clear organisational structure spearheading the initiative.274
7
“You were not there to protect me as a child and I’ ll live with that damage for the rest of my life.
But I vow, as a young person in this society, to put an end to this violence for the next generation.
You can stand by me or you can turn your back.”
Youth leader, survivor and street involved youth, North America, 2005 IX
PRIORITIES IN ACTION: BUILDING A EUROPE FOR AND WITH CHILDREN
The Council of Europe’s programme “Building a Europe for and with Children” (2006-
2008) comprises two closely linked strands: the promotion of children’s rights and the
action programme “Children and Violence. The programme takes into account the
social, legal, educational and health dimensions of violence against children, and pays
particular attention to gender perspectives and to vulnerable children.”
In the strand focused on promoting children’s rights, the programme will help States
to devise integrated policies and comprehensive legal frameworks, establish the req-
uisite institutions and structures, develop networks, and produce tools and working
methods, including involving children and the general public. In 2008, the Council
of Europe will be able to offer member States models of national strategies, as well as
instruments and methodologies, which include all elements that have proved to be
necessary and effective for the protection of children’s rights. 335

The action programme on “Children and Violence” is designed to assist States to imple-
ment their obligations to the human rights instruments of the Council of Europe and
the Convention on the Rights of the Child. The programme will ensure appropriate
follow-up at pan-European level to the recommendations included in the UN Secre-
tary-General’s Study on Violence against Children275
Middle East, and some parts of the Americas RECOMMENDATIONS

and Western Pacific, especially poorer coun-
tries. Studies are also needed to establish the Violence prevention as a policy aim, especially
by means other than repression and use of
ratio of fatal to non-fatal injuries, classified by
the law, needs to be given far more attention.
the age of attacker, age and sex of the victim 276.
Because the violence-prone adolescent and
Without such basic information, it is difficult
young adult is often the product of influences
to map the issue of violence against children which begin early in childhood, it is clear that
and adolescents in the community and develop policies which promote child-friendly com-
effective preventive response. Research con- munities will need to focus on all stages of a
cerning the interactions between family and child’s life from infancy and early childhood,
community socialisation and exposure to vio- via programmes and services directed at fami-
lence, and their full range of effects, is needed lies, day care centres, schools and other social
for all age groups, as is research into good institutions which children attend. Not only
practice from existing policies, programmes is this a necessary strategy for fulfilling child
– official and NGO – and laws in areas such as rights, but it will have long-term benefits for
weapons control and victim redress. communities and society at large.
“We believe that governments and civil societies are all individually and collectively responsible and
mutually accountable to ensure that every child lives in a world free from violence.
We also believe that governments have the primary responsibility and obligation to take concrete and
immediate action to end all forms of violence against children, particularly girls.”
The African Declaration on Violence against Girls, 2006 X
The fact that different interventions are effec- school, or to participate in non-formal
tive over different periods of time serves to education programmes. Research indi-
emphasise the need for policies and funding cates that this can be an effective measure
mechanisms that permit a consistent, stable to reduce violence in the community.
approach over several years and which address
short-, medium- and long-term objectives. 3. Implement programmes that engage
responsible and trusted adults in the
Decision-makers should therefore be wary of
lives of high-risk children. Governments
calls for immediate responses to specific head-
should ensure the implementation of
line-grabbing incidents and instead work to
approaches such as mentoring programmes
provide lasting support for strategies based on
that bring children and responsible adults
empirical findings.277
together to learn and benefit from each
The following recommendations for the preven- other. These programmes can protect chil-
tion of community-based violence against and dren from violence in their community,
336 among children are made with reference both especially for families under stress.
to the concerns expressed by participants in the
4. Promote and support local Government

Study and to existing knowledge about the deter-
and civil society initiatives to provide
minants and preventability of such violence.
safe recreational and citizenship-build-
Prioritise prevention ing opportunities for boys and girls.
Sports leagues, faith-based and cultural
High-risk individuals and families organisations, village and neighbourhood
committees, women’s groups, and others
1. Support efforts to prevent violence in the
can provide constructive activities for chil-
family and home as a means of prevent-
dren who might otherwise engage in high-
ing violence in the community. Govern-
risk activities. Governments should ensure
ments should support efforts to strengthen
that the safety of children participating in
knowledge and skills within families
such activities is safeguarded by measures
regarding child development, non-violent
such as criminal record checks of adults in
discipline and behaviour management
charge (coaches, group leaders, facilitators,
options, as well as increasing social safety
etc.) and formal child protection policies.
nets. In the long run this will contribute to
the prevention of violence against children Immediate and environmental risk factors
in the community (see the recommenda- in the community
tions in the chapter on violence against
children in the home and family). 5. Reduce demand for and access to alco-
hol and weapons, such as firearms. Gov-
2. Support programmes that encourage ernments should ensure comprehensive
at-risk children to stay in or return to prevention which requires the reduction
7
of both supply and demand for these two They should be carefully assisted to get
salient risk factors in community violence, out of these situations, with a focus on safe
including through measures such as pric- and viable alternatives.
ing and regulation reforms, law enforce-
ment, and public education. Victim services
6. Reduce risk factors in the physical envi- 9. Provide improved pre-hospital care and
ronment. Governments should ensure emergency medical services. Improved
that efforts are made in urban rehabilita- pre-hospital care and emergency medical
tion initiatives to make public spaces safer can significantly reduce deaths from vio-
through design features such as better lence and improve the outcome of victims
lighting. In addition, urban design should that suffer non-fatal violent injuries.
include safe public places and routes for 10. Improve access and quality of support
children in and between communities. services for victims. The impact of vio-
lence can stay with its victims through- 337
7. Train law enforcement agents to work
out their lifetime. Early access to quality

with children, and end impunity of
police who abuse the rights of children. support services can help to mitigate the
Governments should ensure that police impact of the event on the victim, including
need to be trained about children’s rights preventing longer term consequences such
as well the basics of child development and as becoming a perpetrator of violence.
how to deal with particular groups such as 11. Provide effective reporting systems for
street children or child group members. children. Governments should ensure that
At the same time supervision of police effective reporting systems for children are
practices must be improved, while officers established. They allow children who are
who abuse children’s rights must be held victimised to reach trained professionals,
accountable for their actions. who can, if necessary, refer the case to
8. Increase efforts to both prevent and social workers, or health professionals, or
punish child trafficking. Governments law enforcement. In community settings,
should ensure that measures range from these may include child helplines as well
primary prevention (i.e. changing the con- as formal mechanisms such as community
ditions that make children vulnerable to advocates for children.
trafficking) to vigorous law enforcement Societal level
action against traffickers. Children who
are trafficked or used to traffic drugs and 12. Invest in social, housing and educa-
weapons are usually victims themselves tional programmes that strengthen
of several violations of their rights, and families and improve linkages and
should not be re-victimised as criminals. social networks within and between
different income groups. Governments who make, distribute, possess or profit
should analyse the impact of public poli- from pornography involving children.
cies on communities and their children.
Local Governments in particular should Build information systems
be encouraged to make violence prevention 15. Implement civil registration universally,
explicit in urban rehabilitation schemes including the registration of births,
and rural development programmes. Gov- deaths, and marriages. Governments
ernments, and their national and interna- must ensure free and accessible civil regis-
tional partners, should strive to integrate tration free certification, and must remove
efforts on violence against children as a penalties for late registration. The process
key element of sustainable and culturally must be advocated widely and facilitated
sensitive poverty reduction programmes. and implemented in cooperation with local
Government, hospitals, professional and
13. Conduct sustained campaigns in soci- traditional birth attendants, police, religious
338 ety at large to promote social norms and community leaders, and other partners
that emphasise respect and non-violence in order to ensure universal uptake.
and gender equity. Governments should

