CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

 OBJECTIVES:

After studying this chapter, you would be able to:

1) Know the basic concepts of human resource management (HRM)

2) Acquainted with the major human resource management functions.
3) Understand personnel issues under different schools of thoughts
4) Analyze the context (the environment) within which human resource
management functions.

 WHAT IS HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT?

Before giving an answer to this question, it would be better to define

"management" it self. The reason to this is that human resource management
belongs to the broader field of study and practice known as management.

Management can be defined as the process of reaching organizational goals by

working with and through people and other resources. Management in all
areas of life implies achieving goals with effective and efficient use of
organizational resources.
Organizational resources can be grouped into four major categories:
· Human resources
· Financial resources
· Physical resources
· Information resources
Human resources are among the fundamental resources available to any
organization. Emphasizing the importance of human resources, some
prominent writers define management as the process of getting things done
with and through other people.

Human resource management (HRM) is thus a part of the field of management.

HRM, can be defined as the utilization of human resources to achieve
organizational objectives. It can broadly be seen as that function of all
organizations which provides for effective utilization of human resources to
achieve both the objectives of the organization on one hand and the satisfaction
and development of employees on the other hand (Glueck, 1992).
In defining and studying human resources management some points need to
be emphasized:

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 · Human resources management is concerned with the people dimension
of the organizational management.
· Human resource management is a pervasive activity, meaning a
universal activity in any type of organization : government, business,
education, health, defense, recreation, etc.
· The human resource is said to be the most important ( or critical) element
in an organization since people make the decisions concerning all other
organizational resources. Therefore, getting and keeping good people is
critical to the success of every organization, whether profit or non-profit,
public or private.

In an organization, managers at all levels must concern themselves with

human resource management at least to some extent. Basically, it has been
said, managers get things done through the efforts of others, which basically
requires effective human resource management (Monday & Noe, 1990).

A human resource manager is an individual who normally acts in an advisory,

or "staff", capacity, working with other managers to help them deal with human
resource matters. The human resource manager is primarily responsible for
coordinating the management of human resources to help the organization
achieve its goals.

Some writers in the field and other management people may use such names
as "personnel", "personnel management", "manpower management", and
"employee relations" to say the same thing: human resource management.

 MAJOR HRM FUNCTIONS AND OBJECTIVES

o OBJECTIVES

The primary objectives of HRM is to ensure the availability of a competent and

willing workforce to an organization. Beyoned this, there are other objectives,
too. Specifically, HRM objectives are four fold – societal, organizational,
functional and personal.
 Societal Objectivees : To be ethically responsible to the needs and
challenges of the society while minimizing the negative impact of such
demands upon the organization.
 Organizational Objectives: to recognize the role of HRM in briniging
about organizational effectiness. HRM is not an end itself. It is only a
means to assist organization with its primary objectives.
 Functional Objectives: to maintain the department’s contribution at a
level apprperiate to the organization’s needs.

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  Personnel objectives: to assist employees in achieving their personal
goals, at least insofar as these goals enhance the individual’s
contribution to the organization.

o FUNCTIONS
Human resource management functions are the set of activities performed in
utilizing human resources for better achievement of organizational objectives.
Following are the major elements (Mondy & Noe, 1990):

1. Human Resource Planning

Human resource planning (HRP) is the process of systematically reviewing
human resource requirements to ensure that the required numbers of
employees, with the required skills, are available when they are needed.
HRP is the process of matching the internal and external supply of
people with job openings anticipated in the organization over a specified
period of time.

2. Recruitment
Recruitment is the process of attracting individuals in sufficient numbers
and encouraging them to apply for jobs with the organization. It is the
process of identifying and attracting a pool of candidates, from which
some will later be selected to receive employment offers.

3. Selection
Selection is the process of choosing from a group of applicants the
individuals best suited for a particular position. Whereas recruitment
encourages individuals to seek employment with a firm, the purpose of
the selection process is to identify and employ the best qualified
individuals for specific positions.

4. Orientation
Orientation is the formal process of familiarizing new employees with the
organization, their job, and their work unit. Through orientation (also
called socialization or induction) new employees will acquire the
knowledge, skills, and attitudes that make them successful members of
the organization.

5. Training and Development

Training and development aim to increase employee's ability to
contribute to organizational effectiveness. Training is a process designed
to maintain or improve performance (and skills) in the present job.
Development is a programme designed to develop skills necessary for
future work activities. It is designed to prepare employees for promotion.

