Heat Load Calculations

By

Ir. Dr. Thirumalaichelvam S.

26th January 2021

1. Preliminary Considerations

The importance of accurate load calculations for air-conditioning design and selection

of equipment can never be overemphasized. In fact, it is on the precision and care exercise by

the designer in the calculations of the cooling load for summer and the heating load for winter

that a trouble-free successful operation of an air-conditioning plant, after installation, would

depend.

An important consideration in this exercise is the date and time which these

calculations are made. The date would depend on the local climatic conditions. In the USA,

although the longest day in summer is June 21, the hottest and most humid day may occur in

July. Similarly, the coldest day may occur in January or even February instead of December

21. Again, though the maximum temperature may occur outside At 1 or 2 p.m., the maximum

heat gain of the room may occur at 3 or 4 p.m. due to the direct solar radiation through glass

on the west side, or even later due to the time lag for the heat transfer through the structure.

Further, the application for which the building is intended to be used would also govern the

choice of time. For example, for an office building in winter that is not used at night, the time

load calculations may be taken during the early hours of the morning, although the maximum

heating load may occur at night. Similarly, an office building in summer may have the

maximum cooling load at 7 p.m. due to the time lag, but since no occupants would be present

at that time, the time for load calculation may be taken at 4 or 5 pm.

The major components of load in building are due to the direct solar radiation through

the west glass, transmission through the building fabric or structure and fresh air for

ventilation. In the case of application such as theatres and auditoriums, the occupancy load is

predominant.

Solar radiation incident on a surface and its transmission through glass and heat

transmission and infiltration through structure. These form the components of load on the
building from the external environment. The internal and system heat gains or losses also

form the major components of other loads.

Thus, components that may cause cooling loads include the following:

External : Walls, roof, window, partitions, ceiling, and floor

Internal : Lights, people (occupancy), appliances, and equipment

Infiltration : Air Leakage and moisture migration

In this paper, the method for evaluation of the above mentioned and other individual

loads are presented, followed by summary of all loads at the end along with an example and

calculation sheet illustrating the procedure that is followed by practising engineers. In the

first instance the cooling load estimation is given followed by that of the heating load.

2. Internal Heat Gains

The sensible and latent heat gains due to occupants, lights, appliance, machines piping, etc.,

within the conditional space, form the components of the internal heat gains.

2.1 Occupancy load

The occupants in a conditioned space give out heat at a metabolic rate that more or less

depends on their rate of working. The relative proportion of the sensible and latent heats

given out, however, depends on the ambient dry bulb temperature. The lower the dry bulb

temperature, the greater the heat given out as sensible heat.

Typical value of heat given out are given in Table 1. The values for restaurants

include the heat given out by food as well. It will be seen that the sensible heat (S) gain does

not vary much with activity, more and more heat being liberated as latent heat (L) thus

making up for total heat.

Table 1: Heat Liberated Due to Occupancy

Metabolic Heat Liberated, W

Activity Rate Room Dry Bulb Temperature, °C
W 20 22 24 26
S L S L S L S L
 Seated at rest 115 90 25 80 35 75 40 65 50
Office Work 140 100 40 90 50 80 60 70 70
Standing 150 105 45 95 55 82 68 72 78
Eating in 160 110 50 100 60 85 75 75 85
restaurant
Factory 235 130 105 115 120 100 135 80 155
Dancing 265 140 125 125 140 105 160 90 175

The usual problem in calculating the occupancy load lies in the estimation of the exact

number of people present.

2.2 Lighting Load

Electric lights generated sensible heat equal to the amount of the electrical power consumed,

Most of the energy is liberated as heat and the rest as light which also eventually becomes

heat after multiple reflections.

Lighting manufacturers give some guidance as to the requirement of power for

different fittings to produce varying standards of illumination. In connection with fluorescent

tubes, it may be stated that the electric power absorbed at the fitting is about 25 percent more

than necessary to produce the required lighting. Thus, a 60W tube will need 75W at the

fitting. The excess of 15W is liberated at the control gear of fitting.

As a rough calculation, one may use the lighting load equal to 35.5 W/m2 to produce a

lighting standard of 540 lumens/m2 in an office space; 20 W/m2 is minimum. After the

wattage is known, the calculation of the heat gain is done as followings.