ensure that initiatives to instil non-violent, 16. Establish a national research agenda on
non-sexist norms and values are carried out preventing and reducing community
through media campaigns and strong lead- violence. Governments should develop
ership from public figures. Focuses should and adequately resource research that will
include eliminating sexual harassment and improve understanding of the protective
rape, and providing alternative models of and risk factors for community violence,
masculinity which do not support violence including low-income communities and
from men and boys. the cultural context. Such a strategy should
go beyond descriptive research, to include
14. Stop the use of mass media and informa- evaluations, and more complex research to
tion technologies, including the Internet improve effective implementation at scale.
and electronic games, in violence against This should dovetail with efforts to create
and sexual exploitation of children. As a multi-layered system of data collection,
well as educating children and parents, including improved reporting by existing
Governments should work with the indus- services (police, hospital emergency rooms,
try to devise global standards for child mortuaries, schools, local health centres,
protection, undertake research on protec- housing authorities, etc.) and population-
tive hardware and software solutions, and based surveys to provide disaggregated
fund worldwide education campaigns on information about the geographical loca-
safe use of the new technologies. Govern- tion, incident characteristics, and victim and
ments should also pursue law enforcement perpetrator characteristics for all reported
approaches, including criminalising those homicides and non-fatal violent events.
7
13 Groenewald P et al. (2001). Cape Town Mortality, 2001.
REFERENCES Part I: Cause of Death and Premature Mortality. Cape
1 See http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu2/6/crc/treaties/ Town, City of Cape Town, South African Medical
opsc.htm. Research Council, University of Cape Town.
2 Martin F, Parry-Williams J (2005). The Right Not to Lose 14 Shaw M et al. (2005). Increasing Inequalities in Risk
Hope. London, Save the Children UK. of Murder in Britain: Trends in the Demographic and
Spatial Distribution of Murder, 1981–2000. Health &
3 Batmanghelidjh C (2006). Shattered Lives. Children
Place, 11: 45–54.
who Live with Courage and Dignity. Jessica Kingsley
Publishers. 15 Groenewald P et al. (2001). Cape Town Mortality, 2001.
Part I: Cause of Death and Premature Mortality. Cape
4 Wilson M, Daly M (1997). Life Expectancy, Economic
Town, City of Cape Town, South African Medical
Inequality, Homicide, and Reproductive Timing in
Research Council, University of Cape Town.
Chicago Neighbourhoods. British Medical Journal, 314:
1271. 16 Batalis NI, Collins KA (2005). Adolescent Death: A
15-Year Retrospective Review. Journal of Forensic Scence,
5 World Vision (2001). Every Girl Counts. Development,
50(6): 1444–1449.
Justice and Gender. Girl Child Report, Ontario, World
Vision. 17 Lemard G, Hemenway D (2006). Violence in 339
Jamaica: An Analysis of Homicides 1998–2002. Injury

6 UNICEF (2003). From Perception to Reality: A Study on
Prevention, 12(1): 15-18.
Child Protection in Somalia. UNICEF Somalia, Ch. 3.
18 Miller TR et al. (2001). Costs of Juvenile Violence:
Policy Implications. Pediatrics, 107: 3–10.
the UN Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against 19 South African Police Service (2003). Annual Report of
Children. Geneva, World Health Organization. the National Commissioner of the South African Police
Service, 1 April 2002 to 31 March 2003. Pretoria, South
African Police Service.
the UN Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against 20 Bradshaw D, Renaud P (2006). South African Medical
Children. Geneva, World Health Organization. Research Council. Personal Communication, June 2006.
9 Gawryszewski VP, Costa LS (2005). Social Inequality 21 Franco S (2003). A Social-Medical Approach to
and Homicide Rates in Sao Paulo City, Brazil. Rev Saude Violence in Columbia. American Journal of Public
Publica, 39(2): 191–197. Health, 93: 2032–2036.
10 Cardona M et al. (2005). Homicides in Medellin, 22 Garbarino J et al. (1992). Children in Danger: Coping
Colombia, from 1990 to 2002: Victims, Motives and with the Effects of Community Violence. San Francisco,
Circumstances. Rev Saude Publica, 21(3):840–851. Jossey-Bass.
11 Lemard G, Hemenway D (2006). Violence in 23 Kliewer W et al. (1998). The Role of Social and
Jamaica: An Analysis of Homicides 1998–2002. Injury Cognitive Processes in Children’s Adjustment to
Prevention,. 12(1): 15–18. Community Violence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 63: 579–584.
12 Chervyakov VV et al. (2002). The Changing Nature of
Murder in Russia. Social Science & Medicine, 55: 1713– 24 Richters JE, Martinez P (1993). The NIMH
1724. Community Violence Project: I. Children as Victims of
and Witnesses to Violence. Psychiatry, 56(1): 7–21.
25 Miller LS et al. (1999). Witnessed Community Violence 37 Straus M (2004). Prevalence of Violence against Dating
and Antisocial Behaviour in High-risk, Urban Boys. Partners by Male and Female University Students
Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 28(1): 2–11. Worldwide. Violence against Women, 10(7): 790–811.
26 Kliewer W et al. (2001). Exposure to Violence against 38 Analysis provided to the Study by the Global School-
a Family Member and Internalising Symptoms in Based Student Health Survey: The World Health
Colombian Adolescents: The Protective Effects of Organization (http://www.who.int/chp/gshs or http://
Family Support. Journal of Consulting and Clinical www.cdc.gov/gshs) for surveys conducted in 2003–5 for
Psychology, 69 (6): 971–982. Botswana, Chile (metropolitan area), China (Bejing),
27 Meeks-Gardner J et al. (2003). Perceptions and Guyana, Jordan, Kenya, Lebanon, Namibia, Oman,
Experiences of Violence Among Secondary School Philippines, Swaziland, Uganda, UAE, Venezuela
Students in Urban Jamaica. Pan-American Journal of (Lara), Zambia and Zimbabwe (Harare).
Public Health, 14(2): 97–103. 39 Halpern CT et al. (2001). Partner Violence Among
28 Mercy J et al. (2002). Youth Violence. In: Krug EG et Adolescents in Opposite-sex Romantic Relationships:
al. (Eds). World Report on Violence and Health. Geneva, Findings from the National Longitudinal Study of
World Health Organization, pp 25–56. Adolescent Health. American Journal of Public Health,
91(10): 1679–1685.
340 29 Odero WO, Kibosia JC (1995). Incidence and
Characteristics of Injuries in Eldoret, Kenya. Injury 40 Straus M (2004). Prevalence of Violence against Dating
Prevention, 1: 26–30. Partners by Male and Female University Students

Worldwide. Violence against Women, 10(7): 790–811.
30 Mansingh A, Ramphal P (1993). The Nature of
Interpersonal Violence in Jamaica and Its Strain on the 41 Mercy J et al. (2002). Youth Violence. In: Krug EG et
National Health System. West Indian Medical Journal, al. (Eds). World Report on Violence and Health. Geneva,
42: 53–56. World Health Organization, pp 25–56.
31 Engeland A, Kopjar B (2000). Injuries Connected to 42 Abma J et al. (1998). Young Women’s Degree of Control
Violence: An Analysis of Data from the Injury Registry. over First Intercourse: An Exploratory Analysis. Family
Tidsskrift for den Norske Laegegorening, 120: 714–717. Planning Perspective, 30(1):12–18.
32 Cheng TL et al. (2002). Assault-injured Adolescents 43 Dickson N et al. (1998). First Sexual Intercourse:
Presenting to the Emergency Department: Causes and Age, Coercion, and Later Regrets Reported by a Birth
Circumstances. Public Health, 116(1): 15–21. Cohort. British Medical Journal, 316:29–33.
33 Howe A, Crilly M (2000). Violence in the Community: 44 Koenig MA et al. (2004). Coerced First Intercourse
A Health Service View from a UK Accident and and Reproductive Health Among Adolescent Women
Emergency Department. 7(1): 45–49. in Rakai, Uganda. International Family Planning
Perspectives, 30(4): 156–163.
34 Yacoub S et al. (2006). Violence-related Injuries, Deaths
and Disabilities in the Capital of Honduras. Injury, 45 Erulkar A (2004). The Experiences of Sexual Coercion
37(5): 428–434. among Young People in Kenya. International Family
Planning Perspectives, 30(4): 182–189.
35 Zohoori N et al. (2002). Non-fatal Violence-related
Injuries in Kingston, Jamaica: A Preventable Drain on 46 WHO (2005). Multi-Country Study on Women’s
Resources. Injury Control Safety Promotion, 9(4): 255– Health and Domestic Violence. Geneva, World Health
262. Organization.
36 Mercy J et al. (2002). Youth Violence. In: Krug EG et 47 Straus M (2004). Prevalence of Violence against Dating
al. (Eds). World Report on Violence and Health. Geneva, Partners by Male and Female University Students
World Health Organization, pp 25–56. Worldwide. Violence against Women, 10(7): 790–811.
7
48 Erulkar A (2004). The Experiences of Sexual Coercion 60 Ennew J (1994). Street and Working Children: A Guide to
among Young People in Kenya. International Family Planning. London, Save the Children.
Planning Perspectives, 30(4): 182–189. 61 UNICEF (1997). State of the World’s Children. New
49 Allen DR et al. (2003). Sexual Health Risks among Young York, Oxford University Press.
Thai Women: Implications for HIV/STD Prevention and 62 Human Rights Watch (1997). Juvenile Injustice – Police
Contraception. AIDS and Behavior, 7(1): 9–21. Abuse and Detention of Street Children in Kenya. New
50 de Visser RO et al. (2003). Sex in Australia: Experiences York, Human Rights Watch.
of Sexual Coercion Among a Representative Sample 63 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
of Adults. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Public against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: East Asia
Health, 27(2): 198–203. and the Pacific. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.
51 Wong WC et al. (2004). Correlates of Sexual Behaviours org/r27.
with Health Status and Health Perception in Chinese 64 Irwanto P et al. (1999). Situation of Street Children in
Adolescents: A Cross-sectional Survey in Schools. AIDS 12 Cities in Indonesia. Monograph Report for the Asian
Patient Care and STDs, 18(8):470–480. Development Bank, TA No. 3043 INO.
52 Erulkar A (2004). The Experiences of Sexual Coercion 65 ILO/IPEC (2006). Children Working in the Streets,
among Young People in Kenya. International Family Factsheet. International Programme on the Elimination 341
Planning Perspectives, 30(4): 182–189. of Child Labour, International Labour Organization.