6. Compensation Administration

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 Compensation administration refers to the administration of every type of
reward that individuals receive in return for their services. In its boarder
sense, compensation represents all sorts of rewards that individuals
receive as a result of their employment.

7. Performance Evaluation
Performance evaluation is a formal system of periodic review and
evaluation of an individual's job performance.

8. Safety and Health

Safety involves protecting employees from injuries caused by work-
related accidents. Health refers to the employees freedom from illness
and their general physical and mental well-being. These aspects of the
job are important because employees who work in a safe environment
and enjoy good health are more likely to be productive and yield long-
term benefits to the organization.

9. Promotions, transfers, demotions and separations

Promotions, transfers, demotions, and separations reflect an employee's
value to the organization. High performers may be promoted or
transferred to help them develop their skills, while low performers may
be demoted, transferred to less important positions, or even separated.

10. Human Resource Research

Human resource research is a systematic gathering, recording,
analyzing, and interpretation of data for guiding human resource
management decisions. Every human resource management function
needs effective research.

11. Other areas such as employee and labour relations, collective

bargaining, employee rights and discipline, and retirement are also
concerns of human resource management.

 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT: AN OVERVIEW

Personnel, according to some writers, at least in a primitive form, have existed

since the dawn of group effort. Certain personnel functions, even though
informal in nature, were performed whenever people came together for a
common purpose. During the course of this century, however, the processes
of managing people have become more formalized and specialized, and a
growing body of knowledge has been accumulated by practitioners and
scholars.

For many decades such responsibilities as selection, training and

compensation were considered basic functions constituting the area

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traditionally referred to as personnel. These functions were performed without
much regard for how they related to each other. From this narrow view the
world has seen the emergence of what is now known as human resources
management.

Human resources management (HRM), as it is currently perceived, therefore,

represents the extension rather than the rejection of the traditional
requirements for managing personnel effectively.

Understanding Personnel Issues Under Different Schools of

Thoughts: Scientific Management And Human Relations School

1. Scientific Management
Scientific management is one of the classical schools of thoughts in
management. This approach was initially formulated with the aim of
increasing productivity and makes the work easier by scientifically studying
work methods and establishing standards.

Frederick W. Taylor played the dominant role in formulating this theory and he
is usually named as the father of scientific management. Scientific
management, sometimes called Taylorism, has a strong industrial engineering
flavor. Taylor himself was a mechanical engineer whose primary aim was
maximizing profits and minimizing costs of production. The guiding principle of
this school was "getting the most out of workers".

Taylor disliked wastage and inefficiency. During his time, in some working
areas, employees tended to work at a slower pace. And this tendency,
according to him, was a cause for less productivity and efficiency. Managers
were unaware of this practice because they had never analyzed the jobs closely
enough to determine how much the employees should be producing.

Frederick Taylor based his management system on production-line time

studies. Instead of relaying on traditional work methods, he analyzed and
timed each element of workers' movements on a series of jobs. Once Taylor has
designed the job, he thereby established how many workers should be able to
do with the equipment and materials at hand. Next, he implemented a piece-
rate pay system. Instead of paying all employees the same wage, he began
increasing the pay of each worker who met and exceeded the target level of
output set for his job.

Taylor encouraged employers to pay more productive workers at a higher rate

than others. To realize this he developed a differential rate system, which
involves the compensation of higher wages to more efficient workers (Stoner &
Freeman, 1992).

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Frederick Taylor rested his philosophy on some basic principles (Stoner &
Freeman, 1992):
1. The development of a true science of management, so that the best
method for performing each task could be determined.
2. The scientific selection of workers, so that each worker would be given
responsibility for the task for which he best suited.
3. The scientific training (education) of the worker.
4. Intimate, friendly cooperation between management and labour.
5. A division of responsibility between management and labour.

Frederick Taylor saw scientific management as benefiting both management

and the worker equally: management could achieve more work in a given
amount of time; the worker could produce more and hence earn more-with little
or no additional effort. Taylor strongly believed that employees could be
motivated by economic rewards, provided those rewards were related to
individual performance.

Scientific management, according to Rue and Byars (1992), was a complete

mental revolution for both management and employees toward their respective
duties and toward each other. It was, at that time, a new philosophy and
attitude toward the use of human effort. It emphasized maximum output with
minimum effort through the elimination of waste and inefficiency at the
operative level.

