CHAPTER 1

BASIC MECHANICS

NEWTON’S THREE LAWS OF MOTION

Basis of formulation of rigid body mechanics

First Law: A particle that is initially at rest or travelling in a straight line with
constant velocity has a strong tendency to remain in that condition if it is not
subjected to an unbalanced force during its initial motion.

Second Law: when a particle of mass "m" is operated upon by an unbalanced

force "F," the particle experiences an acceleration "a" in the same direction as
the force and with a magnitude that is directly proportional to the force.

Third Law: When two particles interact, the reciprocal forces of action and
reaction that they experience are equal, opposing, and collinear.

NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATIONAL ATTTRACTION

Calculating the weight of a body (gravitational force acting on a body) is
essential for use in both Statics and Dynamics calculations.
The gravitational pull between any two particles is governed by this principle.
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=𝐺
𝑟2
F = mutual force of attraction between two particles
G = universal constant of gravitation
Experiments:
G = 6.673x10-11 m3/(kg.s2)
Rotation of Earth is not considered
m1, m2 = masses of two particles
r = distance between two particles
Gravitational Attraction of the Earth

Weight of a Body: If a particle is positioned at or near Earth's surface, the

only substantial gravitational force acting on it is that acting between the
particle and the earth.
𝑚𝑀𝑒
𝑊=𝐺
𝑟2
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
r = distance between the earth’s center and the particle
Let g = 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 /𝑟 2 = acceleration due to gravity (9.81𝑚/𝑠 2 )

SCALARS AND VECTORS

Scalars: are exclusively related with their magnitude. Time, volume, density,
speed, energy, and mass are examples of such concepts.

Vectors: have both a direction and a magnitude, and must adhere to the
parallelogram law of addition in order to be considered (and the triangle law).
A Vector V can be written as: V = Vn
V = magnitude of V
n = unit vector whose magnitude
is one and whose direction
coincides with that of V
Unit vector can be formed by
dividing any vector, such as the geometric position vector, by its length or magnitude
Free Vector: A vector whose action is not restricted to or related with a single line in
space, for example, movement of a body without rotation.

Sliding Vector: has a unique line of action in space but not a unique point of
application
Ex: External force on a rigid body

 Principle of Transmissibility
 Imp in Rigid Body Mechanics
Fixed Vector: a vector for which a single point of application has been identified. For
example, the action of a force on a deformable body.
VECTOR ADDITION: PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS
Parallelogram Law (Graphical)
Resultant Force (diagonal)
Components (sides of parallelogram)

Algebraic Solution
Using the coordinate system

Trigonometry (Geometry)
Resultant Force and Components
from Law of Cosines and Law of
Sines

FORCE SYSTEMS
Force: Magnitude (P), direction (arrow) and point of application (point A) is
important

Change in any of the three specifications will alter the effect on the bracket.

Because the line of action of a force is crucial in the case of rigid bodies (rather than
its point of application if we are simply concerned in the force's outward
consequences), we will consider most forces as if they were applied to a rigid body.

External effect: Forces applied (applied force); Forces exerted by bracket,

bolts, Foundation (reactive force)

Internal effect: Deformation, strain pattern – permanent strain; depends on

material properties of bracket, bolts, etc

Concurrent force: Forces are said to be concurrent at a point if their lines of

action

intersect at that point

F1, F2 are concurrent forces

R will be on same plane

R = F1+F2
COMPONENTS OF FORCE

SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. Determine the x and y scalar components of 𝐹1 , 𝐹2 , and 𝐹3 acting at point A of
the bracket.

𝐹1𝑥 = 600 cos 35° = 491 𝑁

𝐹1𝑦 = 600 sin 35° = 344 𝑁

4
𝐹2𝑥 = −500 = −400 𝑁
5
 3
𝐹2𝑦 = 500 = 300 𝑁
5
0.2
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 26.6°
0.4
𝐹3𝑥 = 𝐹3 sin 𝛼 = 800 sin 26.6° = 358 𝑁

𝐹3𝑦 = −𝐹3 cos 𝛼 = −800 cos 26.6° = −716 𝑁

VECTOR PRODUCTS
Applications:

 To determine the angle between two vectors

 To determine the projection of a vector in a specified direction

𝐴×𝐵 = 𝐵×𝐴 Commutative

𝐴× 𝐵+𝐶 = 𝐴×𝐵+𝐴×𝐶 Distributive Operation

𝐴 × 𝐵 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘 × 𝐵𝒙 𝑖 + 𝐵𝒚 𝑗 + 𝐵𝒛 𝑘 i.i = 1

=𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧 i.j = 0
MOMENT OF A FORCE
The moment of a force about a point or axis is a measure of the force's
tendency to induce a body to spin about the point or axis around which it is acting.
Force and moment are both vectors with magnitude and direction.

An object's rotational moment 𝑀𝑜 about a point O is equal to the product of the force
and the perpendicular distance d between the point O and the line of action of the
force as follows:

𝑀𝑜 = 𝐹 × 𝑑

The perpendicular distance d is referred to as the moment arm.

MOMENTS OF A SYSTEM OF COPLANAR FORCES

Moments are vectors, and as such, they adhere to the principles of vector
addition. Unless all of the moments are centered around the same moment axis, the
sum of moments is not always equal to the algebraic sum of the moments'
magnitudes. In engineering applications, on the other hand, it is typical to come into
a system of coplanar forces. When all forces are coplanar (i.e., on the same plane),
the moments produced by these forces must be collinear (or parallel to one another).

