FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS

SYSTEM FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFCATION OF THE

● Sensory input – gathering information PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
○ To monitor changes occurring inside ● Sensory (afferent) division
and outside the body Nerve fibers that carry information
○ Changes = stimuli towards the central nervous system
● Integration
‣ SOMATIC NERVE FIBERS ( SKIN,
○ To process and interpret sensory
input and decide if action is needed SKELETAL, MUSCLES, JOINTS )
● Motor output
‣ VISCERAL SENSORY FIBERS
○ A response to integrated stimuli
○ The response activates muscles or ( VISCERAL ORGANS )
Glands
● Motor (efferent) division
Nerve fibers that carry impulses away
from the central nervous
② Two subdivisions
① Somatic nervous system = voluntary
-> SKELETAL
② Autonomic nervous system = involuntary
-> VISCERAL ORGANS (SMOOTH
MUSCLE) , HEART ( CARDIAC) &
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF GLANDS
NERVOUS SYSTEM ‘
● Central nervous system (CNS)
○ Brain
○ Spinal cord
● Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
○ Nerve outside the brain and spinal cord
 NERVOUS TISSUE: SUPPORT
CELLS (NEUROGLIA) 4. OLIGODENDROCYTES CELLS

- Cells that are lumped together. ● May resembles

Neuroglia literally means as nerve the astrocytes but MUCH
glue which simply called as glial smaller
cells ● Produce myelin
Sheath (fatty insulating)
P.S glial cells divide unlike your
around nerve fibers in the
neurons . Consequently, most brain
central nervous
tumors is formed from glial cells
system(CNS)

CNS : PNS
1. ASTROCYTES 1. SATELLITE CELLS
● Protect neuron cell bodies
‣Abundant, star-shaped cells ,
● Provide structural support
Large ● Regulate exchange of
‣ Brace neurons materials between neuronal
cell bodies and interstitial
Form barrier fluid
between capillaries
and neurons 2. SCHWANN CELLS
● Form myelin
‣ Controls chemical
sheath in the
environment of the peripheral
brain e.q Mopping nervous
up the leaked system(PNS)
potassium and also
Re-capturing the NERVOUS TISSUE/
released NEURONS
Neutrotransmitters
NEURONS = nerve cells
2. MICROGLIA ● Cells specialized to transmit messages
● Spider-like phagocytes ● Major regions of neurons
● Dispose of debris including ○ Cell body – nucleus and metabolic
your dead brain cells and center of the cell
bacteria ○ Processes – fibers that extend from
the cell body
3. EPENDYMAL CELLS:
● Cuboidal - columnar cells ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS
arrange in a single layer with SYSTEM
microvilli and cilia ● CELL BODY
● Line cavities of the brain and ○ Nissl Substance : specialized rough ER
spinal cord ○ Neurofifibrils :intermediate
● Circulate cerebrospinal fluid cytoskeleton
○ Nucleus
● Nodes of Ranvier: gaps in
○ Large Nucleolus
● PROCESSES ( NERVE FIBERS): myelin sheath along the axon
“ armlike” fibers that extend from the cell
body CNS MYELIN SHEATH
A. Dendrites: conduct impulses toward LACKA EXTRA ONE WHICH
cell body ( hundreds) CALLED AS NEURILEMMA
B. Axons: conduct impulses Away from
the cell body ( only one ) that arises from DISEASE :
axon hillock (cone-shaped cell body ) Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

AXONS AND NERVE ‣ Myelin Sheaths around the

IMPULSE fibers are gradually destroyed,
⇨ AXON TERMINALS converted to hardened
sheaths (scleroses) resulting
‣ Ends of axons = Contain to short-circuited electric
current
vesicles with chemical
Neurotransmitters ‣ Visual & speech

‣ Separated from the next disturbances,( Loss the ability

to speak and see )
neuron by a gap =
lose the ability to control
SYNAPTIC CLEFT
his/her muscles, & become
‣ Synapse: junction between increasingly disabled

nerves ‣ There is no current cure but

INTERFERON is introduce
NERVE FIBER COVERINGS
for ease of symptoms

⇨ MYELIN SHEATHS COLLECTIONS OF

NERVOUS TISSUE
● Whitish, fatty material, with ( TERMINOLOGIES)

waxy appearance ● CLUSTERS OF CELL

● Protects & insulates the BODIES

a. CNS: nucleus
fibers & increases the
b. PNS: sin: ganglion ; plr :
transmission rate of nerve
ganglia ( small collection of
impulses
cell bodies)
● Schwann cells: produce
● BUNDLES OF AXONS
myelin sheaths in jelly-roll like
a.CNS: tracts
fashion
(interconnect
neurons in the spinal cord & the CNS
brain/ bundle of nerve fiber) Connect sensory & motor
b. PNS: nerves neurons