Florescent: Q = Total watts x 1.25

Incandescent: Q = Total watts

For LED lights (white) the efficiency is 80 lumens/watts, so to produce a lighting standard of

540 lumens/m2. Therefore the calculation for heat gain where LEDs are utilized is carried out

as follow:

LED: Q = (540 lumens/m2) / 80 lumens/watts) = 6.75 watts/m2

2.3 Appliances Load

Most Appliances contribute both sensible and latent heats. The latent heat produced depends

on the function the appliance perform, such as drying, cooking, etc. Gas appliances produce

additional moisture as product of combustion. Such loads can be considerably reduced by

providing properly designed hoods with a positive exhaust system or suction over the

appliances.

The appliances in the conditioned space are a common features in cafeterias. Table 2

gives a general guidance about the sensible and latent heat loads of unhooded common

restaurant appliances.

Table 2: Appliance Load, W

Appliance Sensible Latent Total

Coffee brewer ½ gal 265 65 329
Coffee warmer ½ gal 71 27 98
Egg boiler 353 235 60
Food warmer/m2 of plate 1150 1150 2300
Griddle frying with frying 912 500 1412
top of 46 cm x 36 cm
Toaster, 360 slices/h 1500 382 1882

Electric motors contribute sensible heat to the conditioned space. A part of the power

input is directly converted into heat due to the inefficiency of the motor and is

dissipated through the frame of the motor. This power is

(Input) (1- Motor efficiency)

The rest of the power input is utilized by the driven mechanism for doing work which

may not result in heat gain to the space. This depends on whether the energy input

goes to the conditioned space or outside.

2.4 Piping, Tank, Evaporator of Water from a Free Surface and Steam

Heat is added to the conditioned space from running pipes carrying hot fluids due to heat

transfer. On the other hand, cold pipes take away heat from space. Open tanks containing
warm water contribute both sensible heat and latent heat to the space due to evaporation. This

can be calculated by knowing the rate of evaporation and energy balance.

In industrial air conditioning, products have often to be dried. This involves both the

latent heat and the sensible heat gain to the space from the hot surface of the dryer depending

upon the drying rate. For these calculations, a knowledge of the heat and mass transfer

coefficient is essential.

When steam is entering the conditioned space, the sensible heat gain is very little. It

equal to only the difference in the enthalpy of the steam at the steam temperature and the

enthalpy of the water vapour at the room dry-bulb temperature. The main load is in the form

of the latent heat gain. Thus

SHG = (kg/s) (Tsteam – Ti) (1.88) kW

LHG = (kg/s) (2500) kW

2.5 Product Load

In case of cold storages, the enclosures are insulated with at least 10-15 cm of thermocole and

are almost completely sealed. Thus, many of the loads present in buildings for comfort air

conditioning are either absent or lessened in the case of cold storages. However, in addition

to the heat which is removed from products at the time of initial loading, there is also the heat

produced by the commodities during storage. The heat of respiration forms a sizable product

load even at storage temperature of 0° C. At high temperature, it is more. The approximate

rate of evolution of heat by various products a different temperatures is given in Table 3.

Table 3: Heat of respiration of Products in J/kg per 24 hours

Product Storage Temperature

0° C 4.4° C 15.6° C
Apples 312-1560 625-2810 2390-8215
Bananas - - -
Cabbage 1248 1770 4265
Carrots 2183 3640 8420
Cauliflower - 4680 10500
Cherries 135-1871 - 11440-13725
 Cucumber - - 2290-6860
Grape fruit 416-1040 730-1350 2290-4160
Grapes, American 624 1250 3640
Grapes, European 312-416 - 2290-4160
Lemons 520-936 625-1975 2390-5200
Melons 1350 2080 8840
Mushrooms 6446 - -
Onions 728-1144 830 2495
Oranges 416-1040 1350-1665 3850-5405
Peaches 936-1456 1455-2080 7590-9670
Pears 728-936 - 9150-13725
Peas 8526-8733 13520-16635 40860-46265
Plums 416-728 935-1560 2495-2910
Potatoes, immature - 2705 3015-7070
Potatoes, mature - 1350-1870 1560-2705
Strawberries 2807-3950 3745-7070 16220-21105
Tomatoes, green 625 1145 6445
Tomatoes, ripe 1040 1350 5820
Turnips 1975 2290 5510

2.6 Process Load

The procedure of calculating the cooling and heating load for various industrial air-

conditioning processes is specific for each process. The requirements for the process may

involve the control of one or more of the following factors:

i. Regain of moisture content by hygroscopic material, such as cotton silk, tobacco, etc.,

and the accompanying heat liberated.

ii. Drying load.

iii. Rate of chemical and biochemical reactions.

iv. Rate of crystallization, freezing, freeze-drying, etc.

v. Sensible cooling load

For details of these loads, one may refer to the ASHRAE Handbook (ASHRAE Guide and

Data-book, ‘Application Volume’ 1964)

3. System Heat Gains

The system heat gain is the heat gain (or loss) of an air-conditioning system comprising its

components, viz., ducts, piping, air-conditioning fan, pumps, etc. This heat gain is to be

initially estimated and included in the total heat load for the air-conditioning plant. The same

should be checked after the whole plant has been designed.