It is possible to compute the resultant moment about point O for 2D problems

in which all forces are contained inside the x-y plane by calculating the algebraic sum
of the moments induced by all of the forces in the system.
Sign convention:
Positive moment – Anticlockwise (pointing towards +z axis)
Negative moment – Clockwise (pointing towards -z axis)
The resultant moment is
𝑀𝑅 𝑂 = ∑𝐹𝑑 = 𝐹1 𝑑1 − 𝐹2 𝑑2 + 𝐹3 𝑑3
SAMPLE PROBLEM
2. A structure is subjected to three external loads 𝐹1 , 𝐹2 and 𝐹3 as shown:

a. Find the moment of each load about point O and determine the resultant
moment of the three loads acting on the structure about point O.
b. Find the moment of each load about point 𝑂′ and determine the resultant
moment of the three loads acting on the structure about point 𝑂′ .

SOLUTION:
a. About point O. Take positive clockwise (CW) as positive.

FORCE MOMENT
𝐹1 𝑀𝐹1 = 10 × 10 + 4 cos 30° = 134.6 𝑘𝑁𝑚 𝐶𝑊
𝐹2 𝑀𝐹2 = 30 × 4 sin 30° = 60 𝑘𝑁𝑚 𝐶𝑊
𝐹3 𝑀𝐹3 = 50 × 3 = 150 𝑘𝑁𝑚 𝐶𝑊

The resultant moment is

𝑀𝑅𝑂 = 134.6 + 60 + 150 = 344.6 𝑘𝑁𝑚 𝐶𝑊

b. About point 𝑂′ . Take clockwise as positive.

FORCE MOMENT
𝐹1 𝑀𝐹1 = 10 × 4 cos 30° = 34.6 𝑘𝑁𝑚 𝐶𝑊
𝐹2 𝑀𝐹2 = 30 × 4 sin 30° = 60 𝑘𝑁𝑚 𝐶𝑊
𝐹3 𝑀𝐹3 = −50 × 7 = −350 𝑘𝑁𝑚 𝐶𝑊

The resultant moment is

𝑀𝑅𝑂′ = 34.6 + 60 − 350 = −255.4 𝑘𝑁𝑚 𝐴𝐶𝑊
PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS

It is stated in the principle of moments, which is commonly known as

Varignon's theorem, that

 For a given point, the moment of the force is equal to the sum of each forces
component's moments about the point.

So, while trying to determine the moment of a force around a point, one has two
options:

1. determine the product of the force and the moment arm directly
2. divide the force into two components and get the moment of each component
around the point, then add the moments of the components together.

SAMPLE PROBLEM
3. A 100 kN force acts on a structure as shown below. Find the moment of the
force about point O.

SOLUTION:

The moment arm d can be found from trigonometry.

𝑑 = 0.8 + 1 × cos 45° = 1.507 𝑚

Hence, 𝑀𝑂 = 100 × 1.507 = 150.7 𝑘𝑁𝑚 𝐶𝑊
MOMENT OF A COUPLE
A couple is made up of two forces with the same magnitude but different
directions. Given the fact that the resulting force is zero, the sole impact of a couple
is to cause a rotational movement (moment). The magnitude is given by 𝑀 = 𝐹𝑑,
where F is the force, and d is the distance between the couple.

𝑀𝑂 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃 = 𝐹𝑑
For a pair of forces, the couple moment about O is

𝑀𝑂 = 𝑟𝐵 × 𝐹 + 𝑟𝐴 × −𝐹

= 𝑟𝐵 − 𝑟𝐴 × 𝐹 = 𝑟 × 𝐹

Where r is the position vector between the couple.

In this case, the couple moment is simply reliant on the relative position
between the couple, rather than the position vectors 𝑟𝐴 and 𝑟𝐵 , and is directed from
the point O.

As a result, a couple moment is referred to as a free vector, and it would be

the same for any point. It differs from the idea of a force's moment, which requires a
definite point (or axis) around which moments are determined.

EQUIVALENT COUPLES: couples that produce the same couple moment. This
requires that the equivalent couples to be on the same plane or on planes parallel to
each other because couple moments must be perpendicular to the plane containing
the couples.

SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. A retaining wall is subjected to a vertical and a horizontal force. Replace this
system of forces by an equivalent resultant force and couple moment acting at
its toe, point O.
SOLUTION:
The resultant force is

𝐹𝑅 = 8602 + 2102 = 885.3 𝑘𝑁

860
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 76.3° 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
210

PRACTICE PROBLEM
1. Compute the value of the resultant of the concurrent forces shown in the
figure.

2. A force P passing through points A and B in the figure has a clockwise

moment at 300 ft-lb about O. Compute the value of P.

3. Locate the amount and position of the resultant of the loads acting on the Fink
truss shown.
4. The resultant of four forces, of which three are shown in the figure, is at a
couple of 480 lb-ft clockwise in sense. If each square is 1 ft. on a side,
determine the fourth force completely.

5. The three forces shown in the figure are required to cause a horizontal
resultant acting through point A. If F=316 lb, determine the values of P and T.
Hint: Apply ∑𝑀𝑅 = ∑𝑀𝐵 to determine R, then 𝑀𝑅 = ∑𝑀𝐷 or 𝑅𝑦 = ∑𝑌 to
compute T.
 CHAPTER 2

EQUILIBRIUM MECHANICS

When a body is subjected to a system of forces, it is said to be in equilibrium

with that system of forces. We already know that the resultant of a system of forces
operating on a body may be predicted. According to Newton's 2nd Law of Motion, the
body should then move in the direction of the resultant with a certain amount of
acceleration. It follows that if the resultant force is equal to zero, the net impact of the
system of forces is also equal to zero, and this is referred to as the condition of
equilibrium.
It is possible to have an equilibrant force as a single force that, when
combined with other forces, puts the system into equilibrium. As a result, this force
has the same magnitude as the resultant but is in the opposite direction in meaning.

