UNIT I INTRODUCTION

Computer System - Elements and organization; Operating System Overview - Objectives and
Functions - Evolution of Operating System; Operating System Structures – Operating System
Services - User Operating System Interface - System Calls – System Programs - Design and
Implementation - Structuring methods.

UNIT II PROCESS MANAGEMENT

Processes - Process Concept - Process Scheduling - Operations on Processes - Inter-process
Communication; CPU Scheduling - Scheduling criteria - Scheduling algorithms: Threads -
Multithread Models – Threading issues; Process Synchronization - The Critical-Section problem -
Synchronization hardware – Semaphores – Mutex - Classical problems of synchronization -
Monitors; Deadlock - Methods for handling deadlocks, Deadlock prevention, Deadlock avoidance,
Deadlock detection, Recovery from deadlock

2
UNIT III MEMORY MANAGEMENT
Main Memory - Swapping - Contiguous Memory Allocation – Paging - Structure of the Page Table -
Segmentation, Segmentation with paging; Virtual Memory - Demand Paging – Copy on Write - Page
Replacement - Allocation of Frames –Thrashing.

UNIT IV STORAGE MANAGEMENT

Mass Storage system – Disk Structure - Disk Scheduling and Management; File-System Interface -
File concept - Access methods - Directory Structure - Directory organization - File system mounting
- File Sharing and Protection; File System Implementation - File System Structure - Directory
implementation - Allocation Methods - Free Space Management; I/O Systems – I/O Hardware,
Application I/O interface, Kernel I/O subsystem

3
UNIT V VIRTUAL MACHINES
AND MOBILE OS

Virtual Machines – History, Benefits and

Features, Building Blocks, Types of Virtual
Machines and their Implementations,
Virtualization and Operating-System
Components; Mobile OS - iOS and Android.

4
What is an Operating System?
• A program that acts as an intermediary between a
user of a computer and the computer hardware.
• Operating system goals:
• Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier.
• Make the computer system convenient to use.
• Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner.

Operating System Concepts

Operating System Definitions

•Resource allocator – manages and

allocates resources.
•Control program – controls the execution
of user programs and operations of I/O
devices .
•Kernel – the one program running at all
times (all else being application programs).
Operating System Concepts
 Computer System Components
1. Hardware – provides basic computing resources (CPU, memory, I/O
devices).
2. Operating system – controls and coordinates the use of the hardware
among the various application programs for the various users.
3. Applications programs – define the ways in which the system resources
are used to solve the computing problems of the users (compilers,
database systems, video games, business programs).
4. Users (people, machines, other computers).

Operating System Concepts

Abstract View of System Components

Operating System Concepts

What Operating Systems Do
• Depends on the point of view
• Users want convenience, ease of use and good performance
• Don’t care about resource utilization
• But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer must keep
all users happy
• Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have dedicated
resources but frequently use shared resources from servers
• Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for usability and
battery life
• Some computers have little or no user interface, such as embedded
computers in devices and automobiles
 Computer Startup
• bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or
reboot
• Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known
as firmware
• Initializes all aspects of system
• Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
 Computer System Organization
• Computer-system operation
• One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus providing
access to shared memory
• Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory cycles
 Computer-System Operation
• I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently
• Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type
• Each device controller has a local buffer
• CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
• I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller
• Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by
causing an interrupt
 Common Functions of Interrupts
• An interrupt is a signal emitted by hardware or software when a process
or an event needs immediate attention. It alerts the processor to a high-
priority process requiring interruption of the current working process.
• Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally,
through the interrupt vector, which contains the addresses of all the
service routines
• Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted instruction
• A trap or exception is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an
error or a user request
• An operating system is interrupt driven
 Interrupt Handling
• The operating system preserves the state of the CPU
by storing registers and the program counter
• Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
• Polling - interrupt controller must poll (send a signal
out to) each device to determine which one made
the request.
• Vectored - interrupt signal that includes the identity of
the device sending the interrupt signal
• Separate segments of code determine what action
should be taken for each type of interrupt
I/O Structure
• After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O completion
• Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt
• Wait loop (contention for memory access)
• At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no simultaneous I/O processing
• After I/O starts, control returns to user program without waiting for I/O
completion
• System call – request to the OS to allow user to wait for I/O completion
• Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device indicating its type, address, and
state
• OS indexes into I/O device table to determine device status and to modify table entry
to include interrupt
 Storage Structure
• Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access
directly
• Random access
• Typically volatile

• Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large

nonvolatile storage capacity
• Hard disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic
recording material
• Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into sectors
• The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device and the computer

• Solid-state disks – faster than hard disks, nonvolatile

• Various technologies
• Becoming more popular
 Storage Hierarchy
• Storage systems organized in hierarchy
• Speed
• Cost
• Volatility
• Caching – copying information into faster storage
system; main memory can be viewed as a cache for
secondary storage
• Device Driver for each device controller to manage I/O
• Provides uniform interface between controller and kernel
Storage-Device Hierarchy
 Caching
• Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer
(in hardware, operating system, software)
• Information in use copied from slower to faster storage
temporarily
• Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if
information is there
• If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
• If not, data copied to cache and used there
• Cache smaller than storage being cached
• Cache management important design problem
• Cache size and replacement policy
 Direct Memory Access Structure
•Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit
information at close to memory speeds
•Device controller transfers blocks of data from
buffer storage directly to main memory without
CPU intervention
•Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather
than the one interrupt per byte
How a Modern Computer Works

A von Neumann architecture

 Computer-System Architecture
• Most systems use a single general-purpose processor
• Most systems have special-purpose processors as well
• Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance
• Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
• Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance
• Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing – each processor is assigned a specific task.
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing – each processor performs all tasks
Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture
 A Dual-Core Design
• Multi-chip and multicore
• Systems containing all chips
• Chassis containing multiple separate systems
 Clustered Systems
• Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working together
• Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)

• Provides a high-availability service which survives failures

• Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby mode
• Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running applications, monitoring each
other

• Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)

• Applications must be written to use parallelization

• Some have distributed lock manager (DLM) to avoid conflicting operations

Clustered Systems
 Operating System Structure
• Multiprogramming (Batch system) needed for efficiency
• Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
• Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to execute
• A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
• One job selected and run via job scheduling
• When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job

• Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs so frequently that
users can interact with each job while it is running, creating interactive computing

• Response time should be < 1 second

• Each user has at least one program executing in memory process
• If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling
• If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
• Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory
Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System
 Operating-System Operations
•Interrupt driven (hardware and software)
•Hardware interrupt by one of the devices
•Software interrupt (exception or trap):
• Software error (e.g., division by zero)
• Request for operating system service
• Other process problems include infinite loop,
processes modifying each other or the
operating system
 Operating-System Operations (cont.)
• Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other
system components
• User mode and kernel mode
• Mode bit provided by hardware
• Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or kernel
code
• Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in kernel
mode
• System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user
• Increasingly CPUs support multi-mode operations
• i.e. virtual machine manager (VMM) mode for guest VMs
 Transition from User to Kernel Mode
• Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
• Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time period
• Keep a counter that is decremented by the physical clock.
• Operating system set the counter (privileged instruction)
• When counter zero generate an interrupt
• Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate
program that exceeds allotted time
 System Calls
• Programming interface to the services provided by the
OS
• Typically written in a high-level language (C or C++)
• Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level
Application Programming Interface (API) rather than
direct system call use
• Three most common APIs are Win32 API for Windows,
POSIX API for POSIX-based systems (including virtually
all versions of UNIX, Linux, and Mac OS X), and Java API
for the Java virtual machine (JVM)
 Example of System Calls
• System call sequence to copy the contents of one file to another file
Example of Standard API
 System Call Implementation
• Typically, a number associated with each system call
• System-call interface maintains a table indexed according to these
numbers
• The system call interface invokes the intended system call in OS
kernel and returns status of the system call and any return values
• The caller need know nothing about how the system call is
implemented
• Just needs to obey API and understand what OS will do as a result call
• Most details of OS interface hidden from programmer by API
• Managed by run-time support library (set of functions built into libraries
included with compiler)
API – System Call – OS Relationship
 System Call Parameter Passing
• Often, more information is required than simply identity of desired system
call
• Exact type and amount of information vary according to OS and call
• Three general methods used to pass parameters to the OS
• Simplest: pass the parameters in registers
• In some cases, may be more parameters than registers
• Parameters stored in a block, or table, in memory, and address of block passed as a
parameter in a register
• This approach taken by Linux and Solaris
• Parameters placed, or pushed, onto the stack by the program and popped off the
stack by the operating system
• Block and stack methods do not limit the number or length of parameters being
passed
Parameter Passing via Table
 Types of System Calls
• Process control
• create process, terminate process
• end, abort
• load, execute
• get process attributes, set process attributes
• wait for time
• wait event, signal event
• allocate and free memory
• Dump memory if error
• Debugger for determining bugs, single step execution
• Locks for managing access to shared data between processes
 Types of System Calls
• File management
• create file, delete file
• open, close file
• read, write, reposition
• get and set file attributes
• Device management
• request device, release device
• read, write, reposition
• get device attributes, set device attributes
• logically attach or detach devices
 Types of System Calls (Cont.)
• Information maintenance
• get time or date, set time or date
• get system data, set system data
• get and set process, file, or device attributes
• Communications
• create, delete communication connection
• send, receive messages if message passing model to host
name or process name
• From client to server
• Shared-memory model create and gain access to memory
regions
• transfer status information
• attach and detach remote devices
 Types of System Calls (Cont.)