3.1 Supply Air Duct Heat Gain and Leakage Loss

The supply air, normally, has a temperature of 10 to 15° C. The duct may pass through an

unconditioned space having an ambient temperature of 40° C. This results in a significant

heat gain till air reaches the conditioned space even though the duct may be insulated.

The heat gain can be calculated using the following expression

Q= UA (ta-ts)

where U is the overall heat-transfer coefficient, A is the surface of the duct system exposed to

the ambient temperature ta and ts is the supply air temperature.

As a rough estimate, a value of the order of 5 per cent of the room sensible heat

maybe added to the total sensible heat if the whole supply duct is outside the conditioned

space, and proportionally less if some of it is within the conditioned space.

It has been found that duct leakage are of the order of 5 to 30 per cent depending on

that workmanship. Air leakages from supply ducts results in a serious loss of the cooling

capacity unless the leakages take place within the conditioned space.

If all ducts are outside the conditioned space which, normally, is strictly avoided, a 10

per cent leakage is to be assumed which should be considered as a complete loss. When only

a part of the supply duct is outside the conditioned space, then only the leakage loss of this

portion is to be included. The faction of 10 per cent, to be added in such a case, is equal to the

ratio of the length outside the conditioned space to the total length of the supply duct.

3.2 Heat Gain from Air-Conditioning Fan

The heat equivalent of an air-conditioning fan horsepower is added as the sensible heat to the

system. If the fan motor is outside the air stream, the energy lost due to the inefficiency of the

motor is not added to the air. There are two types of air supply systems.

Draw-through System. In the draw-through system, the fan drawing air through the cooling

coil and supplying it to the conditioned space. This is the most common system. In this

system, the fan heat is in addition to the supply air heat gain. The heat should, therefore be

added to the room sensible heat.

Blow-through System. In the blow-through system, fan blows air through the cooling coil

before being supplied to the conditioned space. In this system, the fan heat is added after the

room to the return air. Thus the fan heat is a load on the cooling coil. The heat should,

therefore, be added to the grand total heat gain.

The fan efficiencies are of the order of 70 per cent for central air-conditioning plant

fans and about 50 per cent for package air-conditioner fans.

The fan horsepower depends on the quantity of air supplied and the pressure rise, viz.,

the total pressure developed by the fan. The supply air quantity in turn depends on the

dehumidified rise, which is of the order of 8 to 14° C. The fan total pressure depends on the

system pressure loss which comprises the pressure drop through the duct-work, grilles, filter,

cooling coil, etc. The approximate values of pressures to be developed by fans are given in

Table 4.

Table 4: Fan Pressure for Different Duct Systems

Item No. Type of Ductwork Fan Pressure, cm H2O

1. No ductwork (package units) 1.25 to 2.5
2. Moderate ductwork, low velocity systems 1.9 to 3.75
3. Considerable ductwork, low velocity systems 3.0 to 5.0
4. Moderate ductwork, high velocity systems 5.0 to 10.0
5. Considerable ductwork, high velocity systems 7.5 to 15.0
 Once the supply air-rate and pressure developed are known, the fan power can be

calculated. But these cannot be known until the load calculations have been completed.

Hence the procedure is to initially assume fan heat between 2.5 to 7.5 per cent of the room

sensible heat and check the value after the design has been completed. Designer usually take

5% of RSG as heat.

3.3 Return Air Duct Heat and Leakages Gain

The calculation of the heat gain for return air ducts is done in exactly the same way as for

supply air ducts. But the leakage in this case is that of the hot and humid outside air into the

duct because of suction within the duct. If the ducts are outside the conditioned space, an in

leakage up to 3 per cent may be assumed depending on the length of the duct. If there is only

a short connection between the conditioning equipment and space, this leakage may be

neglected.

3.4 Heat Gain from dehumidifier Pump and Piping

The horsepower required to pump water through the dehumidifier adds heat to the system and

is to be considered like that of others electric motors.

For this purpose, pump efficiencies may be assumed as 50 per cent for small pumps

and 70% for large pumps.