53 Slap GB et al. (2003). Sexual Behaviour of Adolescents Available at: http://www.ilo.org/public/english/
in Nigeria: Cross-sectional Survey of Secondary School standards/ipec/publ/download/factsheets/fs_
Students. British Medical Journal, 326(7379): 15. streetchildren_0303.pdf.
54 Allen DR et al. (2003). Sexual Health Risks among Young 66 Wernham M (2004). An Outside Chance: Street Children
Thai Women: Implications for HIV/STD Prevention and and Juvenile Justice – An International Perspective.
Contraception. AIDS and Behavior, 7(1): 9–21. London, Consortium for Street Children.
55 Eaton DK (2005). Youth risk behavior surveillance 67 Presentation by Bernardo Mondragon, Kabataan, Davao
– United States, 2005. MMWR Surveill Summ. 55(5):1– City. Cited in: United Nations Secretary-General’s
108. Study on Violence against Children (2005). Regional
Consultation Outcome Report: East Asia and the Pacific.
56 Save the Children Alliance (2005). 10 Essential Learning Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27.
68 Amnesty International (2005). Haiti Disarmament
Delayed, Justice Denied. AI Index: AMR 36/005/2005.
London, Amnesty International.
Children Norway. 69 OMCT (2004). Colombia: Murders and Criminal
Organisation of Children and Girls, Teenagers and Young
57 Jewkes R et al. (2002). Rape of Girls in South Africa.
Men and Women in Sector of Bogota. Caso COL271004.
Lancet, 359: 319–320.
CC, Derechos del Niño. Geneva, World Organisation
58 Tang CS (2002). Childhood Experience of Sexual Abuse against Torture.
among Hong Kong Chinese College Students. Child
70 Jabeen et al. (2002). Children Working as Newspapers
Hawkers: A Study of Lost/Kidnapped/Runaway Children.
59 Csorba R et al. (2005). Characteristics of Female Child The Situation Analysis of Street Children in Lahore.
Sexual Abuse in Hungary Between 1986 and 2001: A Department of Social Work–University of Punjab.
Longitudinal, Prospective Study. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Submission to the United Nations Secretary-General’s
Reprod Biol, 120(2): 217–221. Study on Violence against Children.
71 Save the Children Alliance (2005). 10 Essential Learning 82 David P (2005). Human Rights in Youth Sport: A Critical
Points: Listen and Speak Out against Sexual Abuse of Girls Review of Children’s Rights in Competitive Sport. London,
and Boys. Global Submission by the International Save Routledge.
83 See e.g. Amnesty International (2001). Crimes of Hate,
Study on Violence against children. Oslo, Save the
Conspiracy of Silence. London, Amnesty International.
Children Norway.
84 Human Rights Watch (2002). Human Rights Watch
72 UNICEF (2003). Africa’s Orphaned Generations.
World Report. New York, Human Rights Watch
New York, UNICEF.
85 Human Rights Watch (2001). Hatred in the Hallways
73 Moletsane R (2003). Another Lost Generation?
– Violence and Discrimination against Lesbian, Gay,
The Impact of HIV/AIDS on Schooling in South
Bisexuals and Transgender Students in US Schools. New
Africa. The International Journal on School Disaffection,
Trentham Books.
86 See e.g. Human Rights Watch (2005). Darfur: Women
74 UNICEF (2005). Violence against Children in West and
Raped Even After Seeking Refuge; Donors Must Increase
Central Africa. A Concise Appraisal. UNICEF West and
Support to Victims of Sexual Violence. Human Rights
Central Africa Regional Office.
Watch, Press Release. Available at: http://hrw.org/
342 75 Human Rights Watch (1995). Violence against Children english/docs/2005/04/11/sudan10467.htm.
Accused of Witchcraft in the Democratic Republic of
87 Amnesty International (2004). Lives Blown Apart:

Congo. New York, Human Rights Watch.
Crimes against Women in Times of Conflict. London,
76 All responses are available at: http://www.ohchr. Amnesty International Publications.
org/english/bodies/crc/ study.htm. As of 20 September
2006, 135 Member States and one observer had 88 Okot AC et al. (2005). Suffering in Silence: A Study
submitted responses. of Sexual and Gender-based Violence (SGBV ) In Pabbo
Camp, Gulu District, Northern Uganda. UNICEF,
77 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence District Sub-Working Group on SGBV.
against Children (2005). Violence in the Community.
Regional Desk Review: Europe and Central Asia. Available 89 Gardner J, El Bushra J (2004). Somalia, the Untold
at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27. Story: The War Through the Eyes of Somali Women.
London, CIIR/Pluto Press.
78 Human Rights Watch (2001). Easy Targets: Violence
against Children Worldwide. New York, Human Rights 90 Ward J (2002). If Not Now, When? Addressing Gender-
Watch. based Violence in Refugee, Internally Displaced, and Post-
Conflict Settings. The Reproductive Health for Refugees
79 All responses are available at: http://www.ohchr.org/
Consortium.
english/bodies/crc/ study.htm. As of 20 September 2006,
135 Member States and one observer had submitted 91 Mabuwa R (2000). Seeking Protection: Addressing Sexual
responses. and Domestic Violence in Tanzania’s Refugee Camps. New
80 59 Youths Murdered in Honduran Jails During Maduro
Administration, 7 April 2004. Available at: http://www. 92 da Costa R (2006). The Administration of Justice in
coav.org.br. Cited in: Dowdney LT (2005). Neither War Refugee Camps: A Study of Practice. UNHCR Legal
Nor Peace. Rio de Janeiro, Viva Rio / ISER, 7 Letras. and Protection Policy Research Series, Department of
International Protection.
81 Victims of Police Violence in Brazil Tend to be Afro-
Brazilian Males Between 15 and 19, Says Asma Jahangir, 93 da Costa R (2006). The Administration of Justice in
21 April 2004. Available at: www.coav.org.br. Cited in: Refugee Camps: A Study of Practice. UNHCR Legal
Dowdney LT (2005). Neither War Nor Peace. Rio de and Protection Policy Research Series, Department of
Janeiro, Viva Rio / ISER, 7 Letras. International Protection.
7
94 Save the Children UK (2006). From Camp to 104 Boonpala P, Kane J (2002). Unbearable to the Human
Community: Liberia Study on Exploitation of Children. Heart: Child Trafficking and Action to Eliminate It.
Monrovia, Save the Children Fund. Geneva, International Programme on the Elimination of
Child Labour, International Labour Organization.
against Children (2006). Summary Report of the 105 Dottridge M (2004). Kids as Commodities: Child
Thematic Consultation on Violence against Refugee and Trafficking and What to Do About It. International
Other Displaced Children. 25 April 2006, Geneva. Federation of Terre des Hommes.
106 Laurance EJ (2005). Small Arms Research: Where We Are
96 UNHCR (2005). Refugee and Returnee Children in and Where We Need to Go. The HFG Review, pp 3–9.
Southern Africa: Perceptions and Experiences of Violence
107 WHO (2001). Small Arms and Global Health. Geneva,
– A Qualitative Study of Refugees and Returnee Children
World Health Organization.
in UNHCR Operations in Angola, South Africa and
Zambia. Pretoria, UNHCR. 108 Peres MFT (2004). Firearm-related Violence in Brazil
– Country Report. São Paulo, Centre for the Study of
97 Smith HE, Akinsulure-Smith AM (2004). A Global
Violence, University of São Paulo.
Perspective on Youth Outreach. In: Clauss-Ehlers
CS, Weist MD (Eds). Community Planning to Foster 109 WHO (2006). Global Estimates of Health Consequences
343

