THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Motor (efferent) division

 Two subdivisions:
A. Somatic nervous system = voluntary
B. Autonomic nervous system = involuntary
1. NEURONS AND GLIAL CELLS
 Support cells in the CNS are grouped together
as NEUROGLIA.
FUNCTIONS OF NEUROGLIA:
A. SUPPORT
B. INSULATE AND PROTECT NEURONS
C. ASSEMBLES NEURONS
-unable to conduct nerve impulses
-never lose the ability to divide.
ASTROCYTES
FUNCTIONS:  Abundant, star-shaped cells
 Brace and anchor neurons between
SENSORY INPUT-gathering information. capillaries and neurons
 Sensory receptors monitor changes called  Control the chemical environment of the
stimuli occurring inside and outside the brain.
body.
INTEGRATION
 The NERVOUS SYSTEM processes and
interprets sensory input and decide if action
is needed.
MOTOR OUTPUT
 A response or effect to integrated stimuli
such as activating muscles or glands.
 Determine permeability and exchanges
between blood capillaries and neurons.
 Protect neurons from harmful substances
in the blood.
MICROGLIA
 Spider-like phagocytes
 -Dispose of debris
 -Monitor health of nearby neurons

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE NERVOUS EPENDYMAL CELLS

SYSTEM o Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord
Central nervous system (CNS) o Circulate cerebrospinal fluid.
 Brain & Spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
 Nerve outside the brain and spinal cord
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF NERVOUS
SYSTEM:
Sensory (afferent) division
 Nerve fibers that carry information to the
central nervous system
 CILIA assist with circulation of
Motor (efferent) division CEREBROSPINAL FLUID.
 Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from
the central nervous system
  Neurofibrils – intermediate
OLIGODENDROCYTES cytoskeleton that maintains cell
 Produce myelin sheath around nerve fibers shape.
in the central nervous system. Extensions outside the cell body
 Dendrites – conduct impulses toward
the cell body
 Axons – conduct impulses away from
the cell body

 Neurons have only one axon

arising from the cell body at the
axon hillock.
 End in axon terminals which
contain vesicles with
SCHWANN CELLS neurotransmitters.
 Form myelin sheath in the peripheral  Axonal terminals are separated
nervous system from the next neuron by a gap.
 Synaptic cleft – gap between
axon terminals to the next
neuron.
 Synapse – functional junction
between nerves where a nerve
SATELLITE CELLS impulse is being transmitted.
 Protect and cushion neuron cell bodies.

MYELIN
 White, fatty material covering
the axons.

NERVE CELL/NEURON  Protects and insulates fibers.

 cell specialized to transmit
 Speeds nerve impulse transmission.
messages/nerve impulses.
 Major region of all neurons Schwann cells- wrap axons in a jelly roll like
Cell body- nucleus and metabolic fashion (PNS) to form the myelin sheath.
center of the cell. Neurilemma- part of the Schwann cell
Processes- fibers that extend from external to the myelin sheath.
the cell body. Nodes of Ranvier- gaps in myelin sheath
 Cell body- the metabolic center of the along the axon.
body
- Nucleus has a large nucleolus
Oligodendrocytes- produce myelin
sheaths around axons of the CNS.
- Nissl substance – specialized rough
-Lack a neurilemma.
endoplasmic reticulum
Nuclei- clusters of cell bodies in the CNS.
Ganglia-collections of cell bodies outside b. BIPOLAR NEURONS
the CNS in the PNS.  one axon and one dendrite
Tracts- bundles of nerve fibers in the CNS.  located in special sense organs, such as
Nerves-bundle of fibers in the PNS. the eye
 rare in adults
Gray matter – cell bodies and unmyelinated
fibers.
White matter- collections of myelinated
fibers (tracts).
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION
OF NEURONS c. UNIPOLAR NEURONS
Sensory (afferent) neurons  have a short single process leaving the cell
 Carry impulses from the sensory receptors. body.
 Cutaneous sense organs  SENSORY NERVES found in the PNS ganglia.
 Conduct impulses both toward and away
 Proprioceptors – detect stretch or tension. from the cell body.
Motor (efferent) neurons
 Carry impulses from the central
nervous system.
Interneurons (association neurons)
 Found in neural pathways in the
central nervous system
 Connect sensory and motor neurons.