The heat gain of dehumidifier piping may be calculated as a percentage of the grand

total heat a follows:

i. Very little external piping: 1% of GTH (Grand Total Heat Gain)

ii. Average external piping: 2% of GHT

iii. Extensive external piping: 4% of GTH

Note: It is to be noted that all heat gains after the room are not added to room heat gains, but

to the grand total heat load that directly falls on the conditioning equipment. These include
the return air duct heat and leakage gain, dehumidifier pump power, dehumidifier and piping

losses as outlined above and the fan sensible heat in the case of the blow-through system.

3.5 Safety Factor

Safety factor is strictly a factor of probable error in the estimation of the load. For the

purpose, additional 5 per cent heat should be added to the room sensible and latent heats.

4. Break-up of Ventilation Load and Effective Sensible Heat Factor

The ventilation-air requirements, depending on individual applications are given in Table 5

below.

Table 5: Ventilation-Air Requirements for Individual Applications

Application Smoking Status Recommended Minimum

m3/min./person m3/min./person m3/
min./m2
floor area
Apartments Some 0.56 0.28 -
Offices and Occasional-Some 0.28-0.6 0.21 -
Factories
Restaurants Some 0.4 - -
Board rooms Very heavy 1.4 0.56 0.
Department stores None 0.21 0.14 0.0015
Theatres None 0.21 0.14 -
Hotel rooms Heavy 0.84 - -
Hospital wards None 0.84 - -
Hospital operation None All outdoor - -
theatres

The minimum-air requirements is taken as 0.2 m3/min per person. This is based on a

population density of 5 to 7.5 m2 per person and a ceiling height of 2.4 m. When people are

smoking, the minimum ventilation requirement is 0.4 to 0.7 m3/min per person.

In the lecture notes on Psychrometry of Air-Conditioning Processes, we have seen the

calculation for load due to ventilation air. It was also pointed out in section 5.2 of the above

notes that the bypass factor of the cooling equipment affects the position of the grand sensible

heat factor line. As a matter of fact, the effect of the bypass factor is such as to add (X) (ma o)

amount of the outside air directly to the room, and allow only (1-X) (mao) to pass through the
apparatus. Although the room air is also bypassed, this does not affect the break-up of the

load as the room air going to the room does not change the load situation. Thus, we can say

that a part of the ventilation load forms a component of the room load. This bypassed outside

air load is proportional to the bypass factor X. It has both sensible and latent heat

components. The other part-which is proportional to 1-X, both sensible and latent, which is

bypassed around the apparatus – is added to the equipment load.

Thus the bypassed outside air loads on the room are:

SH = (OASH) (BPF)

LH = (OALH (BPF)

These loads are imposed on the room in exactly the same manner as the infiltration

load. Accordingly, the effective room loads are modified as follows:

Effective room sensible heat

ERSH = RSH + (OASH) (BPF)

Effective room latent heat

ERLH = RSH + (OALH) (BPF)

The effective sensible heat factor (ESHF) is the ratio of the effective room sensible

heat to the effective room total heat

ESHF = ERSH/ (ERSH+ERLH) = ERSH/ERTH

The term is devised to relate the bypass factor, apparatus dew point, room sensible

and latent heats and bypassed outside air loads and to permit a simplified calculation of the

dehumidified air quantity.

The remaining outside air loads which are proportional to 1-BPF are accounted in the

grand total heat which remains unaffected by the bypass factor.

5. Cooling Load Estimate

The components of the cooling load for air-conditioning can now be summarised as follows.

The load is classified as the room load that falls on the room directly, and the total load that

falls on the apparatus.

Room Load.

A. Room Sensible Heat (RSH)

i. Solar and transmission heat gain through walls, roof, etc.

ii. Solar and transmission heat gain through walls, roof, etc.

iii. Transmission gain through partition walls, ceiling, floor, etc.

iv. Infiltration

v. Internal heat gain from people, power, lights, appliances, etc.

vi. Additional heat gain, supply duct leakage loss and fan horsepower.

vii. Supply duct heat gain, supply duct leakage loss and fan horsepower.

The sum of all the above gives the room sensible heat (RSH) load. For the purpose of

psychrometric analysis, the following component is also included in the room sensible heat.

viii. Bypass outside air load.

The sum of items (i) to (viii) gives the effective room sensible heat (ERSH).

B. Room Latent Heat (RLH)

i. Infiltration

ii. Internal heat gain from people, steam, appliance, etc.

iii. Vapour transmission.

iv. Additional heat gain not accounted above, safety factor, etc.

v. Supply duct leakage loss.

The sum of these gives the room latent heat (RHL). The other latent heat gain considered for

psychrometric analysis is:

vi. Bypass outside air load.