Plenum Publishers. the UN Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against
Children. Geneva, World Health Organization.
98 ILO (2002). A Future Without Child Labour.
Geneva, International Labour Organization. 110 Room R et al. (2003). Alcohol in Developing Societies: A
Public Health Approach. Helsinki, Finnish Foundation
99 UNICEF (2005). Trafficking in Human Beings,
for Alcohol Studies and Geneva, World Health
Especially Women and Children in Africa. Innocenti
Organization.
Insight, 2nd Edition. Florence, Innocenti Research
Centre. 111 WHO (2006). Youth Violence and Alcohol, Factsheet.
Geneva, World Health Organization. Available at:
100 The Protection Project of Johns Hopkins University
http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/
School of Advanced International Studies (2002).
violence/world_report/factsheets/fs_youth.pdf.
Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children in
the Countries of the Americas. Cited in: Plaza P (2003). 112 Currie C et al. (2004). Health Behaviour in School-Aged
Stop the Traffic! London, UNICEF National Committee. Children (HBSC) Study: International Report from the
2001/2002 Survey. Health Policy for Children and
101 UNICEF (undated). Children on the Edge, Protecting
Adolescents, No 4. Geneva, World Health Organization.
Children from Sexual Exploitation and Trafficking in East
Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok, UNICEF East Asia and 113 Mattila VM et al. (2005). Occurrence of Violence and
Pacific Regional Office. Violence-related Injuries Among 12–18-year-old Finns.
Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 33: 307–313.
102 Kane J (2005). Child Trafficking: The People Involved.
International Programme on the Elimination of Child 114 Raymundo CM, Cruz GT (2004). Dangerous
Labour, International Labour Organization. Connections: Substance Abuse, Violence and Sex Among
Filipino Adolescents. Paper presented at the 7th
103 UNICEF (2005). Trafficking for Sexual Exploitation
International Conference on Philippine Studies, 16–19
and Other Exploitative Practices. Florence, UNICEF
June 2004, the Netherlands. Available at: http://yafs.
Innocenti Research Centre.
com/papers.asp.
115 Ohene S et al. (2005). The Clustering of Risk 126 Massey DS, Denton NA (1993). American Apartheid:
Behaviours among Caribbean youth. Maternal and Child Segregation and the Making of the Underclass. Cambridge,
Health Journal, 9: 91–100. MA, Harvard University Press. Cited in: MMWR
(2002). Community Interventions to Promote Healthy
116 Mattila VM et al. (2005). Occurrence of Violence and
Social Environments: Early Childhood Development
Violence-related Injuries Among 12–18-year-old Finns.
and Family Housing. A Report on Recommendations
Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 33: 307–313.
of the Task Force on Community Preventive Services.
117 Budd T (2003). Alcohol-related Assault: Findings from the MMWR, 55 (No RR-1).
British Crime Survey. Home Office online report 35/03.
127 Bartlett S (2002). Urban Children and the Physical
London, Home Office.
Environment. Paper presented at the Conference,
118 Australian Institute of Criminology (2000). Alcohol- ‘Learning from International Experiences, Creating Local
related Assault: Time and Place. Trends and Issues Solutions’, 11–13 December, 2002, Amman, Jordan.
in Crime and Criminal Justice, No. 169. Canberra,
128 Centre for Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE)
Australian Institute of Criminology.
(2005). COHRE Submission to the UN Secretary-
119 Human Rights Watch (2005). Darfur: Women Raped General’s Study on Violence against Children. Geneva,
Even After Seeking Refuge; Donors Must Increase Support COHRE.
344 to Victims of Sexual Violence. Press Release. New York,
Human Rights Watch.

120 Amnesty International (2004). Lives Blown Apart: and the Pacific. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.
Crimes against Women in Times of Conflict. London, org/r27.
Amnesty International Publications.
130 Martin F, Parry-Williams J (2005). The Right Not to Lose
121 Okot AC et al. (2005). Suffering in Silence: A Study Hope. London, Save the Children UK.
of Sexual and Gender-based Violence (SGBV) in Pabbo
131 UNICEF (2003). Finding Our Voices, Gendered and
Camp, Gulu District, Northern Uganda. New York,
Sexual Identities and HIV/AIDS in Education. Nairobi,
UNICEF.
UNICEF Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Office.
122 Gardner J, El Bushra J (2004). Somalia, the Untold
132 Alder C, Worrall A (2004). Girls’ Violence: Myths and
Story: The War Through the Eyes of Somali Women.
Realities. Albany, State University of New York Press.
London, CIIR/Pluto Press.
133 Katz SR (1996). Where Streets Cross the Classroom:
123 Brantingham PL, Brantingham PJ (1991).
A Study of Latino Students’ Perspectives on Cultural
Environmental Criminology. Prospect Heights, Waveland
Identity in City Schools and Neighbourhood Gangs.
Press. Cited in: Yuen B (2004). Safety and Dwelling in
The Bilingual Research Journal, 20(3/4): 603–631.
Singapore. Cities, 21(1): 19–28.
134 Dowdney LT (2005). Neither War Nor Peace. Rio de
124 Leventhal T, Brooks-Gunn J (2000). The
Janeiro, Viva Rio / ISER, 7 Letras.
Neighborhoods They Live in: The Effects of
Neighborhood Residence on Child and Adolescent 135 Dowdney LT (2003). Children of the Drug Trade: A Case
Outcomes. Psychology Bulletin, 126(2): 309–37. Study of Organised Armed Violence in Rio de Janeiro. Rio
de Janeiro, Viva Rio / ISER, 7 Letras.
125 Diez Roux AV et al. (2001). Neighborhood of Residence
and Incidence of Coronary Heart Disease. New England 136 Dowdney LT (2005). Neither War Nor Peace. Rio de
Journal of Medicine, 345(2): 99–106. Janeiro, Viva Rio / ISER, 7 Letras.
137 Dowdney LT (2005). Neither War Nor Peace. Rio de
Janeiro, Viva Rio / ISER, 7 Letras.
7
138 Briseño RL, Zubillaga V (2002). Violence and 149 Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) (2004).
Globalisation in Latin America. Current Sociology, Child Psychosocial Health Survey. Palestinian Central
50(1): 19–37. Bureau of Statistics (PCBS).
139 USAID (2006). Central American and Mexico Gang 150 Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) (2004).
Assessment. Washington DC, USAID Bureau for Latin Child Psychosocial Health Survey. Palestinian Central
American and Caribbean Affairs, Office of Regional Bureau of Statistics (PCBS).
Sustainable Development.
151 Arafat C (2003). Psychosocial Assessment of Palestinian
140 For example, El Salvador was asked by the Committee Children. The Secretariat for the National Plan of
on the Rights of the Child to abrogate its second Anti- Action for Palestinian Children.
Gang Law and to apply the Juvenile Offenders Act as
the only legal instrument in the area of juvenile justice
(CRC/C/15/Add.232). Children. The Secretariat for the National Plan of
Action for Palestinian Children.
141 Red para la Infancia y la Adolescencia de El Salvador
(2004). Informe Ejecutivo de la RIA de El Salvador en 153 Haj-Yahia MM, Abdo-Kaloti R (2003). The Rates and
el Marco de Reunión con la Comisión Interamericana de Correlates of the Exposure of Palestinian Adolescents
Derechos Humanos, Sobre el Tema de Pandillas o Maras. to Family Violence: Toward an Integrative-Holistic
El Salvador, Red para la Infancia y la Adolescencia de El Approach. Child Abuse & Neglect, 27(7): 781–806. 345
Salvador.