● PRESENCE OF MYELIN
STRUCTURAL
SHEATHS CLASSIFICATION OF
1. White matter: dense NEURONS
collections of myelinated
fibers (tracts) 1. Multipolar neurons - most
2. Gray matter: mostly common. Many extensions
unmyelinated fibers & cell from the cell body
2. Bipolar neurons - 2
FUNCTIONAL processes = 1 axon & 1
CLASSIFICATION OF dendrite ( found in some
NEURONS special sense organs like
eyes and nose )
3. Unipolar neurons - Have a
very short single process
leaving the cell body

FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES
A. Sensory (afferent) OF NEURONS (ACTION
neurons @ ganglion POTENTIAL )
> Carry impulses from the
sensory receptors: ① Irritability
1. CUTANEOUS SENSE Ability to respond to stimuli
ORGANS (skin), least ② Conductivity
specialized is pain stimulus/ Ability to transmit an impulse
recpetor to other neurons, muscles, or
2. PROPRIOCEPTORS glands
(muscles & tendons)
- detects the amount of
stretch and tension ‣ ELECTRICAL
>keeps your informed what CONDITIONS OF A
is happening inside and RESTING NEURON
outside 1. Plasma membrane is
B. Motor (efferent) polarized (fewer positive ions
neurons are inside the cell than
> Carry impulses from the outside the cell) @ resting
CNS membrane potential
C. Interneurons
(association neurons) 2. Starting a Nerve Impulse
Found in neural pathways in
 PROAGRATION =
Depolarization ⇨ a stimulus
SALTATORY “dance/leap”
depolarizes the neuron’s CONDUCTION
membrane (allows Na+ to PS. Since your Sodium is the
flow inside the membrane) Starting chemical ions → No
3. The exchange of ions sodium = No action potential
initiates an action potential
in the neuron HOW NEURONS
4. The Action Potential and Its COMMUNICATE
AT SYNAPSES?
Propagation ⇨ If the action
1. Impulses are able to cross
potential (nerve impulse) the synapse to another nerve
starts, it is propagated over 2. Neurotransmitter is
the entire axon. The impulse released from a nerve’s axon
continues to move toward the terminal
cell body Impulses travel 3. The dendrite of the next
faster when fibers have a neuron has receptors that are
myelin sheath stimulated by the
5. Repolarization and neurotransmitter
Restoration of initial ionic 4. An action potential is
conditions ⇨ K+ rush out of started in the dendrite

the neuron after Na+ rush in THE REFLEX ARC

The Na+-K+ pump restores
the original configuration
REFLEX: ability to respond to
(requires ATP)
stimuli, rapid, predictable
involuntary responses
REFLEX ARC: neuronal
pathway by which a reflex
occurs. Have five elements
( sensory receptor, effector
organ, sensory , motor
neuron and intergration
center)

NOTE: Equal amount of

sodium inside and outside
cause a local electrical
stimulation = GRADE
1. Somatic reflex: stimulate
POTENTIAL
the skeletal muscles
2. Autonomic reflex:
FASTER TYPE OF
regulate the activity of smooth
ELECTRICAL IMPULSE
muscles, the heart, & glands
SIMPLE REFLEX ARC BRAIN
1. PATELLAR REFLEX/ Regions: cerebral hemispheres,
KNEE-JERK: two diencephalon, brain stem, cerebellum
neuron reflex ,
determine the healtn 1. CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES
of your MOTOR (CEREBRUM)
portion - The surface is made of ridges (gyri) &
2. FLEXOR/ grooves (sulci)
WITHDRAWAL - Fissures (deep grooves) divide the
REFLEX : three cerebrum into lobes ; longitudinal
- Surface lobes of the cerebrum:
neuron reflex. Ability
A. Frontal lobe (BROCA’S AREA
to respond from pain
Language, Comprehension,
stimulus
ORBITOFRONTAL CORTEX ,
olfactory )
B. Parietal lobe( WERNICKE’S
AREA & PRIMARY
SOMATOSENSORY )
C. Occipital lobe( primary visual area)
D.Temporal lobe ( inf: visual= facial
Recognition; primary auditory )