The sum of items (i) to (vi) above gives the effective room latent heat (ERLH)

The sum of item A and B above gives the effective room total heat (ERTH). But the sum of

items (i) to (vii) in A, and (i) to (v) in B gives the room total heat (RTH).

Grand Total Load on Air-Conditioning Apparatus

A. Sensible Heat

i. Effective room latent heat (ERLH)

ii. Sensible heat of the outside air that is not bypassed

iii. Return duct heat gain, return duct leakage gain, dehumidifier pump horsepower and

dehumidifier and piping losses.

The sum of items (i) to (iii) above gives the total sensible heat (TSH).

B. Latent Heat

i. Effective room latent heat (ERLH)

ii. Latent heat of outside air which is not bypassed

The sum of items (i) to (iii) above gives the total latent heat (TLH). Finally, the sum A and B

above gives grand total heat (GTH).

5.1 Heat Balance (HB) Method

Heat balance method is a rigorous approach to cooling load calculations. It requires the use of

computers. The method is described in ASHRAE Transactions pp. 459-502.

The HB methods considers four distinct processes.

1. Outside face heat balance.

2. Wall conduction process.

3. Inside-face heat balance.

4. Room-air heat balance.

The heat balance on outside surface considers solar radiation, convective exchange, and

conductive heat flux. Numerical methods are used for wall conduction process. The heat
balance on inside surface considers heat fluxes from wall to air. Air heat balance takes into

account internal loads, infiltration and ventilation air, system loads etc.

6. Heating Load Estimate

An estimate of the heating load is made on the basis of the maximum probable heat loss of

the room or space to be heated. Thus the plant for the heating system is to be so designed that

it has a capacity just sufficient to meet the heating load requirement which develops when

most severe weather conditions occur. In this respect very brief periods of severe weather

need not be taken into account.

Accordingly, the following points in heating load calculations are noteworthy.

i. Transmission Heat Loss: The transmission heat loss form walls, roof, etc., is

calculated on the basis of just the design outside and inside air temperature difference,

Q = UA (ti-to)

Thus, no allowances need be made for the walls and roof being exposed to sun. Also,

the time lag and decrement factor are to be ignored.

ii. Solar Radiation: There is generally no solar radiation present and hence, there is no

solar heat gain at the time of the peak load which normally occurs in the early hours

of the morning.

iii. Internal Heat Gains: Internal heat gains from occupants, lights, motors and machinery,

etc., diminish the heating requirement. These negative loads should be accounted for

in applications, such as theatres, assembly halls, stores, office buildings, etc., where

these loads are constantly present. But allowance for these loads must be made only

after careful consideration. An important aspect to keep in mind is the use of the space

at night, week-ends or other unoccupied periods.

Also, the heating plant should have sufficient capacity to bring up the inside

temperature to the design value before the occupants come in.

Example. For the air conditioning of a 4 m high single story office building located

at 30°N latitude, the plan of which is shown in Fig. 1, the following data are given.

Plaster on inside wall : 1 ¼ cm

Outside wall construction : 20 cm concrete block

: 10 cm brick veneer

Partition wall construction : 33 cm brick

Roof construction : 20 cm RCC slab with

4 cm asbestos cement board

Floor construction : 20 cm concrete

Densities, brick : 2000 kg/m3

concrete : 1900 kg/m3

plaster : 1885 kg/m3

 asbestos board : 520 kg/m3

Fenestration (weather-stripped, : 2 m x 1 ½ m glass

loose fit) U = 5.9 Wm-2 K-1

Doors : 1 ½ m x 2 m wood panels

U = 0.63 Wm-2 K-1

Outdoor-design conditions : 43°C DBT, 27°C WBT

Indoor-design conditions : 25°C DBT, 50% RH

Daily range : 31°C to 43°C = 12°C

Occupancy : 100

Lights : 15,000 W fluorescent

Assume bypass factor of cooling coil 0.15

Question: Find the room sensible and latent heats loads, and also the grand total heat load.