Scientific management basically had a focus on such areas as:

¨ techniques of production
¨ the most efficient method
¨ rigid rules of performance
¨ using the shortest time possible
¨ workers productivity /efficiency
¨ minimum cost of production hence maximum profit
¨ highly refined tools and materials
¨ training and closer supervision, etc.

Scientific management, because of its fundamental ideas, has been subject to

strong critics. This school of thought was and still is considered to be limited
by its basic assumptions, particularly, about human beings.
During the time of Taylor, the popular model of human behavior held that
people were rational and motivated primarily to satisfy their economic and
physical needs. Employees were considered as an extension of machine, as a
factor of production, and as an economic unit. Thus, employees, according to
Taylor, could be motivated solely by economic rewards or material gain.

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Nevertheless, the Taylor's model of motivation overlooked the human desire for
job satisfaction and the social needs of workers as a group, failing to consider
the tensions created when these needs are frustrated. Furthermore, the
emphasis on productivity and profitability led some managers to exploit both
workers and customers of the organization. As a result more workers started
to join labour unions to challenge the behavior of management.

2.The Human Relations Movement

The human relations movement, as the name implies is said to stress the
human element in the work place. This movement was started as a reaction
against the doctrines and practices of scientific management. According to the
beliefs of this theory, labour is not a commodity to be bought and sold.
Workers must be considered in the context of the groups of which they are a
part (Griffith, 1979).

The human relation was interdisciplinary in nature. It was founded on new

knowledge's developed in the areas of psychology, group dynamics, sociology,
political science, and labour economics.

The human relations movement basically grew from the Howthrone

Experiments conducted by a scholar known as Elton Mayo. After extensive
studies, Elton Mayo argued that workers respond primarily to other social
context of the work place, and his conclusions include:
¨ Work is a group activity
¨ the need for recognition, security, and a sense of belonging is more important
in determining workers' morale and productivity than the physical conditions
under which he works.
¨ The worker is a person whose attitudes and effectiveness are conditioned by
social demands from both inside and outside the work place.
¨ Informal groups within the work place exercise strong social controls over the
work habits and attitudes of the individual worker.

The proponents of scientific management are criticized to look on the employee

as an economic unit, a factor of production, and an extension of a machine
who is motivated only by a desire for material gain. The human relationists, on
the other hand, considered the worker as a complete human being with
attitudes and needs which profoundly affected his work. It follows then that
organizations must provide for the satisfaction of all human needs to obtain
the most from their employees.

Scientific management did not consider the existence of informal relationship

as it exists side by side with the formal one. As recognized by the human
relationists, informal organizations exist and play important part in the life of
the worker. Informal organizations consist of social relationships among
employees.

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Informal organization is voluntary in origin, its purpose is not clear, it has no
hierarchy of positions and it ceases to exist when its members left. Many
workers get their satisfaction in the informal groups where they are treated as
individuals, not as a part of a machine in the plant. The friendliness and
recognition of their co-workers compensate for their impersonal treatment by
the large and complex formal organization.

In these informal and shifting groupings, leaders arise. They are not elected or
appointed, they have no legal standing, but they assume leadership roles on
the basis of their colleagues' esteem, and together they constitute the informal
authority structure.

The attitude of an employee's primary group, as voiced by the group leader,

may determine whether an official directive will be supported or subverted,
whether employees will cooperate with administrators, or whether work norms
will be raised or lowered. The group can influence a member to interpret rules
narrowly or broadly, to slow down to speed up, to comply or resist.

After several studies and investigations Elton Mayo and his associates tried to
show that workers primarily respond to group, not as individuals. It follows,
then, that administrators should not deal with workers as individual units,
isolated from those they work with, but as members of work groups subject to
group pressure.

The human relations movement also emphasizes that:

· Communication is the life blood of an organization. Therefore, unlike the
thinking of the classical school, information must flow freely, up, down,
and horizontally through established net works of the formal organization
and non-official networks of the informal organization,
· Participative decision making has strong motivating force. Participation in
decision making increases members' level of satisfaction, their enthusiasm
for their organization and their positive attitude towards their organization
and their superiors.

1. THE ENVIRONMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Many interrelated environmental factors affect human resource management.

Such factors are part of either the organization's external environment or its
internal environment. The organization has little, if any, control over how the
external environment affects management of its human resources. These
factors impose influences of varying degrees on the organization from outside
its boundaries. Moreover, important factors within the firm itself also have an
impact on how the organization manages its human resources.