142 Casa Alianza Honduras (2006). Informe de Ejecuciones Children. The Secretariat for the National Plan of
y Muertes Violentas de Niños, Niñas y Jovenes Durante la Action for Palestinian Children.
Administración del Presidente Ricardo Maduro – Enero 155 Save the Children (2004). Living Behind Barriers
2002 – Enero 2006. Honduras, Casa Alianza Honduras. – Palestinian Children Speak Out. Save the Children UK
143 USAID (2006). Central American and Mexico Gang and Save the Children Sweden.
Assessment. Washington DC, USAID Bureau for Latin 156 UNICEF (2003). The UNICEF Child-friendly
American and Caribbean Affairs, Office of Regional Cities Project. Promoting Better Planning, Services,
Sustainable Development. Opportunities and Protection for Children Living in Urban
144 Arana A (2005). How the Street Gangs Took Central Areas. The Child-friendly Cities Database, UNICEF
America. Foreign Affairs, May/June 2005. Council on Occupied Palestinian Territories.
Foreign Relations.
157 Riggio E (2002). Child-Friendly Cities: Good
145 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence Governance and the Best Interests of the Child.
against Children (2005). Desk Review: South Asia. Environment and Urbanization, 14(2).
158 Jordan S (2000). Adolescent Violence in Cities from a
146 Human Rights Watch (2003). Uganda – Abducted and Public Health Perspective. Lage, Verlag Hangs Jacobs.
Abused: Renewed Conflict in Northern Uganda. New
159 UNICEF (2002). Poverty and Exclusion Among Urban
Children. Florence, UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre.
147 Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) (2005).
160 Bartlett S et al. (1999). Cities for Children, Children’s
Palestinian Children – Issues and Statistics. Child
Rights, Poverty and Urban Management. UNICEF/
Statistics Series, No. 8. Palestinian Central Bureau of
Earthscan.
Statistics (PCBS).
148 Arafat C (2003). Psychosocial Assessment of Palestinian 161 The World Bank (2001). Attacking Poverty. World
Children. The Secretariat for the National Plan of Development Report 2000–20001, Washington DC,
Action for Palestinian Children. The World Bank.
162 Butchart A, Engström K (2002). Sex- and Age-specific 174 ECPAT (2005). Violence against Children in Cyberspace.
Relations Between Economic Development, Economic A Contribution to the United Nations Study on Violence
Inequality and Homicide Rates in People Aged 0–24 against Children. Bangkok, ECPAT International.
Years: A Cross-sectional Analysis. Bulletin of the World
175 Carlsson U (2001). Research, Information and
Health Organization, 80(10): 797–805.
Sensitising the Public. In: Arnaldo CA (Ed). Child
163 Mercy J et al. (2002). Youth Violence. In: Krug EG et Abuse on the Internet: Ending the Silence. Paris, Berghahn
al. (Eds). World Report on Violence and Health. Geneva, Books/UNESCO.
World Health Organization, pp 25–56.
176 Collins J, Rau B (2000). Aids in the Context of
164 Kaufman NH, Rizzini I (Eds) (2002). Globalization Development. UNRISD Programme on Social
and Children: Exploring Potentials for Enhancing
Development, Paper No. 4, Geneva, UNRISD/
Opportunities in the Lives of Children and Youth. New
UNAIDS. Cited in: Commission for Social
York, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
Development (2004). A Fair Globalisation: Creating
165 Narayan D et al. (2000). Voices of the Poor: Crying Out Opportunities for All. Geneva, International Labour
for Change. New York, Published for The World Bank, Organization.
Oxford University Press.
177 Browne K, Hamilton-Giachritsis C (2005).
166 Lynch M (2003). Consequences of Children’s Violence The Influence of Violent Media on Children and
346 Exposure to Community Violence. Clinical Child and Adolescents: A Public-health Approach. Lancet, 365:
Family Psychology Review, 6(4): 265–274.
702–710.
167 Cardia N et al. (2002). Homicide Rates and Human
178 ECPAT (2006). The Changing Face of Child Sex Tourism.
Rights Violations in São Paulo, Brazil: 1990 to 2000.
Bangkok, ECPAT.
Health and Human Rights, 6(2): 14–33.
179 National Council for Childhood and Motherhood
168 Jordan S (2000). Adolescent Violence in Cities from a
(NCCM) (2006). Report of the Middle East and North
Public Health Perspective. Lage, Verlag Hangs Jacobs
Africa (MENA) Regional Consultation on Violence against
169 International Centre for Missing & Exploited Children Children Follow-up Consultation, 25–28 March 2006.
(2006). Child Pornography: Model Legislation and Global Egypt, NCCM.
Review. International Centre for Missing & Exploited
Children. 180 World Summit on Information Society (WSIS) (2005).
Tunis Agenda for the Information Society. Tunis, World
170 International Save the Children Alliance (2004). Mapping
Summit on Information Society.
Save the Children’s Response to Violence against Children in
South Asia Region. Kathmandu, Save the Children Sweden. 181 Presentation to the Working Group by Dr Ethel Quayle,
Department of Applied Psychology, University College
171 ECPAT (2005). Violence against Children in Cyberspace.
A Contribution to the United Nations Study on Violence Cork, Ireland, and Project Director, COPINE Project.
against Children. Bangkok, ECPAT International. Cited in: United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on
Violence against Children (2005). Regional Consultation
172 Microsoft (2006). MSN Cyberbullying Report – Blogging,
Outcome Report: East Asia and the Pacific. Available at:
Instant Messaging and E-mail Bullying Amongst Today’s
Teens. Microsoft UK.
182 Clauss-Ehlers CS, Weist MD (2004). Advancing
173 Presentation to the Working Group by Dr Ethel Quayle,
Community Involvement and Planning to Pormote
Department of Applied Psychology, University College
Resilience in Youth from Diverse Communities.
Cork, Ireland, and Project Director, COPINE Project.
In: Clauss-Ehlers CS, Weist MD (Eds). Community
Cited in: United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on
Violence against Children (2005). Regional Consultation Planning to Foster Resilience in Children. New York,
Outcome Report: East Asia and the Pacific. Available at: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
7
183 Tolan P (2001). Youth Violence and Its Prevention in 196 Schweinhart LJ et al. (1993). Significant Benefits: The
the United States: An Overview of Current Knowledge. High/Scope Perry Preschool Project Study Through Age 27.
Injury Control and Safety Promotion, 8(1): 1–12. Ypsilanti, High/Scope Press.
184 Tolan P (2001). Youth Violence and Its Prevention in 197 Black M (2003). Good Practice in Working Children’s
the United States: An Overview of Current Knowledge. Participation: A Case Study from CWOP, Maharashtra
Injury Control and Safety Promotion, 8(1): 1–12. India. Prepared for the Save the Children Alliance
Task Group on Children and Work. London, Save the
185 Yoshikawa H (1995). Long-term Effects of Early
Children UK.
Childhood Programmes on Social Outcomes and
Delinquency. The Future of Children, 5: 51–75. 198 Smith HE, Akinsulure-Smith AM (2004). A Global
186 Lipsey MW, Wilson DB (1998). Effective Interventions
CS, Weist MD (Eds). Community Planning to Foster
for Serious Juvenile Offenders: A Synthesis of Research.
In: Loeber R, Farrington DP (Eds). Serious and Violent
Plenum Publishers.
Juvenile Offenders: Risk Factors and Successful Interventions.
Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications, pp 313–345. 199 Grossman JB, Garry EM (1997). Mentoring a Proven
Delinquency Strategy. Washington DC, United States
187 Greenwood PW et al. (1996). Diverting Children from
Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs.
a Life of Crime: Measuring Costs and Benefits. Santa 347
Monica, CA, The Rand Corporation. 200 Boothby N et al. (2006) Mozambique Child Soldier Life

Outcome Study: Lessons Learned in Rehabilitation and
188 Fass SM, Pi CR (2002). Getting Tough on Juvenile
Reintegration Efforts. Global Public Health, 1(1): 87–107.
Crime: An Analysis of Costs and Benefits. Journal of
Research in Crime and Delinquency, 39: 363–399. 201 Fraser MW et al. (1999). Risk, Protection, and
Resilience: Toward a Conceptual Framework for Social
189 Blum R, Ireland M (2004). Reducing Risk, Increasing
Work Practice. Social Work Research, 23(3): 131–143.
Protective Factors: Findings from the Caribbean Youth
Health Survey. Journal of Adolescent Health, 35: 493–500. 202 Stewart D, Sun J (2004). How Can We Build Resilience
in Primary School-aged Children? The Importance of
190 Yoshikawa H (1995). Long-term Effects of Early
Social Support from Adults and Peers in Family, School
Childhood Programmes on Social Outcomes and
and Community Settings. Asia Pacific Journal of Public
Delinquency. The Future of Children, 5: 51–75.
Health, 16 (Suppl.): S37–S41.
191 Berrueta-Clement JR et al. (1984). Changed Lives: The
203 Smith HE, Akinsulure-Smith AM (2004). A Global
Effects of the Perry Preschool Program on Youth Through
Age 19. Ypsilanti, High/Scope Press.
CS, Weist MD (Eds). Community Planning to Foster
192 Johnson DL, Walker T (1987). Primary Prevention of Resilience in Children. New York, Kluwer Academic/
Behaviour Problems in Mexican-American Children. Plenum Publishers.
American Journal of Community Psychology, 15: 375–385.
204 Melendez MC, Tomlinson-Clarke S (2004). Home,
193 Schweinhart LJ et al. (1993). Significant Benefits: The School and Community. Catalysts to Resilience.
High/Scope Perry Preschool Project Study Through Age 27. In: Clauss-Ehlers CS, Weist MD (Eds). Community
Ypsilanti, High/Scope Press. Planning to Foster Resilience in Children. New York,
194 Berrueta-Clement JR et al. (1984). Changed Lives: The Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Effects of the Perry Preschool Program on Youth Through 205 Brackenridge C (2006). Abuse and Violence to Children
Age 19. Ypsilanti, High/Scope Press. in Sport – International Overview. Submission to the UN
195 Johnson DL, Walker T (1987). Primary Prevention of Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Children.
Behaviour Problems in Mexican-American Children.
American Journal of Community Psychology, 15: 375–385.
206 Hawkins JD et al. (1992). The Seattle Social 215 Jaffe PG et al. (1992). An Evaluation of a Secondary
Development Project: Effects of the First Four Years on School Primary Prevention Programme on Violence in
Protective Factors and Problem Behaviors. In: McCord Intimate Relationships. Violence and Victims, 7: 129–146.
J, Tremblay RE (Eds). Preventing Antisocial Behavior: 216 Foshee VA et al. (2004). Assessing the Long-term
Interventions From Birth Through Adolescence. New York, Effects of the Safe Dates Program and a Booster in
The Guilford Press, pp 139–161. Preventing and Reducing Adolescent Dating Violence
207 Farrell AD, Meyer AL (1997). The Effectiveness of a Victim Organisation and Perpetration. American Journal
School-based Curriculum for Reducing Violence Among of Public Health, 94: 619–624.
Urban Sixth-grade Students. American Journal of Public 217 Foshee VA (2000). The Safe Dates Program: One-year
Health, 87: 979–988. Follow-up Results. American Journal of Public Health,
208 Grossman DC et al. (1997). Effectiveness of a Violence 90: 1619–1622.
Prevention Curriculum Among Children in Elementary 218 Wolfe DA (2003). Dating Violence Prevention with At-
School: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Journal of the risk Youth: A Controlled Outcome Evaluation. Journal
American Medical Association, 277: 1605–1642. of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71: 279–291.
209 Samples F, Aber L (1998). Evaluations of School-based 219 Foshee VA et al. (2005). The Safe Dates Project:
Violence Prevention Programs. In Elliott DS et al (Eds). Theoretical Basis, Evaluation Design and Selected
348
Violence in American Schools. New York, Cambridge Baseline Findings. American Journal of Preventive
University Press, pp 217–252. International Journal of Medicine, 12 (2): 39–47.