Table 6: Thermophysical Properties of Selected Building and Insulating Material

Material Description Specific Density Thermal Conductance

Heat Conductivity
kJ/kg.K kg/m3 W/m.K W/m2K
Asphalt 0.74-0.76
Brick Common 0.84
Face brick 0.84 1600 0.77
Diatomaceous (fired) 0.24
Firebrick
(500 to 1100) 0.96 2000 1.04 to 1.09
Magnesite
(200 to 1200)
Wood Ply - 544 0.1
Hard 2.39 720 0.158
Soft 2.72 512 0.1
Masonry Concrete 0.88 1920 1.73
Materials Plaster, cement 0.796 1885 8.65
Hollow clay
Tiles, 10 cm - - - 5.23
20 cm - - - 3.14
30 cm - - - 2.33
Hollow concrete
Blocks, 10 cm 8.14
20 cm 5.23
30 cm 4.54
 Foam concrete 210-704 0.043-0.128
(Precast slabs for roof)
RCC Slab - - 9
Glass Window 0.84 2700 0.78
Corosilicate 2200 1.09
Insulatin Mineral or glass wool 0.67 24-64 0.038
g
Material
Rockwool - 64 0.067
Fiberglass board 0.7 64-144 0.038
Cock board 1.884 104-128 0.038
Cork granulated 1.88 45-120 0.045
Expanded polystyrene - 30 0.037
(Thermocole)
PUF (Polyurethane 0.0173
Foam)
Diatomaceous
Earth - 320 0.061
Felt - 330 0.052
Insulex, dry - - 0.064
Kapok - - 0.035
Magnesia - 270 0.067
Asbestos 0.816 470-570 0.154

Solution: Thermal conductivities from Table 6

kglass = 0.78 W m-1 K-1

kconcrete = 1.73 W m-1 K-1

kbrick = 1.32 W m-1 K-1

kplaster = 8.65 W m-1 K-1

kasbestos = 0.154 W m-1 K-1

krccslab = 9 W m-1 K-1

Assumed film coefficients

fo = 23 W m-2 K-1

fi= 7 W m-2 K-1

Outside wall 1/U = 1/23 + 0.1/1.32 + 0.2/1.73 + 1/7 + 0.0125/8.65

U = 3.5 W m-2 K-1

Partition wall 1/U = 1/7 + 0.33/1.32 + 1/7 + 2(0.0125)/8.65

 U = 1.86 W m-2 K-1

Roof 1/U = 1/23 + 0.2/9 + 0.04/0.154 + 0.0125/8.65 + 1/7

U = 2.13 W m-2 K-1

Floor 1/U = 1/7 + 0.2/9

U = 6.05 W m-2 K-1

Area and volume of space A = (27) (17) = 459 m2

V = (459) (4) = 1836 m3

Ventilation rate for office

Q̇ vo/person = 0.28 m3/min (from Table 5)

Q̇ vo = 0.28(100) = 28 m3/min

Number of air-changes of ventilation air = Total m3/hr to be ventilated / Total Space volume

Number of air-changes of ventilation air = 28 m3/min x 60 min/hr = 0.92 (Satisfactory)

Note: Recommend air changes for non-critical building is between 1 to 2 air-changes.

Mass of wall per unit area

Outside wall: 0.2 (1900) + 0.1 (2000) + 0.0125 (1185) = 604 kg/m2

Partition wall: 0.33 (2000) + 2 (0.0125) (1885) = 707 kg/m2

Roof: 0.2 (1900) + 0.04 (520) = 401 kg/m2

Correction for equivalent temperature differentials (Don’t worry too much about this!)

For daily range of 12°C = (12 – 11.1)/2 = 0.45°C

For (to – ti) of 18°C = 18 – 8.3 = 9.7°C

Total correction = -0.45 + 9.7 = 9.25°C

Table 7: Equivalent Temperature differential in °C with corrections incorporated

2 pm 3 pm 4 pm 5 pm 6pm 7pm
West wall 14.4 14.8 15.2 16.5 17.5
North wall 9.6 10.2 9.6 11.3 11.7
South Wall 13.1 14.7 16.0 17.4 17.8
Roof (Exposed) 24.0 25.8 28.0 29.7 30.5 30.2
Table 8: Rates of Solar Gains Through Glass on June 21 in W/m2

2 pm 3 pm 4 pm 5 pm
West glass 309 451 508 492
North glass 44 44 51 91
South glass 47 44 38 32

Door area = 1 ½ x 2 = 3 m2

Glass areas West glass = 4(2x1 1/2) = 12 m2

North glass = 2 x 1 ½ = 3 m2

South glass = 2(2 x 1 ½) = 6 m2

Outside wall areas West wall = (27) (4) – 12 = 96 m2

North wall = (10) (4) – 3 – 3 = 34 m2

South wall = (17) (4) – 3 – 6 = 59 m2

Partition wall areas East wall = (27) (4) – 3 = 105 m2

North wall = (7) (4) = 28 m2

Estimated time of maximum cooling load:

From the above calculations, it is obviously that the major components of the variable

cooling loads are solar and transmission heat gains through the west wall and glass, and the

roof. Of these, glass and roof loads are the predominant loads. The roof load is maximum at 6

pm when the equivalent temperature differential is 30.5°C. The solar gain through the west

glass has a maximum value of 508 W/m2 at 4 pm. Thus the time of maximum load is most

likely to be near 5 pm. Heat transfer through floor:

Assume a temperature difference of 2.5°C across the floor

Wind pressure

The flow of air due to wind over a building creates regions in which the static pressure is

higher or lower than the static pressure in the undisturbed air stream. This pressure is positive

on the windward side resulting in the infiltration of air, and negative on the leeward side
resulting in exfiltration. In a tall building, the wind velocity is very high towards the top of

the building and hence the leakage rate is also higher.