Irritability – ability to respond to stimuli and convert

it to a nerve impulse.
Conductivity – ability to transmit an impulse to
other neurons, muscles, and glands.
ELECTRICAL CONDITIONS OF A RESTING
NEURON’S MEMBRANE
 The plasma membrane at rest is polarized.
 Fewer positive ions are inside the cell than
outside the cell.

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF
NEURONS
 K+ is the major positive ion inside the cell.
A. Multipolar neurons  Na+ is the major positive ion outside the cell.
 As long as the inside of the membrane is
– many extensions from the cell body
more negative (fewer positive ions) than the
-All motor and interneurons are outside, the cell remains inactive.
multipolar THE ACTION POTENTIAL
-Most common structural type  A stimulus changes the permeability of the
neuron’s membrane to sodium ions.
 Sodium channels now open, and sodium
(Na+) diffuses into the neuron.
  The inward rush of sodium ions changes the  Until repolarization is complete, a neuron
polarity at that site and is called depolarization. cannot conduct another impulse.
ACTION INITIATION AND GENERATION TRANSMISSION OF SIGNAL SYNAPSES
 A graded potential (localized
depolarization) exists where the inside of
the membrane is more positive, and the
outside is less positive.

 If the stimulus is strong enough and sodium

influx great enough, local depolarization
activates the neuron to conduct an action
potential (nerve impulse).
PROPAGATION 1.When the action potential reaches the axon
 If enough sodium enters the cell, the action terminal, the electrical charge opens calcium
potential (nerve impulse) starts and is channels
propagated over the entire axon. 2.CALCIUM, in turn, causes the tiny vesicles
containing the Neurotransmitter chemical to
fuse with the axonal membrane.
3. The entry of calcium into the axon terminal
causes pore like opening to form, releasing the
neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft.
4. The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse
across the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors
 All or none response means the nerve on the membrane of the next neuron.
impulse either is propagated or is not. Fibers 5. If enough neurotransmitter is released, a
with myelin sheaths conduct nerve impulses graded potential will be generated. Eventually
more quickly. an action potential (nerve impulse) will occur in
REPOLARIZATION the neuron beyond the synapse.
 Membrane permeability changes again 6. The electrical changes prompted by
becoming impermeable to sodium ions and neurotransmitter binding are brief. The
permeable to potassium ions. neurotransmitter is quickly removed from the
synapse either by reuptake or by enzymatic
activity.
 Transmission of an impulse is
electrochemical.
 Transmission down neuron is electrical.
 Transmission to next neuron is chemical.
REFLEXES
– Are rapid, predictable, and involuntary
 Potassium ions rapidly diffuse out of the responses to stimuli. Reflexes occur over
neuron, repolarizing the membrane. neural pathways called Reflex arc (direct
 Repolarization involves restoring the inside of route from a sensory neuron to an
the membrane to a negative charge and the interneuron, to an effector)
outer surface to a positive charge.  AUTONOMIC REFLEXES
 Initial conditions of sodium and potassium  Smooth muscle regulation
are restored using the sodium-potassium  Heart and blood pressure regulation
pump.  Regulation of glands
 This pump, sing ATP restores the original  Digestive system regulation
configuration. 1. Sensory receptor-reacts to a stimulus.
 Three sodium ions are ejected from the cell 2. Sensory neuron- carries message to the
while two potassium ions are returned to the integration center.
cell.
 3. Integration center (CNS)- process CEREBRAL CORTEX
information and directs motor output. Primary Somatic sensory area
4. Motor neuron-Carries message to an  Located in the Parietal lobe posterior to
effector. central sulcus.
5. Effector organ-is the muscle or gland to  Receives impulses from the body’s sensory
be stimulated. receptors.
 Pain, temperature, light touch (except for
special senses)
 Sensory homunculus is a spatial map.
 Left side of the primary somatic sensory area
receives impulses from right side or vice
versa.
 SOMATIC REFLEXES Cerebral areas involved in special senses:
 Activation of skeletal muscles  Gustatory area (taste)
 Involuntary, although skeletal muscle is  Visual area (Occipital lobe)
normally under voluntary control.  Auditory area (Temporal lobe)
 Olfactory area (Temporal lobe)
II. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Interpretation areas of the cerebrum
ORGANS
-Speech/language region
-BRAIN and SPINAL CORD
-Language comprehension region
FUNCTION
-General interpretation area
 Integration: command center
 Interprets incoming sensory information.
 Issues outgoing instructions.
THE BRAIN
 Cerebral hemispheres
 Diencephalon
 Brain stem
 Cerebellum
CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE
 Paired (left and right) superior parts of
the brain
 Include more than half of the brain mass
 The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and
grooves (sulci)