Injury Control and Safety Promotion, 12(2): 93–104.
220 Tolan PH, Guerra NG (1994) What Works in Reducing
210 Thornton TN et al. (2000). Best Practices of Youth Adolescent Violence: An Empirical Review of the Field.
Violence Prevention: A Sourcebook for Community Action. Boulder, CO, The Center for the Study and Prevention
Atlanta, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, of Violence, Institute for Behavioral Sciences, University
National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. of Colorado.
211 Farrell AD et al. (2001). Evaluation of Responding in 221 Kellermann AL et al. (1998). Preventing Youth
Peaceful and Positive Ways (RIPP): A School-based Violence: What Works? Annual Review of Public Health,
Prevention Programme for Reducing Violence among 19:271–292.
Urban Adolescents. Journal of Clinical and Child 222 Njovana E, Watts C (1996). Gender Violence
Psychology, 30: 451–463. in Zimbabwe: A Need for Collaborative Action.
212 WHO, UNICEF, World Bank, UNESCO and UNFPA Reproductive Health Matters, 7: 46–54.
(2003). Skills for Health . WHO’s Information Series 223 Ellsberg M et al. (1997). The Nicaraguan Network of
on School Health, Document No. 9. Available at: Women against Violence: Using Research and Action
http://www.who.int/school_youth_health/media/en/ for Change. Reproductive Health Matters, 10: 82–92.
sch_skills4health_03.pdf.
224 Hoefnagels C, Mudde A (2000). Mass Media and
213 Landgren K (2005). The Protective Environment: Disclosures of Child Abuse in the Perspective of
Development Support for Child Protection. Human Secondary Prevention: Putting Ideas into Practice. Child
Rights Quarterly, 7: 215–248. Abuse and Neglect, 24: 1091–1101.
214 Dahlberg L, Butchart A (2005). State of the Science: 225 Soul City Institute for Health and Development
Violence Prevention efforts in Developing and Communications (2004). Soul City 4 Multimedia
Developed Countries. International Journal of Injury Campaign – Impact Evaluations. South Africa, Soul City
Control and Safety Promotion, 12(2): 93–104. Institute for Health and Development Communications.
Available at: http://www.comminit.com/africa/
evaluations.hmtl.
7
226 Mehrotra A (2000). A Life Free of Violence: It’s Our 237 UNICEF (2002). La traite d’enfants en Afrique de l’Ouest
Right. New York, United Nations Development Fund for : réponses politiques. Florence, Innocenti Research Centre.
Women.
238 UNICEF (2005). Trafficking for Sexual Exploitation
227 Health Resources and Services Administration (2004). and Other Exploitative Purposes. Florence, Innocenti
Take a Stand. Lend a Hand. Stop Bullying Now! Research Centre.
Washington DC, US Department of Health and Human
239 Boonpala P, Kane J (2002). Unbearable to the Human
Services. Available at: http://www.stopbullyingnow.
Heart: Child Trafficking and Action to Eliminate It.
hrsa.gov.
Geneva, International Programme on the Elimination of
228 Hoefnagels C, Baartman H (1997). On the Threshold Child Labour, International Labour Organization.
of Disclosure: The Effects of a Mass Media Field
240 Bartlett S et al. (1999). Cities for Children, Children’s
Experiment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 21: 557–573.
Rights, Poverty and Urban Management. UNICEF/
229 Naker D (2005). Violence against Children: The Voices of Earthscan.
241 Adapted from UNICEF (2006). Thuthuzela Care
the Children Uganda.
Centres. UNICEF South Africa. Available at: http://
230 Ennew J (1994). Street and Working Children: A Guide to www.unicef.org/southafrica/hiv_aids_998.html.
Planning. London, Save the Children. Cited in: Bartlett
349
S et al (1999). Cities for Children: Children’s Rights,

Poverty and Urban Management. Earthscan /UNICEF.
Report: Eastern and Southern Africa. Available at: http://
231 Wernham M et al. (2005). Police Training on Child www.violencestudy.org/r27.
Rights and Protection: Lessons Learned and Manual.
243 Boothby N et al. (2006). Mozambique Child Soldier
Consortium for Street Children, p 31.
Life Outcome Study: Lessons Learned in Rehabilitation
232 Heise L, Garcia- Moreno C (2002). Violence by and Reintegration Efforts. Global Public Health, 1(1):
Intimate Partners. In: Krug EG et al. (Eds) (2002). 87–107.
244 Stamenkova-Trajkova S (2005). Results of an Institutional
Assessment of the Responsiveness of Service Providers to
233 Friedman LS et al. (1992). Inquiry about Victimisation Violence against Children in Macedonia. Skopje, the
Experiences: A Survey of Patient Preferences and Institute for Social Work and Social Policy with support
Physician Practices. Archives of InternalMedicine, 152: from UNICEF, Skopje Country Office and UNICEF
1186–1190. Regional Office for CEE/CIS & the Baltics.
234 Fawcett G et al. (1998). Deteccion y Manejo de Mujeres 245 ChildHelpLine International (2005). Submission
Victimas de Violencia Domestica: Desarrollo y Evaluacion to the United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on
de un Programa Dirigido al Personal de Salud (Detecting Violence against Children. Amsterdam, ChildHelpLine
and Dealing with Women Victims of Domestic Violence: International.
The Development and Evaluation of a Programme for
246 CRIN (2005). WSIS and Children’s Rights. Available
Health Workers). Mexico City, Population Council.
at: http://www.crin.org/resources/InfoDetail.
235 Sugg NK et al. (1999). Domestic Violence and Primary asp?ID= 6902.
Care: Attitudes, Practices, and Beliefs. Archives of Family
247 ChildHelpLine International (2005). Submission
Medicine, 8: 301–306.
to the United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on
236 Sanders AB (1992). Care of the Elderly in Emergency Violence against Children. Amsterdam, ChildHelpLine
Departments: Conclusions and Recommendations. International.
Annals of Emergency Medicine, 21: 79–83.
248 Jordan S (2001). Violence and Adolescence in Urban 258 Graham K et al. (2004). The Effect of the Safer Bars
Settings: A Public Health Approach. Publications Programme on Physical Aggression in Bars: Results of a
Series, Research Unit, Public Health Policy. Berlin, Randomised Controlled Trial. Drug and Alcohol Review,
Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung. 23: 31–41.
249 Narayan D et al. (2000). Voices of the Poor: Can Anyone 259 Homel R et al. (2004). Making Licensed Venues Safer
Hear Us? Published for the World Bank. New York, for Patrons: What Environmental Factors Should Be the
Oxford University Press. Focus of Interventions? Drug and Alcohol Review, 23:
19–29.
250 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002).
Community Interventions to Promote Healthy Social 260 Bellis MA et al. (2004). Violence in General Places of
Environments: Early Childhood Development and Entertainment. In: Pompidou Group (Ed). Violence
Family Housing. MMWR 51: RR-1. and Insecurity Related to the Consumption of Psychoactive
Substances. Strasbourg, Council of Europe.
251 Ludwig J, Duncan GJ, Hirschfield P. (2001). Urban
Poverty and Juvenile Crime: Evidence from a 261 Bellis MA et al. (2004). Violence in General Places of
Randomized Housing-mobility Experiment. Quarterly Entertainment. In: Pompidou Group (Ed) Violence and
Journal of Economics (16): 655–680. Insecurity Related to the Consumption of Psychoactive
Substances. Strasbourg, Council of Europe.
350 252 Butchart A, Engstrom K (2002). Sex- and Age-specific
Effects of Economic Development and Inequality on 262 Room R et al. (2003). Alcohol in Developing Societies: A
Homicide Rates in 0- to 24-Year-Olds: A Cross-sectional Public Health Approach. Helsinki, Finnish Foundation
Analysis. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 80: for Alcohol Studies and Geneva, World Health
797–805. Organization.
253 Institute for Research and Evaluation (2004). The 263 Hahn R A et al. (2003). First Reports Evaluating
Prevention of Murders in Diadema, Brazil: The Influence the Effectiveness of Strategies for Preventing
of New Alcohol Policies. Calverton, MD, Pacific. Violence: Firearm Laws. Findings from the Task
Available at: http://resources.prev.org/resource_pub_ Force on Community Preventive Services. MMWR
brazil.pdf.html. Recommendations and Reports, 52(RR14): 11–20.
254 Wagenaar AC et al. (2000). Communities Mobilising 264 Loftin C et al. (1991). Effects of Restrictive Licensing
for Change on Alcohol (CMCA): Effects of a of Handguns on Homicide and Suicide in the District
Randomised Trial on Arrests and Traffic Crashed. of Columbia. New England Journal of Medicine, 325:
Addiction, 95: 209–217. 1615–1620.
255 WHO (2006). Global Estimates of Health Consequences 265 Villaveces A et al (2000). Effect of a Ban on Carrying
Due to Violence against Children. Background paper to Firearms on Homicide Rates in Two Colombian Cities.
the UN Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Journal of the American Medical Association, 283: 1205–
Children. Geneva, World Health Organization. 1209.
256 Ryan M (1995). Russian Report: Alcoholism and Rising 266 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1995).
Mortality in the Russian Federation. British Medical Patterns of Homicide – Cali, Colombia, 1993–1994.
Journal, 310: 648–650. MMWR, 44(39): 734–736.
257 Mattern JL, Neighbors C (2004). Social Norms 267 Stanley J (2001). Child Abuse and the Internet. Child
Campaigns: Examining the Relationship Between Abuse Prevention Issues, No. 15, Summer 2001. Available
Changes in Perceived Norms and Changes in Drinking at: http://www.aifs.gov.au/nch/issues/issues15.html.
Levels. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 65: 489–493.
7
QUOTES
and Boys. Global Submission by the International Save I Hall J (2003). Inyandza Leyo! Testimonies from Abuse
the Children Alliance to the UN Secretary-General’s Survivors. Swaziland. Cited in: United Nations Secretary-
Study on Violence against children. Oslo, Save the General’s Study on Violence against Children (2005).
Children Norway. Regional Desk Review: Eastern and Southern Africa, p 26.
269 Titley G (2004). Young People and Violence Prevention Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27.
- Youth Policy Recommendations. Budapest, Directorate II UNICEF (2003). Africa’s orphaned generations.
of Youth and Sport, European Youth Centre. New York, UNICEF, p 31.
270 Black M (2004). Opening Minds, Ppening Up III UNHCR (2005). Refugee and returnee children in
Opportunities, Children’s Participation in Action for Southern Africa: Perceptions and experiences of violence
Working Children and Associated Case Studies. London, – A qualitative study of refugees and returnee children in
Save the Children Alliance. UNHCR operations in Angola, South Africa and Zambia.
271 UNICEF (2005). Young People’s Participation in the Pretoria, UNHCR, p 6.
CEE/CIS and the Baltics. Geneva, UNICEF Regional IV Anti-Slavery International (2001). Golam and Roushan
Office for CEE/CIS and the Baltics. – Trafficked Children. Speeches from the ASI Award
ceremony. Available at: http://www.antislavery.org/ 351
272 All responses are available at: http://www.ohchr.
homepage/antislavery/award/award2001speeches.htm