There are two methods of estimating the infiltration of air into conditioned space sue to wind

action. They are

i. Crack method, and

ii. Air-change method

In the cracked method, the estimate is based on measured leakage characteristics and the

width and length of crack around windows and doors. The air-change method assumed a

certain number of air changes per hour for each space depending on its usage. The crack

method is generally regarded as more accurate and is used in the case of windows. The air

change method is more convenient to use in the case of doors

The leakage of air in this case is a function of the wind pressure Δρ which can be

determined by knowing the wind velocity C using the equation as follows

Δp = 0.00047 C2

where Δρ is in cm H2O and C is in km/h. It is common practice to take 0.64 Δp only as the

pressure difference between the outside and inside air to evaluate the infiltration rate, which

can be expressed by an equation of the type

Q̇ = C (Δp)n

where C is a constant, and n lies between 0.5 and 1. For non-weather-stripped windows, the

following relation may be used

Q̇ = 0.125 (Δp)0.63

where Q̇ v is in L/m of the crack length, and Δp is in N/m2. The leakage rates of most windows

cracks fall between the four classes of double-hung wood windows as given in Table 9.

Similarly, Table 10 gives the leakage rates through cracks in doors on the windward side for

different wind velocities and different door constructions.

Table 9: Infiltration through double-hung windows in m3/h/m of crack

Window Type Pressure Difference, cm H2O

0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25
Non- weather-stripped, loose fit 7.1 11.3 14 18 21
Non- weather-stripped, average fit 2.5 4 5.3 6.4 7.4
Weather-stripped, loose fit 2.5 4 5.3 6.4 7.4
Weather-stripped, average fit 1.3 2.1 2.8 3.3 3.9

Table 10: Infiltration through doors-crack method

Type of Door m3/min per Linear Metre of Crack

Wind Velocity, kmph
8 16 24 32 40 48
Glass Door
Good installation 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.21 1,49 1.77
3.2 mm crack
Average installation 0.45 0.93 1.3 1.86 2.23 2.7
4.76 mm crack
Poor installation 0.6 1.21 1.77 2.42 2.42 3.53
6.4 mm crack
Ordinary wood or metal door
Well fitted 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.2
W-stripped
Well fitted 0.08 0.11 0.17 0.24 0.31 0.39
Not W-stripped
Poorly fitted 0.08 0.21 0.34 0.48 0.61 0.78
Not W-stripped
Factory door 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.21 1.49 1.77
3.2 mm crack

Assuming a wind velocity of 15 kmph, we have

Δp = 0.00047 (15)2 = 0.11 cm H2O

Infiltration rate for window, from Table 9 for 0.11 cm wind pressure

= 2.5 m3/h/m crack

Length of crack for 7 windows = 7[2(2 + 1 ½)] = 49 m

Occupancy load, from Table 1

SHL = 75 W/person

LHL = 55 W/person

Other assumptions
i. Only 10% of the supply duct outside the conditioned space

ii. No return duct outside the conditioned space.

iii. Fan horsepower, 5 per cent of RSH.

The details of cooling load calculations are given on the calculation sheet in Table 11