NOTE: 1 ￮ Somatic snesory area have

spatial Map and called as the sensory

homunculus = Little Man. 1 ￮ Somatic

Motor is called motor homunculus

3 BASIC REGIONS OF CEREBRAL
HEMISPHERE

CEREBRAL CORTEX ( cOUTex)

> Region of gray matter that forms the
outer layer
> Composed mostly of neuron cell bodies
WHITE MATTER
Composed of fiber tracts carrying
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) impulses to, from, or within the cortex
BASAL NUCLEI
Develops from the embryonic neural tube > Internal islands of gray matter and
& its opening becomes the ventricles (4 buried deep in white matter
chambers within the brain & filled with > Caudate nucleus, putamen, & globus
CSF) pallidus
1st week : Neural tube
4th week: starts to developed into brain SPECIALIZED AREAS OF THE
CEREBRAL CORTEX

￮ Its neurons function in speech, memory,

logical & emotional response,

consciousness, interpretation of sensation,
& voluntary movement
1. Primary somatic sensory area:
receives impulses from the body’s sensory
receptors 3. BRAINSTEM
2. Primary motor area: sends impulses to > Attaches to the spinal cord (3 inch /7.5
skeletal muscles cm)
3. Broca’s area: involved in our ability to 3 parts:
speak A. Midbrain
4. Involved in special senses: gustatory > Mostly composed of tracts of nerve
area, visual area, auditory area, olfactory fibers
area > 2 bulging fiber tracts: cerebral peduncles
5. Anterior association area: involved in “ little feet”
higher intellectual reasoning & socially >4 rounded protrusions: corpora
acceptable behavior quadrigemina
6. Posterior association area: plays a > Reflex centers for vision and hearing
role in recognizing patterns & faces, & B. Pons” bridge”
blending several different inputs into an > The bulging center part of the brain stem
understanding of the whole situation > Mostly composed of fiber tracts
7. Speech area: allows you to sound out > Includes nuclei involved in the control of
words breathing
C. Medulla oblongata
2. DIENCEPHALON > Lowest part of the brain stem
> Sits on top of the brain stem > Merges into the spinal cord
> Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres > Includes important fiber tracts
3 parts: > Contains important control centers:
1. Thalamus heart rate control, blood pressure
2. Hypothalamus: under thalamus. Center regulation, breathing, swallowing, vomiting
of many drives and emotions example D. Reticular formation
THIRST, APPETITE,SEX.PAIN, & > Diffuse mass of gray matter along the
PLEASRE CENTER brain stem
3. Epithalamus: @ roof of 3rd ventricle > Involved in motor control of visceral
> Houses the pineal body (an endocrine organs
gland) & > Reticular activating system (RAS) plays
> includes the choroid plexus – forms a role in awake/sleep cycles &
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) consciousness
NOTE; damage to RF may result into
permanent loss of consciousness leading
to COMA
 A. Dura mater “ tough/hard
mother” : double-layered external
covering
Periosteum: attached to skull
4. CEREBELLUM surface
> inner dural membrane that
> 2 hemispheres with convoluted surfaces extends inward to form a fold called
(cauliflower-like) as FALX CEREBRI & TENTORIUM
> Outer gray matter & inner region of white CEREBELLI ( separates the
matter cerebellum & cerebrum)
> Provides involuntary coordination of B. Meningeal layer: outer covering
body movements of the brain
> controls EQUILIBRIUM & BALANCE C. Arachnoid layer”spider” : middle,
web-like
Pia mater”gentle mother” : delicate
and its internal, clings to the surface
of brain. Attaches the subarachnoid
space
DISEASE:
Ataxia DISEASE
- Neurological disorder
characterized by Meningitis
clumsy/disorganized movements Inflammation of the meninges
which could be a result of a which can be caused by viruses,
damaged cerebellum bacteria, or other microorganisms
Victims cannot keep their balance May spread to nervous tissue of
&may appear to be drunk because CNS resulting to inflammation
of the loss of muscle coordination (encephalitis)

PROTECTION OF THE CNS MENINGITIS ENCEPHALITIS

meninges Brain itself
1. Scalp & skin Bacterial, Viral
2. Skull & vertebral column viral, others
3. Meninges ( parasite)
4. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) infection infection
5. Blood brain barrier
Laboratory : in order to diagnose
the patient with meningitis/
Meninges encephalitis we obtain the CSF