Primary motor area

 Located anterior to the Central sulcus in the
frontal lobe.
 Allows us to consciously move skeletal
muscles.
 Motor neurons form pyramidal (corticospinal)
 Fissures are deeper grooves. tract, which descends to the spinal cord.
 Lobes are named for the cranial bones Broca’s area
that lie over them.  Motor speech area
3 MAIN REGIONS OF CEREBRAL  Involved in our ability to speak
HEMISPHERE  Usually in the left hemisphere
 Cortex is superficial gray matter.
 White matter
 Basal nuclei are deep pockets of gray
matter.
 DIENCEPHALON MIDBRAIN
 Sits on top of the brain stem.  Extends from the mammillary bodies to
 Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres. the pons inferiorly.
 Made of three parts:  Mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers
1.Thalamus  Cerebral aqueduct (tiny canal) connects
2.Hypothalamus the third and fourth ventricles.
3.Epithalamus  Has two bulging fiber tracts –
cerebral peduncles
 Has four rounded protrusions –
corpora quadrigemina
 Reflex centers for vision and
hearing
PONS
 The bulging center part of the brain stem
 Mostly composed of fiber tracts
 Includes nuclei involved in the control of
breathing.
 Relays information from cerebrum to the
cerebellum.
 Controls respiratory and depth
 Contains nuclei of cranial nerves
THALAMUS Trigeminal, Abducens, and Facial nerves.
 Surrounds the third ventricle MEDULLA OBLONGATA
 The relay station for sensory impulses  The lowest part of the brain stem
passing upward to the cerebral cortex.  Merges into the spinal cord
 Transfers impulses to the correct part of  Includes important fiber tracts
the cortex for localization and  Contains important control centers
interpretation  Heart rate control
HYPOTHALAMUS  Blood pressure regulation
 Under the thalamus  Breathing
 Makes up the floor of the diencephalon.  Swallowing
 Important autonomic nervous system  Vomiting
center
 Helps regulate body temperature  Fourth ventricle lies posterior to pons
 Controls water balance and medulla.
 Regulates metabolism  Relays ascending sensory pathways
 An important part of the limbic system impulses from skin and proprioceptors.
(emotions)  Contain cranial nerves Vestibulocochlear,
 The pituitary gland is attached to the Glossopharyngeal, Vagus, Accessory and
hypothalamus Hypoglossal.
 Houses mammilliary bodies for olfaction
(smell) RETICULAR FORMATION
EPITHALAMUS  Diffuse mass of gray matter along the
 Forms the roof of the third ventricle
brain stem
 Houses the pineal body (an endocrine
 Involved in motor control of visceral
gland)
organs
 Includes the choroid plexus – forms
 Reticular activating system plays a role
cerebrospinal fluid.
in awake/sleep cycles and
 Emotions.
consciousness.
BRAIN STEM  Filter for incoming sensory information
 Attaches to the spinal cord. CEREBRUM
 Parts of the brain stem
 Two hemispheres with convoluted
 Midbrain surfaces
 Pons
 Provides involuntary coordination of body
 Medulla oblongata
movements.
 CEREBELLUM  Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles,
 Control balance. and central canal of the spinal cord.
 Provides precise timing for skeletal muscle
activity and coordination of body movements.
Protection of the Central Nervous
System
 Scalp and skin
 Skull and vertebral column
 Meninges
 Cerebrospinal fluid
 Blood brain barrier

BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER
 Includes the least permeable capillaries
of the body.
 Allows water, glucose and amino acids to
pass thru the capillary walls.
 Excludes many potentially harmful
MENINGES substances from entering the brain, such
Dura mater as wastes.
 Outermost leathery covering  Useless as a barrier against some
 Double-layered external covering substances
 Periosteum – attached to surface of the  Fats and fat soluble molecules
skull.  Respiratory gases
 Meningeal layer – outer covering of the  Alcohol
brain  Nicotine
 Folds inward in several areas  Anesthesia
 Falx cerebri
 Tentorium cerebelli-connects
BRAIN DYSFUNCTION
cerebellum to cerebrum. TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURIES:
CONCUSSION
Arachnoid layer
 Slight brain injury
o Middle layer
 Typically little permanent brain damage
o Web-like
occurs
o Subarachnoid space is filled with
CONTUSION
Cerebrospinal fluid
 Marked nervous tissue destruction
o Arachnoid granulations protrude
occurs
thru the dura mater and absorb
 Coma may occur.
CSF into venous blood.
Death may occur after head blows due to:
Pia mater
 Intracranial hemorrhage
o Internal layer
 Cerebral edema
o Clings to the surface of the brain
CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT (CVA), or stroke
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID  Results when blood circulation to a brain area
 Similar to blood plasma composition is blocked and brain tissue dies.
 Formed by the choroid plexus  Loss of some functions or death may result.
CHOROID PLEXUSES- capillaries in the HEMIPLEGIA- one sided paralysis
ventricles of the brain. APHASIA- damage to speech center in left
 Forms a watery cushion to protect the hemisphere.
brain TRANSIENT ISCHEMIC ATTACK (TIA)
Temporary brain ischemia (restriction of blood flow)
 SPINAL CORD STRUCTURE OF A NERVE
 Extends from the medulla oblongata to the  Endoneurium is a connective tissue
region of T12 sheath that surrounds each fiber.
 Below T12 is the cauda equina (a collection of  Perineurium wraps groups of fibers are
spinal nerves) bound into a fascicle.
 Enlargements occur in the cervical and  Epineurium binds groups of Fascicles.
lumbar regions.
 Cauda equina is a collection of spinal nerves
at the inferior end.
 Provides two-way conduction pathway to and
from the brain.
 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from spinal
cord.

CLASSIFICATION OF NERVES:
 Mixed nerves – both sensory and motor
fibers
 Afferent (sensory) nerves – carry
 Protected by the vertebral column. The impulses toward the CNS.
surrounding vertebra provide a sturdy shelter  Efferent (motor) nerves – carry
for the enclosed spinal cord. impulses away from the CNS.
CRANIAL NERVES
 12 pairs of nerves that mostly serve the
head and neck.
 Numbered in order, front to back.
 Only the pair of Vagus nerves extends to
the thoracic and abdominal nerves.
 Most are mixed nerves, but three are
sensory only optic, olfactory and
Vestibulocochlear.

 Exterior white mater – conduction tracts

 Internal gray matter - mostly cell bodies
o Dorsal (posterior) horns
o Anterior (ventral) horns
 Central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

III. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS

SYSTEM
 Nerves and ganglia outside the central
nervous system
 Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers
 Neuron fibers are bundled by connective
tissue
  Carries sensory impulses from taste buds
I Olfactory nerve – sensory for smell of the posterior tongue and from pressure
 -Arise from olfactory receptors in the receptors of the carotid artery.
nasal mucosa and synapse with the  MIXED
olfactory bulbs. X Vagus nerves – sensory and motor fibers for
II Optic nerve – sensory for vision pharynx, larynx, and viscera
 Arise from the retina of the eye and form  Carry sensory impulses from and motor
the optic nerve. impulses to the pharynx, larynx and the
III Oculomotor nerve – motor fibers to eye abdominal and thoracic viscera.
muscles  Most motor fibers are parasympathetic
 Arises from the midbrain of the eye. fibers that promote digestive activity and
 Supplies motor fibers to four of the 6 help regulate heart activity.
muscles.  MIXED
 Controls lens shape and pupil dilation XI Accessory nerve – motor fibers to neck and
 MOTOR NEURON upper back
IV Trochlear – motor fiber to eye muscles.  Motor fibers activates the
 Arises from the pons and form three sternocleidomastoid and trapezius
muscles.
divisions that run in the face.
 Conducts sensory impulses from the skin  MOTOR NEURON
of the face and mucosa of the nose and XII Hypoglossal nerve – motor fibers to tongue
mouth.  Motor fibers control the tongue
 Activates the chewing muscles. movements; sensory fibers carry
 MOTOR NEURON impulses from the tongue.
V Trigeminal nerve – sensory for the face; motor SPINAL NERVES
fibers to chewing muscles  31 pairs
 Emerge in the pons and form three  Spinal nerves are formed by the
divisions that run in the face. combination of the ventral and dorsal
 Conducts sensory impulses from the skin roots of the spinal cord.
of the face and mucosa of the nose and  named for the region from which they
face. arise.
 MIXED
VI Abducens nerve – motor fibers to eye muscles
 Supplies motor fibers to the lateral rectus
muscle which rolls the eye laterally.
 MOTOR NEURON
VII Facial nerve – sensory for taste; motor fibers
to the face
 Activates the Muscle of expression and
lacrimal and salivary glands.
 Carries sensory impulses from the taste
buds of anterior tongue.
 MIXED
VIII Vestibulocochlear nerve –
sensory for balance and hearing
 Fibers run from the equilibrium and
hearing receptors of the inner ear to the  Spinal nerves divide soon after leaving
brain stem. the spinal cord.
 Transmits impulses for the sense of  Ramus-branch of a spinal nerve that
balance and cochlear branch transmits contains both sensory and motor
impulses for sense of hearing. neurons.
 SENSORY NEURON  Dorsal rami – serve the skin and
IX Glossopharyngeal nerve – sensory for taste; muscles of the posterior trunk.
motor fibers to the pharynx  Ventral rami (T1-T12)– forms the
 Supplies motor fibers to the pharynx that intercostal nerves that supply
promotes swallowing and saliva muscles and skin of ribs and
production. trunk.
CERVICAL (C1-C5)  Chain of two motor neurons:
 Phrenic  PREGANGLIONIC NEURON- the brain or
 Covers the diaphragm, the skin and spinal cord
muscles of shoulder and neck.  POSTGANGLIONIC NEURON- extends to the
BRACHIAL (C5-C8 AND T1) organ.
 AXILLARY- Deltoid muscle and skin of  Divided into two divisions
shoulder, muscles, and skin of superior o Sympathetic division
thorax. o Parasympathetic division
 RADIAL-triceps and extensor muscles of SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
the forearm skin of posterior upper limb.  Motor neuron cell bodies originate inside
 MEDIAN- flexor muscles and skin of the CNS
forearm and some muscles of hand  Axons extends to skeletal muscles that
 MUSCULOCUTANEOUS-flexor muscles of are served
forearm, wrist and many hand muscles,
skin of hand.
LUMBAR (L1-L4)
 FEMORAL- including lateral and anterior
cutaneous branches.

SYMPATHETIC DIVISION
 A.K.A the thoracolumbar division
 FIGHT or FLIGHT
 Originates from T1 through L2
 Ganglia are at the sympathetic trunk
(near the spinal cord)
 Short pre-ganglionic neuron and long
postganglionic neuron transmit impulse
from CNS to the effector
 Control the body’s response during
 OBTURATOR- abductor muscles of medial
perceived threat.
thigh and small hip muscles, skin of
 Norepinephrine and epinephrine are
medial thigh and hip joint.
neurotransmitters to the effector organs.
SACRAL (L4-L5 AND S1-S4)
 SCIATIC- largest nerve in the body, splits
to common fibular and tibial nerves just
PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION
 A.K.A. the CRANIOSACRAL DIVISION
above the knee, lower trunk and
 Rest and digest
posterior surface of thigh.
 Originates from the brain stem and S1
 COMMON FIBULAR- Superficial and deep
through S4
branches found in the lateral aspect of
 Terminal ganglia are at the effector
leg and foot.
organs
 TIBIAL- including sural and plantar
 Always uses acetylcholine as a
branches. Found in the posterior aspect
neurotransmitter
of leg and foot.
 Conserves energy
 superior and inferior gluteal.
 Longer pathways, slower system
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM  Control body’s response when at rest.
 The involuntary branch of the nervous DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECT OF THE
system
 Controls the body automatically (and is NERVOUS SYSTEM
also known as the involuntary nervous  The nervous system is formed during the
system) first month of embryonic development
 Regulates cardiac and smooth muscles  Any maternal infection can have
and glands. extremely harmful effects.
 The hypothalamus is one of the last
areas of the brain to develop.
 No more neurons are formed after birth,
but growth and maturation continue for
several years
 The brain reaches maximum weight as a
young adult.