org/english/bodies/crc/ study.htm. As of 20 September
2006, 135 Member States and one observer had V United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
submitted responses. against Children (2005). Regional Desk Review: South
Asia, p 59. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.org/r27.
273 Black M (2004). Somali Children and Youth: Challenging
the Past and Building the Future. UNICEF Somalia. VI Save the Children Alliance (2005). 10 Essential Learning
Points: Listen and Speak out against Sexual Abuse of Girls
and Boys, Global Submission by the International Save
UNICEF, Regional Office for Latin America and the
Study on Violence against Children, p 27.
Caribbean.
VII Africa Child Policy Forum (2006). The African
275 Council of Europe (2006). Building a Europe for and
with children. Council of Europe. Available at:
http://www.coe.int/t/transversalprojects/children/.
276 Mercy J et al. (2002). Youth Violence. In: Krug EG et
VIII WorldVision (2005). Strongim pikinini, strongim
al. (Eds). World Report on Violence and Health. Geneva,
laef b’ long famili: enabling children to reach their full
World Health Organization, pp 25–56.
potential. A contribution to the UN Secretary-General’s
277 Tolan P (2001). Youth Violence and its Prevention in Study on Violence against Children. Milton Keynes,
the United States: An Overview of Current Knowledge. World Vision International, p 7.
Injury Control and Safety Promotion, 8(1): 1–12.
IX United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
America, p 1. Available at: http://www.violencestudy.
org/r27.
X Africa Child Policy Forum (2006). The African
Sueraya Shaheen- Cité du Temps
EL SALVADOR, 1996, A group of children in a refugee camp in El Salvador

8
“Violence against children is never justified in any setting or context. States should be in a position
to offer appropriate support to parents, teachers, criminal justice personnel and others who sometimes
resort to violence against children. We all have a responsibility to act to eliminate it.”
Mehr Khan Williams, United Nations Deputy High Commissioner for Human Rights
THE WAY FORWARD

The evidence collected for the United Nations commitments on the one hand, and the reality
Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against of children’s lives on the other. As the Study
Children, in line with the clear consensus of its report presented to the UN General Assembly
participants, suggests that, although violence notes, “Member States have already made com-
against children is widespread, it is prevent- mitments to protect children from all forms of
able, and the world has the resources to effect violence. However, we must accept – from chil-
its elimination. Experts, practitioners, and children’s testimony during the Study process, as
dren themselves agree that violence is not an well as from the results of research – that these
unchanging, inevitable feature of life, and must commitments are far from being fulfilled.”1
not be passively accepted as such. Moreover, the
Study has documented the progress made by Much of this state of affairs stems from a lack
Governments as they begin to acknowledge the of leadership by politicians and other decision-
scale of the problem and respond to the human makers. Discussion of the problem has too
rights obligations they have accepted. often remained muted and vague, allowing the
threshold of acceptable action to stay at a low 353
Governments and a wide range of partners level, and the linkages between different forms
THE WAY FORWARD

have come forward with useful and concrete of violence to be overlooked. For the most part,
actions to prevent violence against children, prohibiting and eliminating violence against
reduce its multiple impacts, and advocate for children lacks adequate political attention. To
change. A growing number of action research become a high priority, the elimination of vio-
projects, prevention strategies and therapeutic lence against children requires strong political
responses are being implemented and evalu- leadership and determined advocacy by civil
ated; this is providing an increasingly solid evi- society.
dence base for partners to adapt and improve
existing interventions, and create new ones. Strong mechanisms must be put in place at
As well as specifically protecting the youngest national, regional and international levels to
and most vulnerable members of society from ensure implementation of the Study’s recom-
violence, these actions contribute to the wider mendations. Leadership and coordination are
objective of reducing violence for all, as it is equally important at international, regional
clear that interventions focusing on the young and national levels. The implementation of
have the greatest potential to reap benefits in most of the recommendations presented in
society as a whole. the Introduction to this report depends on the
capability of Governments to incorporate all
Throughout the Study process, and as ever- recommendations within current legal instru-
greater numbers of participants had their say, ments and public policies, in a coordinated
a number of issues were raised repeatedly in way. The continuous commitment of human
region after region. First and foremost was the and financial resources to a broad and system-
alarming gap between States’ obligations and atic framework to reduce and respond to vio-
“Too often, we see that legislation is on the books but that many children remain on the margins
of society – not registered at birth, not in school, too poor to see a doctor and, for that,
all the more vulnerable to violence and abuse.”
Rima Salah, Deputy Executive Director, UNICEF
lence against children, integrated into national policies and comprehensive legal frameworks.
planning processes, is essential for the success The action programme against violence sup-
of this endeavour. Stopping violence against ports States in their obligations to ensure the
children requires not only sanctioning perpe- protection of children, prevention of violence,
trators, but also transformation of the “mind- prosecution of criminals, and participation by
set” of societies and the underlying economic children.
and social conditions that allow violence
against children to thrive. At an international level, it is also expected
that the UN supports countries in their task of
Strong regional support for the implementa- implementation, mainstreams the recommen-
tion of the recommendations is also important. dations of the Study Report to the UN General
Regional mechanisms can play a significant Assembly (elaborated in this book), and moni-
role in bridging gaps in technical expertise, tors achievements. The coordination among
sharing best practices and assessing progress. the various UN entities involved in this pro-
354 Regional networks established during the cess is again essential to ensure the continuity
Study process have continued in various forms of the holistic and multidisciplinary approach
THE WAY FORWARD
in each of the regions. For example, in the suggested by the Study. Bearing this in mind,
Middle East and North Africa, an expanded the report recommended that a Special Rep-
regional network which includes Government resentative for the Secretary-General’s Study
representatives and the Arab League is taking on Violence against Children be appointed,
action to implement the Study recommenda- to provide a focal point and act as a global
tions related to a range of regional priorities.2 advocate on the issues of violence against
The South Asia Forum, established in 2005 as children, building on the worldwide momen-
a result of the Regional Consultation hosted tum generated by the Study process and the
by the Government of Pakistan, has begun to report itself. In an effort to accelerate progress
implement the Study recommendations with at country level, a global Inter-Agency Group
a focus on the issues of early marriage, and on Violence against Children was established
physical and psychological punishment. In in 2005, chaired by UNICEF with the direct
addition, the Council of Europe has launched support of OHCHR and WHO. Membership
a three-year programme, “Building a Europe includes a range of other UN agencies and
for and with Children.” This programme NGOs. These efforts should contribute to the
takes into account the various dimensions of UN reform process by increasing coordination
violence against children in two closely linked among existing entities, refining and clarify-
strands: the promotion of children’s rights, ing mandates, and increasing the attention
and the action programme “Children and given to violence against children across and
Violence.”3 In the strand focused on promot- within existing mandates.
ing children’s rights, the programme will help
European States to set up integrated children’s
“Violence can be prevented... A wide range of positive strategies are available to help societies reduce
violence. These include: training and supporting new parents; helping children learn social skills;
8
assisting communities to control the availability of alcohol; increasing incentives for young people
to complete their studies; enhancing services for victims of violence; and strengthening policies that
promote gender, social and economic equality.”
The late Lee Jong-wook, Former Director-General, WHO, 2005
Ending violence against children is a matter of REFERENCES