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The environment of an organization consists of the conditions, circumstances,
and influences that affect the organization's ability to achieve its objectives.
Every organization exists in an environment that has both external and
internal components. As such, a human resource management programme
functions in a complex environment both outside and inside the organization.
Human resource managers therefore should be aware that rapid changes are
occurring within the environment in which organizations operate.

 The External Environment

According to Griffin (1990), the external environment consists of everything
outside an organization that might affect it. However, the boundary that
separates the organization from the external environment is not always clear
and precise. The external environment has a significant impact on human
resource management policies and practices. It helps to determine the values,
attitudes, and behavior that employees bring to their jobs.

The external environment is composed of two layers: the general environment

and the task environment.

 The General Environment

An organization's general environment consists of the nonspecific dimensions
and forces in its surroundings that might affect the organization's activities.
These elements are not necessarily associated with other specific organization
or groups. Instead, they are general forces or processes that interact with each
other and also affect the organizations as a whole. Each embodies conditions
and events that have the potential to influence the organization and its human
resource management activities in significant ways. The general environment of
most organizations has the following dimensions:

1) The Economic Environment

The economic environment refers to the general economic conditions and trends
that may affect the human resource management activities of an organization.
The economic variables include unemployment, demand and supply, inflation,
interest rates, the labour market, and others.

When, for example, unemployment is high, the organization is able to be very

selective about whom it hires. Increased or decreased demand for a firm's
products or services will have important implications for recruitment or layoff.
Inflation has had a significant impact on human resources programme,
necessitating periodic upward adjustments in employee compensation.

2) The Technological Environment

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The technological environment includes advances in sciences as well as new
developments in products, processes, equipment, machinery and other
materials that may affect an organization.

Technological advancements have tended to reduce the number of jobs that

require little skill and to increase the number of jobs that require considerable
skill. Technological advances also have training implication. The challenging
areas in human resource management will be training employees to stay up
with rapidly advancing technology. Because, as technological changes occur,
certain skills also are no longer required. This necessitates some retraining of
the current workforce.

3) The Socio-Cultural Environment

The socio-cultural dimension of the general environment is made up of the
customs, values, and demographic characteristics of the society in which the
organization functions.

The socio-cultural dimension influences how employees feel about an

organization. Human resource management, today, has become more complex
than it was when employees were concerned primarily with economic survival.
Today, many employees have more social concerns than mere economic
interest as early times.

4) The Political-Legal Environment

Political variables are the factors that may influence an organizations activities
as a result of the political process or climate. The political-legal environment is
also made up of the laws and regulations within which an organization
conducts its affairs.

Government has a significant impact on human resources management. Each

of the functions performed in the management of human resources, from
employee recruitment to termination, is in some way affected by laws and
regulations established by the government. Human resource managers must
follow all laws and government regulations.

5) The Physical Environment

The physical environment includes the climate, terrain, and other physical
characteristics of the area in which the organization is located. The physical
element can help or hinder an organizational ability to attract and retain
employees. Housing and living costs can vary from one location to another and
can have a significant impact on the compensation, employees will expect.

 The Task Environment

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The task environment of an organization consists of individuals, groups, and
organizations that directly affect a particular organization but are not part of it.
The task environment refers to the specific environment of an organization and
may include (Barney, 1992):
 The customer  The Competitor
 T he supplier · The Partner
 The Regulators · The Owners

All these elements are much close and specific to a given organization.
Whereas the elements of the general environment affect virtually all
organizations in the society, the elements of the task environment are pertinent
(more relevant) to a specific organization.

 The Internal Environment

The environment that exists within an organization is known as the internal

environment. The internal environment consists those factors that affect an
organization's human resources from inside its boundaries. The internal
environment of an organization includes (Mondy & Noe, 1990):

· Mission
Mission is the organization's continuing purpose or reason for its existence.
Each management level should operate with a clear understanding of the firm's
mission. The specific organizational mission must be regarded as a major
internal factor that affects the tasks of human resource management.

· Policy
A policy is a predetermined guide established to provide direction in decision
making. As guides, rather than hard and fast rules, policies are somewhat
flexible, requiring interpretation and judgment in their use. They can exert
significant influence on how human resource managers accomplish their jobs.

Although policies are established for marketing, production, and finance, the
largest number of policies often relate to human resource management. Some
potential policy statements that affect human resource management are:
- To provide employees with a safe place to work
- To encourage all employees to achieve as much of their human potential as
possible
- To provide compensation that will encourage a high level productivity in both
quality and quantity.
- To ensure that current employees are considered first for any vacant position
for which they may be qualified.