CONDITIONS FOR EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID OBJECT

Considering a rigid object that is not moving at all, the following requirements must
be met.

 A rigid object's (vector) total of external forces must equal zero.

∑𝐹 = 0

Translational equilibrium occurs when this criterion is met, and the object is
said to be in this state.

Although it merely informs us if aCM is zero, this covers the scenario where an
object remains motionless.

 The total of all external torques acting on a rigid object must equal zero.
∑𝜏 = 0
When these criteria have been met, we may say that the item is in rotational
equilibrium with the surrounding environment. (While it merely informs us that
α the given axis is zero, this includes the situation where the item is
motionless).

When both of these conditions are met, we say that the object is in static equilibrium
with itself.
THE PROCESS OF SOLVING RIGID BODY
FREE BODY DIAGRAM
To be able to analyze a physical system, we must first construct an idealized
model of it. Object that has been isolated from its surroundings. After that, we must
create a free-body diagram that depicts all of the external (active and reactive) forces
that are present. (The most difficult element is the support reactions.) Finally, we
must use the equations of equilibrium to solve for any unknowns that may have
arisen.
1. Draw an outlined shape. Imagine the body to be isolated or cut ―free‖ from its
constraints and draw its outlined shape.
2. Show all the external forces and couple moments. These typically include:
a. applied loads
b. the weight of the body
c. support reaction
3. Label loads and dimensions: All known forces and couple moments should be
labeled with their magnitudes and directions. For the unknown forces and
couple moments, use letters like Ax, Ay, MA, etc. Indicate any necessary
dimensions.
LAMI’S THEOREM
It states, ―If three coplanar forces acting at a point be in equilibrium, then each force
is
proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two.‖
Mathematically,
𝑃 𝑄 𝑅
= =
sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽 sin 𝛾

SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. An electric light fixture weighting 15 N hangs from a point C, by two strings AC
and BC. The string AC is inclined at 60° to the horizontal and BC at 45° to the
horizontal as shown. Using Lami’s theorem, or otherwise, determine the force
in the strings AC.
SOLUTION:
Given:
Weight at C = 15 N
Let 𝑇𝐴𝐶 = Force in the string AC, and
𝑇𝐵𝐶 = Force in the string BC
⦟𝐴𝐶𝐵 = 180° − 45° + 60° = 75°
Applying Lami’s equation at C,
15 𝑇𝐴𝐶 𝑇𝐵𝐶
= =
sin 75° sin 135° sin 30°
Or
15 𝑇𝐴𝐶 𝑇𝐵𝐶
= =
sin 75° sin 45° sin 30°
15 sin 45° 15 × 0.707
𝑇𝐴𝐶 = = = 10.98 𝑁
sin 75° 0.9659
TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM

STABLE EQUILIBRIUM: A body is considered to be in stable equilibrium if, after

being gently pushed from its resting position, it returns to its original position. This
occurs when an additional force is generated as a result of the displacement and is
used to return the body to its original position. A smooth cylinder resting on a curved
surface is in a state of balance that is stable. As demonstrated in Fig. a, if we gently
displace the cylinder from its resting position (as indicated by the dotted lines), it will
gravitate back to its original location in order to make its weight normal to the
horizontal axis.

UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM: A body is considered to be in unstable equilibrium if it

does not return to its original position after being marginally displaced from its resting
position and instead heels further away. A situation in which this occurs is when the
increased force causes the body to move away from its resting position. A smooth
cylinder resting on a convex surface is in an unstable equilibrium because of the
convexity. After a small displacement from its resting position (as indicated by dotted
lines), the cylinder will begin to migrate away from its original location, as illustrated
in Fig (b).
NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM: The neutral equilibrium state of a body is defined as
follows: the body occupies a new (and remains at rest in this new) position after
being slightly displaced from its original position of rest. This occurs when no
additional force is generated as a result of the displacement. As shown in Fig. 1, a
smooth cylinder resting on a horizontal plane is in neutral equilibrium with respect to
the Fig (c).

SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. A cylinder weighing 400 lb. is held against a smooth incline by means of the
weightless rod AB in the given figure. Determine P & N exerted on the
cylinder.

USING H AND V AXES

FBD of Cylinder B

∑𝐹ℎ = 0 ∶ 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠25° = 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠35°

𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠35°
𝑃=
𝑐𝑜𝑠25°
∑𝐹𝑣 = 0

𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑛25° + 𝑁𝑠𝑖𝑛35° = 400

Substitute:
𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠35° 𝑠𝑖𝑛25°
𝑐𝑜𝑠25° + 𝑁𝑠𝑖𝑛35°
= 400 → 𝑁 = 418.605 𝑙𝑏.
𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠35°
𝑃=
𝑐𝑜𝑠25°
418.605 𝑐𝑜𝑠35°
=
𝑐𝑜𝑠25°
𝑃 = 378.35 𝑙𝑏.

1. A 300 lb box is held at rest on a smooth plane by a force P inclined at an

angle θ with the plane as shown in the given figure below. If θ = 45°,
determine the value of P and the normal pressure N exerted by the plane:

FBD of the block:

USING H AND V AXES:

∑𝐹𝑣 = 0

300 = 𝑁 sin 60° − 𝑃 sin 45°

∑𝐹ℎ = 0

𝑃 cos 15° = 𝑁 cos 60°

𝑁 cos 60°
𝑃=
cos 15°
𝑁 = 409.807 𝑙𝑏

𝑃 = 212.132 𝑙𝑏

PRACTICE PROBLEM
1. Determine the values of the angles ∝ and θ so that the forces shown in the
figure will be in equilibrium.