urgency. Children cannot afford for this Study
to be merely one more report that gathers dust 1 United Nations Secretary-General (2006). Report of
the Independent Expert for the United Nations Study on
on shelves around the world. Action to imple- Violence against Children. Promotion and protection
ment the recommendations must begin imme- of the rights of children. United Nations General
diately. The core message of the Study is that Assembly, Sixty-first session. A/61/299.
no violence against children is justifiable; all 2 United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
violence against children is preventable. There against Children (2006). Outcome Report: Middle East
should be no more excuses or delays: the prob- and North Africa (MENA) Regional Consultation on
lem is out in the open, the obligations of Gov- Violence against Children: Follow-up Consultation. 25–28
March 2006. Egypt, National Council for Motherhood
ernments are clear, and the means to deal with
and Childhood.
it are known, affordable, and available.
3 Council of Europe (2006). Building a Europe for and
Governments are ultimately responsible for with Children. Council of Europe. Available at: http://
the protection of children. It is therefore up to www.coe.int/t/transversalprojects/children/.
355
Governments to act now, to fulfil their human
THE WAY FORWARD

rights obligations and other commitments, to QUOTES
ensure the protection of children from all forms
I United Nations Secretary-General’s Study on Violence
of violence. But Governments cannot do the against Children (2005). Statement by Children
job alone. All sectors of society, all individuals, and Young People. Young People’s Forum, Regional
share the responsibility of condemning and pre- Consultation: South Asia, p 3. Available at: www.
venting violence against children and respond- violencestudy.org/r27.
ing to the predicament of child victims.
“We urge you to activate these recommendations and others made by children in previous consulta-
tions and to involve us when designing actions on violence against girls and boys in each country
and region.”
Children’s statement, Young People’s Forum, South Asia, 2005 I
Annex
ESTIMATED HOMICIDE RATES BY REGION
AND INCOME LEVEL, 2002
Source: WHO (2006). Global Estimates of Health Consequences Due to Violence against Children.
Background Paper to the UN Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Children. Geneva, World Health Organization.
Homicide rate per 100 000 population

UN region income sex 0-17 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-17
years*
All All Males 2.93 2.09 1.00 2.08 9.06
All All Females 1.92 1.99 1.48 1.49 3.28
Males &
All All 2.44 2.04 1.24 1.79 6.25
Females
All High income Males 1.45 2.29 0.41 0.56 3.25
All High income Females 0.95 1.67 0.44 0.40 1.53
Males & 357
All High income 1.21 1.99 0.43 0.48 2.41
Females
ANNEX
All Low income Males 3.10 2.07 1.07 2.25 9.75
All Low income Females 2.03 2.02 1.60 1.61 3.48
Males &
All Low income 2.58 2.05 1.33 1.94 6.70
Females
Africa All Males 5.85 4.25 2.44 5.09 15.64
Africa All Females 5.30 4.07 4.79 4.62 9.45
Males &
Africa All 5.58 4.16 3.60 4.86 12.57
Females
Asia All Males 1.53 1.32 0.65 1.21 3.93
Asia All Females 0.99 1.29 0.70 0.69 1.48
Males &
Asia All 1.27 1.30 0.68 0.96 2.74
Females
Australia/New Zealand All Males 0.99 1.76 0.44 0.41 1.60
Australia/New Zealand All Females 0.55 0.75 0.64 0.31 0.48
Males &
Australia/New Zealand All 0.78 1.26 0.54 0.36 1.05
Females
Europe All Males 1.74 1.44 0.55 0.89 5.72
Europe All Females 1.01 1.30 0.57 0.75 1.67
Males &
Europe All 1.38 1.37 0.56 0.82 3.74
Females
Latin America and Caribbean All Males 8.11 1.95 0.98 4.01 37.66
Latin America and Caribbean All Females 2.21 1.62 0.67 1.81 6.50
Males &
Latin America and Caribbean All 5.21 1.79 0.83 2.93 22.33
Females
>>>
Homicide rate per 100 000 population
UN region income sex 0-17 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-17
years*
Northern America All Males 2.57 3.77 0.56 1.09 6.37
Northern America Al Females 1.48 3.01 0.59 0.72 1.60
Males &
Northern America All Females 2.04 3.40 0.57 0.91 4.04
Oceania** All Males 1.74 3.31 0.83 2.00 0.13
Oceania** All Females 1.38 2.10 0.74 0.85 2.14
Oceania** All Males & 1.57 2.72 0.78 1.45 1.08
Females
* Age standardized death rate

** Excluding Australia and New Zealand
358
ANNEX
Notes
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
359
NOTES
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
360
NOTES
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Notes
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
361
NOTES
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
362
NOTES
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Notes
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
363
NOTES
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
364
NOTES
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

World Report On Violence Against Children

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

World Report On Violence Against Children

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

World Report On Violence Against Children

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

WORLD REPORT ON

VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN

Paulo Sérgio Pinheiro

Published by the United Nations

The Coordinating Committee

Human rights treaty bodies and mechanisms

Other United Nations and international organisations

The Editorial Board

Research Advisory Group

Louise Arbour Ann M. Veneman

Paulo Sérgio Pinheiro

AN END TO VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN

INTRODUCTION There can be no compromise in challenging

AN END TO VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN

MANDATE AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY

AN END TO VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN

AN END TO VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN

THE STUDY PROCESS

AN END TO VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN

HIDDEN DIMENSIONS OF VIOLENCE into and registration of child deaths. Although

in their homes lack the capacity to report.

Percentage of the world’s children who are legally protected

AN END TO VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN

labour, 1.8 million in prostitution and

AN END TO VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN

Society Community Relationship Individual

Estimated child homicide rates by age and sex

TABLE 1.1 – Acute and long-term consequences of violence against children

Physical health consequences

AN END TO VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN

TABLE 1.1 – Acute and long-term consequences of violence against children

16 Other longer-term health consequences

AN END TO VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN

AN END TO VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN

AN END TO VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN

AN END TO VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN

All Forms of Discrimination against mitments. These include UN entities, civil

the treaty bodies.

AN END TO VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN

Zambia and Zimbabwe (Harare).

24 Perry BD (2001). The Neurodevelopmental Impact

AN END TO VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN

HRH Princess Caroline of Hanover, April 2006 I

INTRODUCTION tion of racial discrimination, discrimination

Existing protection under international steps to eliminate and respond to violence

under the Convention with regard to female

since 1993, has provided substantial guidance

REGIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS “The Committee does not ﬁnd it accept-

elimination of harmful traditional practices,

Convention on Regional Arrangements on the Promotion of Child Welfare

*This list is not exhaustive

respond to it effectively if it occurs, ensur- International law thus provides a powerful,

42 4 Committee on the Rights of the Child (2006). General

from Corporal Punishment and Other Cruel or Degrading

VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN IN THE HOME AND FAMILY

VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN IN THE HOME AND FAMILY

HUMAN RIGHTS INSTRUMENTS

VIOLENCE AGAINST CHILDREN IN THE HOME AND FAMILY