Table 11: Calculation Sheet for Cooling Load estimated for Example

SPACE USED FOR OFFICE

SIZE 27 x 17 = 459 m2 x 4 = 1836 m2
ESTIMATED FOR 5 PM LOCAL TIME
HOURS OF OPERATION DAY TIME
Conditions DB WB %RH DP h, KJ/kg Ω, kg/kg
OUTDOOR 43 27 29 21.3 85.0 0.016
ROOM 25 18 50 15.7 50.85 0.01
DIFFERENCE 18 34.15 0.006
3 3
100 PEOPLE X 0.28 m /min/PERSON = 28 m /min
VENTILATION m3/min = 28
DOORS 3 DOORS x 3m2 x 1.9813 m3/min = 17.8 m3/min
CRACK 49 m x 2.5/60 m3/min = 2.0 m3/min
INFILTRATION m3/min = 17.8 + 2 = 19.8
LOAD CALCULATIONS
ITEM AREA OR SUN GAIN OR FACTOR W
QUANTITY TEMP. DIFF
OR
HUMIDITY
DIFF.
SENSIBLE HEAT
SOLAR GAIN-GLASS
EAST GLASS 0 m2 - - -
2
WEST GLASS 12 m 492 - 5900
NORTH GLASS 3 m2 91 - 270
2
SOUTH GLASS 6m 32 - 190
SKY LIGHT 0 m2 - - -
SOLAR TRANSMISSION GAIN-WALLS AND ROOF
EAST WALL 0 m2 - - -
WEST WALL 96 m2 16.5 3.5 5,540
NORTH WALL 34 m2 11.3 3.5 1,345
SOUTH WALL 59 m2 17.4 3.5 3,590
2
ROOR-SUN 459 m 29.7 2.13 29,035
2
ROOF-SHADED 0m - - -
TRANSMISSION GAIN-OTHERS
DOOR 9 m2 18 0.63 100
ALL GLASS (12+3+6) m2 18 5.9 2,230
PARTITION (108+228) m2 15.5 1.86 3,930
CEILING 0 m2 - - -
2
FLOOR 459 m 2.5 6.05 6.940
 INFITRATION 19.8 m3/min 18 20.4 7.270
INTERNAL HEAT GAIN
PEOPLE 100 - 75 7,500
POWER - - - -
LIGHTS 15,000 - 1.25 18750
APPLIANCES - - -
ADDITIONAL - - -
SUB TOTAL 92,690
STORAGE - - - -
SAFETY FACTOR 5% 4,635
ROOM SENSIBLE HEAT 103,090
SUPPLY DUCT HEAT GAIN 0.5% 0.5%+FAN HP 5% 5,560
+LEAKAGE
OUTDOOR AIR 28 m3/min 18°C 20.4 x 0.15 1,540
BYPASS
EFFECTIVE ROOM SENSIBLE HEAT 104,425
LATENT HEAT
INFILTRATION 19.8 m3/min 0.006 50,000 5,940
PEOPLE 100 - 55 5.500
STEAM - - - -
APPLIANCES - - - -
ADDITIONAL - - - -
VAPOUR TRANS - - - -
SUB TOTAL 11,440
SAFETY FACTOR 5% 570
ROOM LATENT HEAT 12,010
SUPPLY DUCT 0.5% 60
LEAKAGE LOSS
OUTDOOR AIR 28 m3/min 0.006 50,000 x 0.15 1,260
BYPASS
EFFECTIVE ROOM LATENT HEAT 13,330
EFFECTIVE ROOM TOTAL HEAT 117,775
OUTDOOR AIR TOTAL HEAT (On equipment)
SENSIBLE 28 m3/min 18 20.4x(1-0.15) 8,740
LATENT 28 m3/min 0.005 50,000x(1-0.15) 7,140
RETURN DUCT %+RETURN % + PUMP % + DEHU. % -
HEAT GAIN DUCT PIPE GAIN
LEAKAGE
GAIN
GRAND TOTAL HEAT GAIN 133,635 W
(38TR)

Note:

Unit of Refrigerating Capacity

The standard unit of refrigerant in vogue is ton refrigeration or simply ton denoted by the

symbol TR. It is equivalent to the production of cold at the rate at which heat is to be

removed from one US tonne of water at 32°F to Freeze it to ice at 32°F in one day or 24

hours. Thus

1 TR = (1 x 2,000 lb x 144 Btu/lb)/24 hr

= 12,000 Btu/hr = 200 Btu/min

where the latent heat of fusion of ice has been taken as 144 Btu/lb. The term one ton

refrigeration is a carryover from time the time ice was used for cooling. In general 1 TR

always means 12,000 Btu of heat removal per hour, irrespective of the working substance

used and the operating conditions, viz., temperature of refrigeration and the heat rejection.

The unit of refrigeration is currently in use in the USA, the UK and India. In many countries,

the standard SI unit of kcal/hr used.

It can be seen that

1 TR = 12,000 Btu/hr

= 12,000 / 3.968 = 3,024.2 kcal/hr

= 50.4 kcal/min = 50 kcal/min

Also, since 1 Btu = 1.055 kJ, the conversion of tom into equivalent SI unit is:

1 TR = 12,000 x 1.055 = 12,660 kJ/hour

= 211 kJ/min = 3.5167 kW

Or 1 kW = 0.28436 TR

There from the above example:

The Grand Total Heat (GHT) = 133,635 W = 13.3635 kW

= 133.635 kW * 0.28436 TR/kW

= 38 TR