Connective tissue membranes CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF)

covering & protecting the CNS Nv: 150ml / half a cup
structures > Similar to blood plasma
3 layers: composition( there are some
chemical contents that are BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER
differents and tehre is also different
total concentration) > Includes the least permeable
> Formed by the choroid plexus capillaries of the body which keep
(clusters of capillaries hanging from the brain separated from
the “roof” in each of the brain’s bloodborne substances that leads
ventricle) into infections
> Forms a watery cushion to protect > Water, glucose and essential
the brain amino acids passes through this
> Circulated in arachnoid space, walls
ventricles, & central canal of the > Excludes many potentially
spinal cord harmful substances
> Useless against some substances
and causes some disorientation to
the patient
1. Fats and fat-soluble molecules
2. Respiratory gases
3. Alcohol
4. Nicotine
5. Anesthesia

BRAIN DYSFUNCTION
1. TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURIES

‣ Concussion: Slight brain injury &

DISORDER:
Hydrocephalus no permanent brain damage
> Hydro- = water; -cephal- = head
‣ Contusion: Nervous tissue
> Excess CSF accumulates in the
ventricles (may be due to an destruction occurs & nervous tissue
obstruction to CSF flow or an does not regenerate
abnormal rate of CSF production
‣ Cerebral edema: Swelling from
&/or reabsorption), the CSF
pressure rises the inflammatory response & may
> In babies, head bulges due to compress & kill brain tissue
increased pressure; in
‣ Intracranial hemorrhage:
adults(RARE) , brain damage
> Treatment: surgery by inserting a Bleeding from ruptured vessels
shunt (a plastic tube) to drain the
excess fluid into a vein in the neck 2. CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT
or into the abdomen (CVA)
commonly called a stroke or brain
attack

‣ Common causes: intracranial

 hemorrhage, embolus, & & 60s
atherosclerosis of the cerebral > Results from a degeneration of
arteries specific dopamine-releasing
neurons of the substantia nigra of
‣ Brain tissue supplied with oxygen
the midbrain resulting in overactive
from that blood source dies basal nuclei
> Afflicted individuals have a
‣ Loss of some functions or death
persistent tremor at rest, a
may result forward-bent walking posture &
shuffling gait, & a stiff facial
ALZHEIMER’S PARKINSON’S HUNTINGTON
expression
DISEASE DISEASE DISEASE

3. HUNTINGTON DISEASE
Over 65 50s & 60s Middle age
(-) AcH (-) dopamine Degeneration
> Genetic disease that strikes
releasin of basal nuclei
during middle age & leads to
neuron @
massive degeneration of the basal
substantia
nuclei & later of the cerebral cortex
nigra of
> Initial symptoms: wild, jerky, &
MIDBrain
chorea
degererative degenerative
Progressive
> Late symptoms: marked mental
degenerative
deterioration occurs
Look for tau L-dopa > Needs a drugs
> Progressive & usually fatal within
and beta enhance for blocking
15 years of onset of symptoms
amyloid doopamine the dopamine
protein

SPINAL CORD
THE “TERRIBLE THREE”
1. ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
⇨ Approx. 17 inches (42 cm) long,
> Progressive degenerative brain
glistening white continuation of the
disease
brain stem
> Mostly seen in the elderly, but
→ Extends from the foramen
may begin in middle age
magnum of the skull to the 1st or
> Structural changes in the brain
2nd lumbar vertebra, ends just
include abnormal protein deposits
below the ribs
and twisted fibers within neurons
→ 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise
> Victims experience memory loss,
from it
irritability, confusion and ultimately,
→ Collection of spinal nerves at the
hallucinations and death
inferior end of the vertebral canal
(cauda equina : horse tail”
2. PARKINSON’S DISEASE
→ Enlargements occur in the
cervical & lumbar regions
> Example of basal nuclei problems,
typically strikes people in their 50s
SPINAL CORD ANATOMY injury occurs high in the cord
affecting all 4 limbs
1. Exterior white mater: conduction Paraplegic: only legs are paralyzed
tracts
Dorsal column STRUCTURE OF NERVE “ neuro”
Lateral column Bundle of neuron fibers
Ventral columns Connective tissue coverings:
2. Internal gray mater: mostly cell ① Endoneurium: surrounds each
bodies fiber
Dorsal (posterior) horns ② Perineurium: surrounds each
Ventral (anterior) horns: somatic fascicles (groups of fibers)
> Central canal filled with CSF; ② Epineurium: surrounds all
Covered by meninges fascicles `
3. Nerves leave at the level of each
vertebrae CLASSIFICATION OF NERVES
A. Dorsal root: associated with the
dorsal root ganglia 1. Mixed nerves
B. Ventral root Both sensory & motor fibers
Dorsal + ventral root + spinal 2. Afferent (sensory) nerves
nerves Carry impulses toward the CNS
3. Efferent (motor) nerves
DISORDER Carry impulses away from the CNS