2. The five forces shown in the figure are in equilibrium. Compute the values of P
and F.

3. The truss shown in the figure is supported on rollers at A and a hinge at B.

Solve for the components of the reactions.
4. Compute the total reactions at A and B for the truss shown in the figure.

5. A pulley 4 ft in diameter and supporting a load of 200 lb is mounted at B on a

horizontal beam. The beam is supported by a hinge at A and rollers at C.
Neglecting the weight of the beam, determine the reactions at A and C.
 CHAPTER 3

FRICTION
If a block of one substance is placed over the level surface of the same or
different material, a certain degree of interlocking of the minutely projecting particles
takes place. This does not involve any force, so long as the block does not move or
tends to move. But whenever one of the blocks moves or tends to move tangentially
with respect to the surface, on which it rests, the interlocking property of the
projecting particles opposes the motion. This opposing force, which acts in the
opposite direction of the movement of the block, is called force of friction or simply
friction. It is of the following two types:

1. Static friction
2. Dynamic friction

STATIC FRICTION: It is the friction experienced by a body when it is at rest. Or in

other words, it is the friction when the body tends to move.

DYNAMIC FRICTION: It is the friction experienced by a body when it is in motion. It

is also called kinetic friction.
The dynamic friction is of the following two types:

 SLIDING FRICTION: Friction is the resistance that a body encounters when it

glides across or between two bodies.
 ROLLING FRICTION: When a body rolls over another body, it creates friction
between the two bodies involved.
LIMITING FRICTION: The maximum value of frictional force, which comes into play,
when a body just begins to slide over the surface of the other body, is known as
limiting friction. It may be noted that when the applied force is less than the limiting
friction, the body remains at rest, and the friction is called static friction, which may
have any value between zero and limiting friction.
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION: In the case of two bodies, it is the ratio of limiting
friction to normal reaction, and it is commonly symbolized by μ.
𝐹
μ= = tan 𝜙 𝑜𝑟 𝐹 = μR
𝑅
𝜙 = Angle of friction
F = Limiting friction
R = Normal reaction between the two bodies
ANGLE OF REPOSE: Angle of repose is defined as the angle formed by an inclined
plane with respect to the horizontal at which a body put on it begins to slide.

LAWS OF FRICTION
1. LAWS OF STATIC FRICTION
 The force of friction always acts in a direction that is diametrically
opposed to the direction in which the body would travel if the force of
friction were not there.
 The magnitude of the frictional force is exactly equal to the amount of
the force that is attempting to move the body.
 The magnitude of the limiting friction bears a constant ratio to the
normal reaction between the two surfaces.
𝐹
= 𝐶𝑂𝑁𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑁𝑇
𝑅

The frictional force between two surfaces is independent of the area of
contact between the surfaces.
 The roughness of the surfaces has an effect on the frictional force
between them.
2. LAWS OF KINETIC OR DYNAMIC FRICTION
 A body moving in one direction is constantly subjected to the force of
friction, which always acts in the opposing direction.
 The magnitude of kinetic friction bears a constant ratio to the normal
reaction between the two surfaces. But this ratio is slightly less than
that in case of limiting friction.
 When traveling at moderate speeds, the frictional force remains
constant. However, it drops significantly when the speed of the vehicle
increases.
EQUILIBRIUM OF A BODY ON A ROUGH HORIZONTAL PLANE

We already know that a body resting on a rough horizontal plane will maintain
its equilibrium state of balance. The body, on the other hand, will tend to move in the
direction of the force that is applied to it whenever it is subjected to it. In such
instances, the equilibrium of the body is investigated first by resolving the forces
horizontally, and then vertically, until the equilibrium is established.
Now the value of the force of friction is obtained from the relation:

𝐹 = 𝑀𝑟
SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. A body of weight 300 N is lying on a rough horizontal plane having a
coefficient of friction as 0.3. Find the magnitude of the force, which can move
the body, while acting at an angle of 25° with the horizontal.

SOLUTION:
Given:
Weight of the body (W) = 300 N

Coefficient of Friction (μ = 0.3 and angle made by the force with the horizontal (α) =
25°

Let P = magnitude of the force, which can move the body, and
F = force of friction
Resolving the forces horizontally,

𝐹 = 𝑃 cos α = 𝑃 cos 25° = 𝑃 × 0.9063

And now resolving the forces vertically,

𝑅 = 𝑊 − 𝑃 sin α = 300 − 𝑃 sin 25°

= 300 − 𝑃 × 0.4226

We know that the force of friction (F),

0.9063 𝑃 = μR = 0.3 × 300 − 0.4226 P = 90 − 0.1268 P

or

90 = 0.9063 𝑃 + 0.1268 𝑃 = 1.0331 𝑃

90
𝑃= = 87.1 𝑁
1.0331
EQUILIBRIUM OF A BODY ON A ROUGH INCLINED PLANE

Consider a body of weight W that is lying on a rough plane inclined at an angle

α with the horizontal, as shown in Figs. (a) and (b).

If the angle of inclination of the plane with respect to the horizontal is less than the
angle of friction, the body will automatically be in equilibrium, as seen in Figure (a). If
the body is necessary to be moved upwards or downwards while in this condition, a
comparable force is required for the same. In contrast, if the plane's inclination is
greater than the angle of friction, the body will be dragged downward. In addition, an
upward force (P) will be necessary to prevent the body from sliding down the plane
of motion.

SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. A body of weight 500 N is lying on a rough plane inclined at an angle of 25°
with the horizontal. It is supported by an effort (P) parallel to the plane as
shown in Fig. Determine the minimum and maximum values of P, for which
the equilibrium can exist, if the angle of friction is 20°.
SOLUTION:
Given:
Weight of the body (W) = 500 N
Angle at which plane is inclined (α) = 25°

Angle of friction (𝜙) = 20°

Minimum Value of P
sin α − 𝜙 sin 25° − 20°
𝑃1 = 𝑊 × = 500 × 𝑁
cos 𝜙 cos 20°
sin 5° 0.0872
= 500 × = 500 × = 46.4 𝑁
cos 20° 0.9397
Maximum Value of P
sin α + 𝜙 sin 25° + 20°
𝑃2 = 𝑊 × = 500 × 𝑁
cos 𝜙 cos 20°
sin 45° 0.7071
500 × = 500 × = 376.2 𝑁
cos 20° 0.9397

PRACTICE PROBLEM
1. The 200 lb block shown in the figure has impending motion up the plane
caused by the horizontal force of 400 lb. Determine the coefficient of static
friction between the contact surfaces.

2. A homogeneous block of weight W rest upon the incline shown in the figure. If
the coefficient of friction is 0.30, determine the greatest height h at which a
force P parallel to the incline maybe applied so that the block will slide up the
incline without tipping over.
3. In the figure below, if f = 0.3 under both blocks and A weighs 400 lb, find the
maximum weight of B that can be started up the incline by applying to A a
rightward horizontal force P of 500 lb.

4. A force of 400 lb is applied to the pulley. The pulley is prevented from rotating
by a force P applied to the end of the brake lever. If the coefficient of friction at
the broke surface is 0.20, determine the value of P.
5. A ladder 10 ft long weighs 40 lb and its center of gravity is 8 ft from the
bottom. The ladder is placed against a vertical wall so that it makes an angle
of 60° with the ground. How far up the ladder can a 160 lb man climb before
the ladder is on the verge of slipping? The angle of friction at all contact
surface is 15°.
 CHAPTER 4

FRICTION IN MACHINES
WEDGE FRICTION
Wedge friction is a type of ramp friction that has a specific application. Most
wedge issues have two ramps that must be solved. There is a difference in the
friction coefficient between different surfaces. The solution to the common wedge
problem can be time-consuming. Analytical methods can be used to tackle any and
all wedge concerns. Trigonometric approaches, on the other hand, are often more
straightforward when dealing with these types of difficulties. Especially if the
surfaces are not perpendicular to one another.

SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. A force 'P' is applied in a downward direction to a wedge. The wedge bears
against a stationary plane to the left with a 6º angle to the vertical. The right
plane of the wedge is vertical. The wedge is used to move a block 2000 N to
the right. All surfaces have a coefficient of static friction of 0.30. Find 'P'.

𝐹𝑊 𝐹𝑏
μ = tan 𝜙 = 0.30 = =
𝑁𝑊 𝑁𝑏

𝐹𝑊 = 0.30 𝑁𝑊

𝐹𝑏 = 0.30 𝑁𝑏

∑𝐹𝑦 = −2000 + 𝑁𝑏 − 𝐹𝑊
 ∑𝐹𝑥 = −𝐹𝑏 + 𝑁𝑊
Substituting:
∑𝐹𝑦 = 0 = −2000 + 𝑁𝑏 − 0.30 𝑁

∑𝐹𝑥 = 0 = −0.30 𝑁𝑏 + 𝑁𝑊

Solving by elimination

Divide ∑𝐹𝑥 by 0.30 then add to ∑𝐹𝑦

∑𝐹𝑦 = 0 = −2000 + 𝑁𝑏 − 0.30 𝑁𝑊

∑𝐹𝑥 = 0 = −𝑁𝑏 + 3.33 𝑁𝑊

__________________________
−2000 + 0 + 3.03 𝑁𝑊

𝑁𝑊 = 659 𝑁 →

Substituting:

𝐹𝑊 = 198 𝑁 ↓

𝐹𝑏 = 659 𝑁 ←

𝑁𝑏 = 2197 𝑁 ↑

𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 0.3 = 16.7°

∝ = 90 − 𝜙 = 73.3°

𝛾 = 90 − 𝜙 + 6 = 67.3°

𝛽 = 180 − 73.3 − 67.3 = 39.4°

𝑃 688
=
sin 39.4° sin 67.3°

∴ 𝑃 = 473 𝑁 ↓

SQUARE THREADED SCREWS

A screw is a helical ridge wrapped around a shaft forming a long circular ramp.
Common uses are to fasten parts, transmit power, or provide some form of
adjustment.
 Each application demands the use of a unique thread shape. Most screws, on
the other hand, may be simplified to one of the following basic thread patterns. Each
design has its own set of advantages and disadvantages.

 SQUARE THREADED SCREWS are utilized as a power screw. It is the most

efficient design (because of the minimal friction), the simplest to analyze, but
the most complex to machine.
 ACME THREADS are also employed in the manufacture of power screws.
They are easier to produce than square threaded screws, but they only have
around 70% of the efficiency of a square threaded screw. The Acme thread is
commonly tapered at a 29-degree angle.
 When used as a power screw, BUTTRESS THREADED SCREWS are
capable of carrying a load in one direction. They are the most durable of the
thread shapes and are nearly as efficient as the square threaded screw in
terms of performance. The power transmission surface is covered with a 7°
tape.
 TAPERED THREADS usually refer to the conventional screw used for
assembly or adjustment, although it can also apply to power transmission
screws such as the Acme thread. They are available in a variety of
configurations to suit a wide range of applications.