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 · Organizational Culture

As an internal environmental factor affecting human resource management,

organizational culture refers to the organization's social and psychological
climate. Organizational culture is defined as the system of shared values,
beliefs, and habits within an organization that interacts with the formal
structure to produce behavioral norms.

Other factors include:

· The organization's management

· The organization's employees
· The organization's structure
· The organization's rules and procedures etc.

CHAPTER TWO

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT TOOLS

JOB ANALYSIS

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A job in an organization is created when tasks, duties and responsibilities
justify hiring of one or more people for accomplishing the organizational
purposes. A Job according to Mondy and Noe (1990) consists of a group of
tasks that must be performed for an organization to achieve its goals. A job
may need the services of one individual, such as that of the Prime Minister or
the services of ten or more, as might be the case with ministers in a country.
In a work group consisting of an auditor, two chief accountants, and three
accounting clerks, there are a total of three jobs and six positions. A
position is the collection of tasks and responsibilities performed by one
person; there is a position for every individual in an organization (Mondy &
Noe, 1990). If a job is so fundamentally important in an organization, what
then is a job analysis?

Job analysis is the systematic process of determining the skills, duties and
knowledge required for performing jobs in an organization (Mondy & Noe,
1990). It is an important human resource technique and is also a method that
enables to obtain information regarding jobs available in the organization.

The major purpose of job analysis is to provide answers to the following six
important questions ( Mondy & Noe, 1990).
1. What physical and mental tasks does the worker accomplish?
2. When is the job to be completed?
3. Where is the job to be accomplished?
4. How does the worker do the job?
5. Why is the job done?
6. What qualifications are needed to perform the job?

The job facts are gathered, analyzed and recorded with respect to the job as it
exists. Moreover, job analysis is conducted after the job has been designed, the
necessary training has been given to the employees to perform job. According
to Mondy & Noe, 1990, job analysis is performed on three different
accessions.

These are:
1) It is done when the organization is founded and a job analysis
program is initiated for the first time.
2) It is performed when new jobs are created
3) It is used when jobs are changed significantly as a result of new
technology, methods, procedures, or systems.

In most cases, job analysis is carried out because of changes in the nature of
jobs. It is used to prepare both job descriptions and job specifications. The
job description is a written statement that explains the title, duties,
responsibilities, working conditions, and other aspects of a specified job. Job

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specification, on the other hand, describes the skill, knowledge, work
experiences required to perform the job. (Milkovich & Bourdean, 1991)

Reasons for Conducting Job Analysis

Data obtained from job analysis has an impact on every aspect of human
resource management as shown in figure (Mondy & Noe 1990) below.

Job Analysis: The Most Basic Human Resource Management Tool

As can be seen above, a major use of job analysis data is in the area of human
resource planning. Since jobs in an organization are different in nature, each
requires different knowledge, skills and experiences. Hence, effective human
resource planning can only take place when these job requirements are taken
into account.

Human resource activities, such as recruitment and selection largely depend

on job information. In order to match the personnel to the job, the recruiter
must know the qualifications and other pertinent features of the job

Job specification information, such as the knowledge, skills and abilities an

employee need to perform a task is crucial in identifying human resource
training and development requirements. Mondy & Noe (1990) state that if
the specification suggests that the job requires a particular knowledge, skill, or
ability and the person filling the position does not possess all the qualifications
required-training and/or development is probably in order.

Performance standards are developed from job information and then actual
employee performance is measured (Werther & Davis, 1996). It is important to
note here that employee would be evaluated in terms of how well they
discharge their responsibilities specified in the job descriptions. Thus,
performance appraisal, which is based on job analysis information, enables
organization to measure employee performance against written standard and
provide feedback concerning their contribution.
Jobs that require greater knowledge, skills, and abilities should be worth more
to the organization. For example, the relative value of a teaching job that calls
for doctorate's degree normally would be higher than that of a teaching job that
requires a master's degree.

Human Resource
Planning

Recruitment

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 Tasks Responsibilities Duties Selection

Human Resource
Development

Job Performance
Description Appraisal

Job Compensation
Analysis and Benefits
Job
Specifications Safety and
Health

Employee and
Labour Relations
Knowledge Skills Abilities
Human Resource
Research

Equal
Employment

Information obtained from job analysis is also important in identifying safety

and health considerations. It, according to Chatterjee, (1995), enables
management to provide for special measures for the physically handicapped or
infirm employee, the pregnant mother or other vulnerable sections among
workers. Job analysis information is also important to employee and labour
relationships. Management relies on job description to consider promotion,
transfer, or demotion, on the basis of comparison of talent.