• Protection
• Control access to resources
• Get and set permissions
• Allow and deny user access
Examples of Windows and Unix System Calls
 Standard C Library Example
• C program invoking printf() library call, which calls write() system
call
 Example: MS-DOS
• Single-tasking
• Shell invoked when
system booted
• Simple method to run
program
• No process created
• Single memory space
• Loads program into
memory, overwriting all
but the kernel At system startup running a program

• Program exit -> shell

reloaded
 System Programs
• System programs provide a convenient environment for program
development and execution. They can be divided into:
• File manipulation
• Status information sometimes stored in a File modification
• Programming language support
• Program loading and execution
• Communications
• Background services
• Application programs
• Most users’ view of the operation system is defined by system
programs, not the actual system calls
 System Programs
• Provide a convenient environment for program development and
execution
• Some of them are simply user interfaces to system calls; others are considerably
more complex

• File management - Create, delete, copy, rename, print, dump, list, and
generally manipulate files and directories

• Status information
• Some ask the system for info - date, time, amount of available memory, disk
space, number of users
• Others provide detailed performance, logging, and debugging information
• Typically, these programs format and print the output to the terminal or other
output devices
• Some systems implement a registry - used to store and retrieve configuration
information
 System Programs (Cont.)
• File modification
• Text editors to create and modify files
• Special commands to search contents of files or perform transformations of the text
• Programming-language support - Compilers, assemblers, debuggers and
interpreters sometimes provided
• Program loading and execution- Absolute loaders, relocatable loaders,
linkage editors, and overlay-loaders, debugging systems for higher-level and
machine language
• Communications - Provide the mechanism for creating virtual connections
among processes, users, and computer systems
• Allow users to send messages to one another’s screens, browse web pages, send
electronic-mail messages, log in remotely, transfer files from one machine to another
 System Programs (Cont.)
• Background Services
• Launch at boot time
• Some for system startup, then terminate
• Some from system boot to shutdown
• Provide facilities like disk checking, process scheduling, error logging, printing
• Run in user context not kernel context
• Known as services, subsystems, daemons