FRICTION IN SCREWS

 It is estimated that only 20% of the applied torque will result in actual clamping
stress on the bolt; the other 80% will be wasted owing to friction under the
head and in the thread.
 If the screw is a power screw used to carry load, there will still be up to 40%
frictional loss in the threads. Collar loads will occur due to thrust and will be
taken by some form of thrust bearing.
ANATOMY OF A SCREW

THE RAMP MODEL

A screw is modeled as a simple inclined plane. The horizonal length of the

ramp is the perimeter of the screw based on pitch diameter. The height of the ramp is
the lead of the screw. The weight resting on the ramp is the load on the screw.

The force 'P' acting on the weight is horizontal. It is a fictitious force equal to
the applied torque divided by pitch radius. In other words, it is a force that if applied
at the pitch radius of the screw, will create the moment of the applied torque.

When the screw is tightened in the ramp model, the mass is propelled up the
ramp by the force 'P.' By loosening the screws on either side of the ramp, the mass is
drawn downward.
The ramp in the model shown to the left has
a length of πD and a height of L. The angle
of the ramp will be θ which is also known as
the lead angle. The mass has a weight of W
equal to the load on the screw. Force P and
impending motion is up the ramp indicating
the screw is being tightened.

The model to the left is for the same screw

but with the screw being loosened. The
friction angle φ is greater than the lead
angle θ indicating a self-locking screw; it will
remain in place when loaded.

The final model indicates a force applied to

maintain the block in position (i.e.: a torque
applied to the screw to prevent it from
backing). This is a non-self-locking screw
which is evident by the fact φ < θ. Such
screws can be used to translate linear
motion to rotary motion.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
2. The mean diameter of the screw of the C-clamp
shown is 40 mm and the pitch is 20 mm. It is a
single start screw. The body of the clamp is a
titanium allows while the screw itself is 6061-T6
aluminum alloy. A torque of 160 N-m is applied to
the screw.
 What is the resulting clamping force?
 What torque is necessary to release the clamp?
SOLUTIONS:

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑎𝑚𝑝 = 𝜋 ∙ 40 𝑚𝑚 = 125.7 𝑚𝑚

𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑎𝑚𝑝 = 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 = 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ ∙ 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 = 20 𝑚𝑚

Find force P pushing mass up ramp
160 𝑁. 𝑚
= 8000 𝑁
0.020 𝑚
20
From the geometry of the ramp, angle 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 9.04°
125.7

From the appendix, we find the coefficient of friction to be 0.41, so angle 𝜙 =

𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 0.41 = 22.29°
Solving analytically:

∑𝐹𝑥 = 0 = 8000 cos 9.04 − 𝑊 sin 9.04 − 𝐹

𝐹 = 7900 − 𝑊 sin 9.04

∑𝐹𝑦 = 0 = −8000 sin 9.04 − 𝑊 cos 9.04 + 𝑁

∴ 𝑁 = 1257 + 𝑊 cos 9.04

𝐹
tan 𝜙 = =𝜇
𝑁
7900 − 𝑊 sin 9.04
0.41 =
1257 + 𝑊 cos 9.04

515.4 + 0.405 ∙ 𝑊 = 7900 − 0.157 ∙ 𝑊

0.562 ∙ 𝑊 = 7385 𝑁

𝑊 = 13140 𝑁 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

BELT FRICTION
The possibility of flexible cables, belts, and ropes slipping over sheaves,
wheels, and drums. It is required to calculate the frictional forces that have created
between the belt and the contacting surface.
Belt friction is a type of friction force that operates between an outer layer and
a belt. It is defined as the amount of enclosed surface on the belt is what determines
the amount of frictional force applied to it. It rises as the wrap is tightened and
descends when the wrap is loosened. In a number of belt-driven machines, belt
friction stops the pulley from moving relative to the belt from rotating. The ability to
transmit forces from one pulley to another through belts is provided by this feature.

Consider a drum subjected to two belt tensions (T1 and T2)

 M is the torque necessary to prevent rotation of the drum
 R is the bearing reaction
 r is radius of the drum
 β is the total contact angle between belt and surface
(β in radians)
T2 > T1 since M is clockwise

PROBLEM SET
1. A single threaded jackscrew has a pitch of 0.5 in. and a mean radius of 1.75 in.
The coefficient of static friction of 0.15, and a kinetic friction of 0.10. (a)
Determine the force P applied at the end of a lever 2 ft long which will start lifting
a weight of 2 tons. (b) What value of P will keep the jackscrew turning?
2. The coefficient of friction for the worm gear shown is 0.10. Determine the torque
applied to the worm gear to rotate the large gear CCW. Assume the 900 N.m
torque is constant.

3. Determine the smallest values of forces P1 and P2 required to raise Block A

while preventing Block A from moving horizontally. The coefficient of static
friction for all surfaces of contact is 0.3. The weight of wedges B and C is
negligible compared to the weight of Block A.