In general, job studies are undertaken in order to bring about improvement in

work methods, reduction in errors, elimination of handling unnecessary

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materials and duplication of effort, reduction in fatigue, increased
employee commitment and responsibility and consequently to improve the
performance of the employee. These studies, therefore, enable the job
analyst to think in terms of designing/ redesigning jobs to achieve the above
objectives (Chateerjee, 1995).

Types of Data Normally Gathered in Job Analysis.

Job analysis information is used to define staffing needs of an organization. It,

according to Baird et.al., (1990), includes analysis of:
 Work activities - What needs to be done?
 Work tools and technology - What machines, tools and technology people
will use.
 Knowledge requirement - What people must know to perform the job?
 Personal requirement - What skills and experience people must possess to
perform well?
 Job context - the work schedules, physical conditions, and social
environment of the job.
 Performance Standards - expected results.
This information enables the job analyst to determine the type and level of
education, training and work experience.

Job Analysis Methods

Methods used to conduct job analysis are different; this is because
organizational needs and resources for conducting job analysis differ.
However, some of the most common methods of obtaining information for job
analysis are:
1) Questionnaires
2) Interviews
3) Observation
4) Employee Log
5) Combination of Methods

Conducting Job Analysis

The expert who conducts job analysis is interested in collecting information on
what is involved in doing a particular job. Job analysis is not one man affair; it
requires the participation of employees and their immediate supervisors.
Organizations may use employed human resource experts or use outside
consultants to perform job analysis. Before conducting job analysis, the
analyst seeks to gain general understanding of the organization and the
job/jobs to be studied. Then, the analyst develops the desired job analysis
methods to gather information about the jobs; employee characteristics, and
job performance standards. Before starting to gather data, the employees'
supervisor should introduce the analyst to the employees and explain the main

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purpose of the job analysis. The job information collected by using one or more
job analysis methods allow management to draw up a job description, job
specifications and job standard.

 Job Descriptions
Information collected by using one or more job analysis techniques allows
management to develop job descriptions. A job description is a written
statement of what employee does, how it is done and why it is done. In other
words, the job description contains the total requirements of the job, i.e. who,
what, where, when why and how.

According to Mondy and Noe (1990), among the items frequently included in a
job description is:
- Major duties performed
- Percentage of time devoted to each duty.
- Performance standards to be achieved.
- Working conditions and possible hazards.
- Number of employees performing the job and how they report to.
- The machines and equipment used on the job.

Within an organization, all the job descriptions should follow the same format,
although the form and content may differ from organization to organization. A
sample of job description for a secretary in an-organization is provided in the
exhibit (Mondy & Noe, 1990) below.

POSITION TITLE POSITION NUMBER

SECRETARY II

DIVISION OR STAFF DEPARTMENT REPORTS TO EFFECTIVE DATE

January 2000
DEPARTMENT SECTION GRADE
REVISES
6

JOB SUMMARY

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 Performs clerical and administrative duties for a manager and often one
or more staff members of a major function.

NATURE OF WORK
Performs a wide variety of office duties including most of the following:
a. Typing correspondence, report, manuscripts, graphs, charts, etc., from
notes, dictating machine, and/or hand written drafts proficiently and
with minimum, direction and instructions.
b. Receiving telephone calls and visitors skillfully and handling incoming
mail efficiently.
c. Originating routine correspondence and handling inquiries, and routing
& non-routine inquiries and correspondence to proper persons.
d. Establishing and maintaining department files and records.
e. Assuming responsibility for arranging appointments and meetings,
screening calls, and handling personal and confidential matters for
superior.
f. Assembling, organizing, processing, and evaluating data and reports;
operating office machines needed for accomplishing this.
g. Performing administrative duties and special projects as directed, such
as collecting and compiling general reference materials and information
pertaining to company, division, or department practices and
procedures.
QUALIFICATIONS
h. High school education or its equivalent plus three years of clerical
experience, and a typing skill of at least 60-WPM. Demonstrated
proficiency in English grammar, punctuation, spelling, and proper word
usage.