FLACCID PARALYSIS

> Damage to the ventral root

> Nerve impulses do not reach the
muscles affected;
> thus, no voluntary movement of
those muscles is possible
> Muscles begin to atrophy because
they are no longer stimulated

SPASTIC PARALYSIS

> Resulting from a transected (cut

crosswise) or crushed spinal cord
> Affected muscles stay healthy
because they are still stimulated by
spinal reflex arcs, and movement of
those muscles does occur
> Movements are involuntary & not
controllable
Quadriplegic: if the spinal cord
 muscles of the posterior trunk

● Ventral rami: forms a complex of

networks (plexus) for the anterior

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

> Motor subdivision (involuntary) of
the PNS that controls body activities
automatically
2 DIVISIONS:
1. Sympathetic division
2. Parasympathetic division

SOMATIC AUTONOMIC
Nerves 1 motor Preganglioni
neuron c &
postganglion
ic nerves

Effector Skeletal Smooth

organs muscle muscle,
cardiac
muscle,
glands

Neurotran Always Use

smitters use acetylcholine
acetylchol ,
ine epinephrine,
or
norepinephri
ne
SPINAL NERVES
> 31 pairs
> Formed by the combination of the
ventral & dorsal roots of the spinal 1. SYMPATHETIC DIVISION
cord
> Named for the region from which > Mobilizes the body during
they arise extreme situations (such as fear,
> Divide soon after leaving the exercise, or rage)
spinal cord > Originates from T1 through L2
● Dorsal rami: serve the skin & Ganglia are at the sympathetic
trunk (near the spinal cord)
> Short pre-ganglionic neuron &
long postganglionic neuron transmit
impulse from CNS to the effector
Norepinephrine & epinephrine are
neurotransmitters to the effector
organs
AUTONOMIC FUNCTIONING OF
SYMPATHETIC DIVISION
“Fight-or-flight” response
> Response to unusual stimulus
Takes over to increase activities
> Remember as the “E” division =
exercise, excitement, emergency,
and embarrassment

2. PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION
“vacation/relax”
> Allows us to “unwind” & conserve
energy
> Originates from the brain stem &
S1 through S4
> Terminal ganglia are at the
effector organs
> Always uses acetylcholine as a
neurotransmitter
AUTONOMIC FUNCTIONING:
“Resting-and-digesting”
> Conserves energy
> Maintains daily necessary body
functions
> Remember as the “D” division -
digestion, defecation, and diuresis

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE

NERVOUS SYSTEM
AFTER BIRTH
EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT No more neurons are formed, but
> The nervous system is formed growth & maturation continues for
during the 1st month several years
> Any maternal infection & other
factors can have extremely harmful YOUNG ADULT
effects Brain reaches maximum weight
> German measles (rubella) in the
mother: Deafness & other types of OLD AGE
CNS damage Neurons are damaged & die; & brain
> Smoking mother: decreases weight & volume steadily decline.
oxygen amount leading to neuron Orthostatic hypotension: type of
death  brain damage low blood pressure resulting from
> Radiation & various drugs sympathetic nervous system is not
(alcohol, opiates, cocaine, etc.) able to react quickly enough to
counteract the pull of gravity by
NOTE: Hypothalamus is 1 of the last activating the vasoconstrictor fibers,
areas of the brain to develop & blood pools in the feet

AFTER BIRTH DISEASE

> No more neurons are formed, but
growth & maturation continues for Arteriosclerosis:
several years > Decreased elasticity of the
arteries) & high blood pressure
DISEASE result in a decreasing supply of O2
CEREBRAL PALSY to the brain neurons
> 1 suspected cause is temporary Senility:
lack of O2 in difficult deliveries > gradual decline of oxygen due to
> Neuromuscular disability in which the aging process, characterized by
the voluntary muscles are poorly forgetfulness, irritability, difficulty
controlled & spastic because of in concentrating & thinking clearly,
brain damage & confusion
> A sudden loss of blood & O2
OTHER CONGENITAL delivery to the brain results in a CVA
MALFORMATIONS: Professional boxers: high risk of
Anencephaly: Failure of the brain damage & atrophy “punch
cerebrum to develop, resulting in a drunk”
child who cannot hear, see, or Chronic alcoholics:
process sensory inputs > reduced brain size & tend to
Spina bifida: “forked spine”, exhibit signs of mental deterioration
vertebrae form incompletely unrelated to the aging process
(typically in the lumbosacral region)