4. To split a log, a 120 lb force is applied to a wedge with an angle of 8°. Motion is
impending. The coefficient of friction on all surfaces is 0.6.
 Determine all forces acting on the wedge.
 Will the wedge be forced out of the cut if the force is removed?
5. A flat belt connects pulley A to pulley B. The coefficients of friction are µs = 0.25
and µk = 0.20 between both pulleys and the belt. Knowing that the maximum
allowable tension in the belt is 600 N, determine the largest torque which can be
exerted by the belt on pulley A.
 CHAPTER 5

CENTROIDS
The geometric center of a geometric object,
whether it is a one-dimensional curve, a
two-dimensional region, or a three-
dimensional volume, is called the centroid.
Centroids are weighted averages similar to
the center of gravity, but they are calculated
using a geometric attribute such as area or
volume rather than a physical characteristic
such as weight or mass. Centroids are
hence featuring of pure forms rather than
physical objects, as the name implies.
Those numbers reflect the coordinates of
the "middle" of the shape's perimeter.

The earth's gravitational attraction on a rigid body may be described by a

single force called W. These forces are collectively referred to as gravitational pull or
the weight of the body. They are applied at the body's center of gravity. One of the
concepts that are closely associated with establishing the center of gravity is the
centroid of a circle or line, as well as the initial moment of a circle or line with respect
to a certain axis. It is the average location of all of the points in the object when a
plane form is cut from a piece of card and it balances precisely on its centroid.
Centroidal axes are any lines that pass
through the cross section's centroid.
There is no limit to the number of lines
that may pass through the point of
gravitational attraction. Consequently,
there is an infinite number of centroidal
axes in a cross section of a circle. The
vertical centroidal axis is represented
by the line Y, whereas the horizontal
centroidal axis is represented by the
line X. Reference axes are the
perpendicular lines selected and used
as reference lines for computing the
location of the centroid.
Centroids are important in many different applications in Statics and following
courses, including distributed force analysis, beam bending, and shaft torsion.

Centroids of Lines, Areas, and Volumes

When simply a geometrical form is being calculated, the word centroid is used.
When we are talking about a physical body, we refer to it as the center of mass. If the
density is consistent throughout the body, the locations of the centroid and the center
of mass are the same; however, if the density changes across the body, the positions
of these two points will, generally, not coincide.

The computation of centroids can be categorized, depending on whether the

form of the body involved can be described as a line, an area, or a volume.

1. LINES

Shown in the figure is a thin rod or wire of length L, cross-sectional area A, and
density 𝜌, the body approximates a line segment, and dm = 𝜌A dL.

If density and area remain constant over the length of the rod, the coordinates of the
center of mass become the coordinates of the centroid C of the line segment. It can
be written as:

∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝐿
𝑥=
𝐿

In the vast majority of cases, the centroid C will not lie on the line. If the rod is
in a single plane, such as the x-y plane, then only two coordinates are required to
determine its location.
 2. AREA

A surface area A may be characterized

as a body of density with a little but constant
thickness t, as seen in the figure. An element's
mass is converted into dm=t dA. If 𝜌 and t
remain constant throughout the whole area, the
coordinates of the body's center of mass
become the coordinates of the surface area's
centroid C. The coordinates are as follows:

∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝐴
𝑥=
𝐴

The numerators in the preceding equations are referred to as the initial

moments of area. In general, the centroid C of a curved surface will not lie on the
surface. If the area is a flat surface in the x-y plane, for example, then only the
coordinates of C in that plane must be calculated.

3. VOLUME

For a typical body of volume V and

density 𝜌, the element has a mass dm= dV. If
the density 𝜌remains constant throughout the
volume, the coordinates of the center of mass
also become the coordinates of the centroid C
of the body. It is expressed as follows:

∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑉
𝑥=
𝑉

CENTROIDS DETERMINED BY INTEGRATION

Integration, as previously stated, is the process of adding infinitesimal
quantities. Integration is equal to a finite summation, with the exception of a few
changes in symbols and process. If the area of an element had been stated as the
differential dA (i.e., a tiny portion of the entire area A), the equations for obtaining the
centroid of an area would become
 Ax = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝐴

Aȳ = ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝐴

and the equations for determining the centroid of a line would become

Lx = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝐿

Lȳ = ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝐿

The figure is split into differential parts to determine the centroid by integration,
such that:

1. All of the clement's points are the same distance from the axis of moments, or
2. The element's centroid location is known, hence the element's moment around
the axis of moments is the product of the clement and the distance of its
centroid from the axis.

If a planar figure has a symmetry line, the centroid is placed on that line. By
balancing a plate on its line of symmetry, the moments of the weights (and areas if
the plate has constant thickness) on each side of the line of symmetry must be
numerically equal and of opposing sign. If a planar figure has two lines of symmetry,
the centroid is at the point where the lines intersect.

SAMPLE PROBLEM

Determine the centroid of the area bounded

πx
by the x axis & the sine curve 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝐿
from x = 0 to x = L.
πx
𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 sin2
𝐿

Differential area
𝑑𝐴 = 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
πx
𝑑𝐴 = 𝑎 sin 𝑑𝑥
𝐿
Area by integration
𝐿
𝐴= 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
0
𝐿
πx
𝐴= sin 𝑑𝑥
0 𝐿
 𝐿 πx 𝐿
𝐴= 𝑎 −𝑐𝑜𝑠
π 𝐿 0
𝐿
𝐴 = −𝑎 cos π − cos 0
π
𝐿
𝐴 = −𝑎 1−1
π
2𝑎 𝐿
𝐴=
π
Location of Centroid
𝐿
1
𝐴𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑦𝑑𝑥
0 2
1 𝐿 2
𝐴𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
2 0
𝐿
1 πx
𝐴𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑑𝑥
2 0 𝐿
1 2 𝐿 πx 𝑠𝑖𝑛2πx 𝐿
𝐴𝑦 = 𝑎 −
2 π 2𝐿 4𝐿 0
𝑎2 𝐿 πL 𝑠𝑖𝑛2πL
𝐴𝑦 = − − 0+0
2π 2𝐿 4𝐿
2 2
𝑎 𝐿π 𝑎 𝐿
𝐴= −
4π 2π
𝑎2 𝐿
𝐴=
4
2𝑎𝐿 𝑎2 𝐿
𝑦 =
π 4
Answer:
πa
𝑦=
8