A Job Description
Job description outlines what the jobholder is actually supposed to do how he
does it and why it is done. Although the contents of the job description vary,
most job descriptions include:

- Job Identification
- Date of the Job Analysis
- Job Summary
- Duties Performed

 Job Specification
Job description and specification are essential documents when management
begins recruiting and selecting employees. According to Werther and Davis,
1996, a job description defines what a job is; it is a profile of the job, on the
other hand, job specification describes the job demands on the employees
who do it and the human skills that are required. It is a profile of human
characteristics needed by the person performing the job. These requirements

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include experience, training, education, and the ability to meet physical and
mental demands (Werther & Davis 1996). In other words, job specification is
identification of knowledge, skill and attitude needed to perform a particular
job. It is important to not here that since job descriptions and specifications
both focus on the job, job specifications are often included as one section of job
description. For example, the qualifications required for the job of "secretary II"
include typing at least sixty words per minute and demonstrated proficiency in
English. This type of information, as stated earlier, is extremely important in
recruiting and selection process.

 Job Performance Standards

Job performance standard is the third application of job analysis. Job

descriptions as stated earlier are statements of what activities are to be
performed, where as performance standards make explicit the quantity and/or
quality of performance expected in basic tasks indicated in the job description.
Job performance standards, according Chatterjee (1995), are statements of the
acceptable as well as attainable levels of achievement on a particular job. Job
performance standards serve three functions. These are:

1) Standards become objectives or targets for employee effort. The

challenge or pride of meeting objectives may serve to motivate
employees. Once standards are met, workers may feel a sense of
accomplishment and achievement. This outcome contributes to
employee satisfaction.

2) Standards are criteria against which job success is measured.

Without standards, no control system can evaluate job performance
(Werther & Davis, 1996). When measured performance strays from the
job standard, corrective action is taken. As illustrated in figure below,
the action serves as feedback, which in turn can lead to change
standards if they are in appropriate or improve the actual performance.

3) Job Actual
Actual
Job Correction of
Job Performance
Performance Deviations
standard

A job control system

4) Performance standards benefit both the jobholder and the superior who
evaluates him. The more the employee understands what is expected of
him, the more likely it is that he or she will be able to carry out the
responsibilities of the position successfully. On the other hand, in

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 evaluating the performance of each employee, the supervisor can compare
the actual performance of each person with the written standard.
Performance appraisals can never become fully objective, but the usage of
written standards helps to make them more objective (Chatterjee, 1995).

JOB DESIGN
Jobs are the foundation of organizational productivity and employee
satisfaction. How well jobs are designed will play an important role in the
realization of organizational objectives. Well-designed jobs, therefore, enable to
attract and retain motivated employees capable of discharging their work
responsibilities.

Job design is the process of determining the specific tasks to be performed,

the methods used in performing these tasks, and how the job relates to other
work in the organization (Mondy & Noe, 1990). It specifies how the job is to be
done and how workers can be satisfied doing the job. Workers must also
sense that they are accountable for specific results and feel that the job has
meaning beyond pay (Mondy & Noe, 1990). According to Werther and Davis
(1996), the design of a job reflects the organizational, environmental, and
behavioral demands placed on it

Elements of Job Design

 Organizational Elements

Organizational elements of job design according to Werther and Davis (1996),

includes:

- Mechanistic approach
- Work flow
- Work practices
- Ergonomics

Mechanistic Approach

This approach involves identifying every task in a job so that task can be
arranged to minimize the time and expended by workers. Once task
identification is complete, a limited number of tasks are grouped into a job.
The result is specialization: Specialized jobs lead to a short job cycle, the time
to complete every task in a job. The mechanistic approach stresses efficiency
in effort, time, labour costs, training and employee learning time.

Work Flow

The product or service usually suggests the sequence of and balance between
jobs if the work is to be done efficiently. For example, the frame of a car must

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be built before doors can be added. Once the sequence of jobs is determined,
the balance between jobs is established.

Ergonomics

Optimal productivity requires that the physical relationship between the

worker and the work be considered in designing jobs. Ergonomics is the
study of how human beings physically interface with their equipment. The
apparatus and other related work product must be modified for ease of work
process.

 Environmental Elements

Environmental elements of job design are concerned with ability and

availability of potential employees and their social expectations (Werther
& Davis, 1996).

Employee Abilities and Availability

Efficiency considerations must be balanced against the abilities and availability

of the people who are to do the work. The level of technology and the type of
work in an organization should not exceed the abilities of the organization's
workforce.

Social and Cultural Expectations

Job design can also be influenced by workers social and cultural expectations.
Working hours, holidays, religious beliefs, management styles, are some of the
factors that must be considered when designing jobs. Failure to consider these
social expectations can create dissatisfaction, low motivation, low quality of
work life and the like.