• Application programs
• Don’t pertain to system
• Run by users
• Not typically considered part of OS
• Launched by command line, mouse click, finger poke
Operating System Structure
• General-purpose OS is very large program
• Various ways to structure ones
• Simple structure – MS-DOS
• More complex -- UNIX
• Layered – an abstrcation
• Microkernel -Mach
 Simple Structure -- MS-DOS
• MS-DOS – written to provide
the most functionality in the
least space
• Not divided into modules
• Although MS-DOS has some
structure, its interfaces and
levels of functionality are not
well separated
 Non Simple Structure -- UNIX
UNIX – limited by hardware functionality, the original
UNIX operating system had limited structuring.
The UNIX OS consists of two separable parts
• Systems programs
• The kernel
• Consists of everything below the system-call interface and
above the physical hardware
• Provides the file system, CPU scheduling, memory
management, and other operating-system functions; a large
number of functions for one level
Traditional UNIX System Structure
Beyond simple but not fully layered
 Layered Approach
• The operating system is divided
into a number of layers (levels),
each built on top of lower
layers. The bottom layer (layer
0), is the hardware; the highest
(layer N) is the user interface.
• With modularity, layers are
selected such that each uses
functions (operations) and
services of only lower-level
layers
 Microkernel System Structure
• Moves as much from the kernel into user space
• Mach example of microkernel
• Mac OS X kernel (Darwin) partly based on Mach
• Communication takes place between user modules using
message passing
• Benefits:
• Easier to extend a microkernel
• Easier to port the operating system to new architectures
• More reliable (less code is running in kernel mode)
• More secure
• Detriments:
• Performance overhead of user space to kernel space communication
 Microkernel System Structure
Application File Device user
Program System Driver mode

messages messages

Interprocess memory CPU kernel

Communication managment scheduling mode

microkernel

hardware
Modules
• Many modern operating systems implement
loadable kernel modules
• Uses object-oriented approach
• Each core component is separate
• Each talks to the others over known interfaces
• Each is loadable as needed within the kernel
• Overall, similar to layers but with more
flexible
• Linux, Solaris, etc
Solaris Modular Approach
Hybrid Systems
• Most modern operating systems are actually not one
pure model
• Hybrid combines multiple approaches to address
performance, security, usability needs
• Linux and Solaris kernels in kernel address space, so
monolithic, plus modular for dynamic loading of functionality
• Windows mostly monolithic, plus microkernel for different
subsystem personalities
• Apple Mac OS X hybrid, layered, Aqua UI plus Cocoa
programming environment
• Below is kernel consisting of Mach microkernel and BSD Unix
parts, plus I/O kit and dynamically loadable modules (called
kernel extensions)
Mac OS X Structure
graphical user interface
Aqua

application environments and services

Java Cocoa Quicktime BSD

kernel environment
BSD

Mach

I/O kit kernel extensions

 iOS

• Apple mobile OS for iPhone, iPad

• Structured on Mac OS X, added functionality
• Does not run OS X applications natively
• Also runs on different CPU architecture (ARM vs. Intel)
• Cocoa Touch Objective-C API for developing apps
• Media services layer for graphics, audio, video
• Core services provides cloud computing, databases
• Core operating system, based on Mac OS X kernel
Android
• Developed by Open Handset Alliance (mostly Google)
• Open Source
• Similar stack to IOS
• Based on Linux kernel but modified
• Provides process, memory, device-driver management
• Adds power management
• Runtime environment includes core set of libraries and
Dalvik virtual machine
• Apps developed in Java plus Android API
• Java class files compiled to Java bytecode then translated to executable
than runs in Dalvik VM
• Libraries include frameworks for web browser (webkit),
database (SQLite), multimedia, smaller libc
Android Architecture
Applications

Application Framework

Libraries Android runtime

SQLite openGL Core Libraries

surface media
Dalvik
manager framework
virtual machine
webkit libc

Linux kernel
 Operating System Generation
 Operating systems are designed to run on any of a class of machines;
the system must be configured for each specific computer site
 SYSGEN program obtains information concerning the specific
configuration of the hardware system
 Used to build system-specific compiled kernel or system-tuned
 Can general more efficient code than one general kernel
System Boot
• When power initialized on system, execution starts at a fixed
memory location
• Firmware ROM used to hold initial boot code
• Operating system must be made available to hardware so
hardware can start it
• Small piece of code – bootstrap loader, stored in ROM or EEPROM
locates the kernel, loads it into memory, and starts it
• Sometimes two-step process where boot block at fixed location loaded
by ROM code, which loads bootstrap loader from disk
• Common bootstrap loader, GRUB, allows selection of kernel
from multiple disks, versions, kernel options
• Kernel loads and system is then running