 Behavioral Elements

Jobs cannot be designed by using only the elements that aid efficiency.
Instead, job designers draw heavily on behavioral research to provide a work
environment that helps satisfy individual needs. Any job, according to
Scarrpello and Ledvinka (1988) can be described in terms of five core
dimensions. These are:

 Skill variety. The extent to which the job requires a variety of activities,
skills, and talents to carry out the work.

 Task identity. The extent to which the job allows its employees to
complete whole tasks rather than just parts of tasks.

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  Task significance. The extent to which the job can be regarded as
important to others inside and outside the organization.

 Autonomy. The extent, to which the job provides freedom to plan,

schedules and decides about work procedures.

 Feedback. The extent to which the job allows its employees to obtain
clear and direct knowledge about how well they perform.

Further more, there are factors that play a vital role in job design or
redesign. These are:

Technology

Technology has an impact on job design. The type of machines, tools,

equipment, and other work aids, as well as particular work layout and
methods, used in producing goods and/or services tend to act as
constraints.

Economic Factors

Economic factors also affect job design. If management believes that job
redesigning can improve output and the level of workers satisfaction, it
must consider the adequacy of the firm's other resources. Since job
redesign is an expensive undertaking, the management must carefully
balance the benefits of job design or redesign with its costs.

Laws and Government Regulations

Job design or redesign is also affected by government regulations.

Management needs to observe whether or not laws relating to labour,
environment and the like are being violated.

Union Pressure

The philosophy, policy, and strategy of the union can affect Job design or
redesign. The contact between union and management specifies and
defines the type of jobs and the duties and responsibilities of employees. In
most cases, unions may perceive job redesign to be attempts by
management to squeeze more work out of the workers without increasing
wages.

Employees' Potential

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 The abilities, attitudes, and motivation of the organization's workers must
be considered when planning to design or redesign a job. Designing a job
that would be far more complex than the ability level of employees available
to do it wouldn't make sense unless they are willing to be trained or new
employees with the necessary capabilities can be hired (Mondy & Noe,
1990).

Management Philosophy

The general organizational policies and strategies can determine the degree
to which job redesign is possible. Top management must be convinced
regarding the beneficial outcomes of the job redesign before it is
undertaken.

Techniques of Job Redesign

The major purpose of job design and redesign is to improve employee

performance. There are many methods of enhancing jobs through job
design/redesign. The following represent the more viable techniques of job
redesign.

 Job Rotation

This technique refers to the movement of employees from one job to another. It
is important to bear in mind that jobs themselves are not actually changed only
the employees are rotated. As Werther and Davis (1990), stated rotation
breaks the monotony of highly specialized work by calling on different skills
and abilities. The organization benefits because workers become competent in
several jobs rather than one. Learning and developing new skills,
 helps the worker's self-image
 provides personal growth, and
 Makes the worker more valuable to the organization (Werther & Davis,
1996).

On the other hand, according to Chatterjee (1995), job rotation is not without
its drawbacks. The main drawbacks are:

 Apart from costs involved in the movement of personnel, productivity

inevitably drops in the initial phase of a worker's taking on a new job. Also,
efficiencies derived through experience are lost as a result of job rotation
and these can be substantial.

 Job rotations also create disruptions. Members of work groups have to

adjust to the new employees as much as he/she to them. The supervisor

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 has to spend more time answering questions and monitoring the work of the
recently rotated employee.

 Job rotation is a weak solution to jobs that score low on motivation

potential. Critics point out that this approach involves nothing more than
having people performing several boring and monotonous jobs rather than
one.

 Job Enlargement

Job enlargement is a technique used to expand the number of related tasks in

a job. In other words, it increases job scope. According to Beard Well and
Holden (1999), job enlargement gives greater variety in job content and thereby
helps to relieve monotony in repetitive jobs. For example, instead of knowing
how to operate only one particular machine, a worker is taught to operate two
or even three with the same level of responsibility. Here, through job
enlargement, management can reduces monotony, and increase job
satisfaction by creating task variety.

 Job Enrichment

Job enrichment is a technique is which employees are given autonomy to set

their own work pace, design their own work methods, participate in making
decisions affecting their work units, and evaluate their accomplishments
(Baird, et.al, 1990). It refers to basic changes in the content of the job and
increasing the level of responsibility, autonomy, and control. It is a means of
expanding jobs vertically. Job enrichment, add more planning and control
responsibilities. These additions to the job, in-turn, can lead to increased
motivation.

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