CENTROIDS OF COMPOSITE FIGURES

 Figures may be split down into finite shapes, each having its own centroid,
under specific conditions. Adding up all of the moments along a reference axis
equals the total of the moments of the whole region. The centroid of the composite
figure may be determined by doing the following calculations:

𝑨𝒙= ∑𝒂𝒙, for centroid with respect to x – axis and,

𝑨𝒚= ∑𝒂𝒚, for centroid with respect to y – axis
However, in order to determine where the centroid of a line is located, the following
equations may be used:
𝑳𝒙= ∑𝒍𝒙, for centroid with respect to x – axis and
𝑳𝒚= ∑𝒍𝒙, for centroid with respect to y – axis

CENTROIDS OF COMMON GEOMETRIC SHAPE

SAMPLE PROBLEM

1. The dimensions of the T-section of a cast –iron

beam is shown in the figure. How far is the centroid
of the area above the base?

𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴𝑑𝑥
1 8 +1 6 = 1 8 4 + 1 + 1 5 0.5
14𝑦 = 43
𝒚 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟕
2. Determine the centroid 𝑦 of the unsymmetrical I section with respect to its base.

Break the figure into simple shapes and number them.

 PART A’(𝒎𝒎𝟑 𝒚 A’𝒚′ 𝒎𝒎𝟑
1 120 x 30 = 3600 145 522000
2 20 x 100 = 2000 30+100/2 = 80 160000
3 80 x 30 = 2400 30/2=15 36000
∑A’ = 8000 𝑚𝑚3 ∑A’𝑦 ′ =718000 𝑚𝑚3

∑A’𝑦′ 718000 𝑚𝑚3

𝑦′ = = = 89.75 mm
∑A’ 8000 𝑚𝑚3

PRACTICE PROBLEM
1. Determine the coordinates of the centroid of the area shown in the figure
below with respect to the given axes.

2. A slender homogeneous wire of uniform cross section is bent into the shape
shown in the figure. Determine the coordinates of its centroid.
3. The centroid of the shaded area in the figure is required to lie on the Y axis.
Determine the distance b that will fulfill this requirement.

4. Locate the centroid of the bent wire shown in the figure. The wire is homogeneous
and of uniform cross section.
5. Determine the centroid of the given figure.
 CHAPTER 6

THEOREM OF PAPPUS
Theorem of Pappus, sometimes referred to as the Guldinus theorem, Pappus–
Guldinus theorem, or Pappus' theorem, is one of two related theorems in
mathematics that deal with surface areas, volume of surfaces, and solids of
revolution. It is often referred to as the Pappus-Guldinus theorem or the Guldinus
theorem since Paul Guldin claimed to be the inventor of the theory. This theorem
was first presented on paper by Greek geometrist Pappus in 1659, although it had
already been known by Kepler in 1615 and Guldin in 1640 before Pappus's
publication.
Surface areas and volumes may be calculated without the requirement for
integration using Pappus' centroid theorem, which is made up of two related
theorems. Imagine that a plane curve is rotated around an axis that is not a
component of the plane curve. The surface area of revolution obtained from a curve
is equal to the product of the curve's length and the displacement of the centroid of
the curve. The volume of revolution corresponding to a closed curve is equal to the
product of the plane area bounded by the curve and the displacement of its centroid,
which is a constant in the case of a continuous curve.
Pappus's Theorem for Surface Area
Pappus' first theorem is about the surface area of a revolution. According to te
theorem, the surface area S of a revolution surface formed by the revolution of a
curve around an external axis equals the product of the arc length 𝑠 of the producing
curve and the distance 𝑑1 traveled by the curve's geometric centroid 𝑥 .
𝑆 = 𝑠𝑑1 = 2𝜋𝑠𝑥
The table shows the surface areas calculated using Pappus' centroid theorem for
various solids and surfaces of revolution.
GENERATING
SOLID 𝒔 𝒙 𝑺
CURVE
1
cone inclined line segment 𝑟 2 + ℎ2 𝑟 𝜋𝑟 𝑟 2 + ℎ2
2
cylinder parallel line segment ℎ 𝑟 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
2𝑟
sphere semicircle 𝜋𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝜋
Pappus's Theorem for Volume
Meanwhile, according to Pappus' second theorem, the volume V of a solid of
revolution created by the revolution of a lamina along an external axis is equal to the
product of the area 𝐴 of the lamina and the distance 𝑑2 traveled by the lamina's
geometric centroid 𝑥.
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑑2 = 2𝜋𝐴𝑥
The volumes estimated using Pappus's centroid theorem for different solids and
revolution surfaces are summarized in the table below.

GENERATING
SOLID 𝑨 𝒙 𝑽
LAMINA

1 1 1 2
cone right triangle ℎ𝑟 𝑟 𝜋𝑟 ℎ
2 3 3

1
cylinder rectangle 𝑟 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
ℎ𝑟 2

1 2 4𝑟 4
sphere semicircle 𝜋𝑟 𝜋𝑟
2 3𝜋 3

SAMPLE PROBLEM

1. Use the Pappus Centroid Theorem

to determine the volume bound by
thw doughnut-shaped figure formes
by rotating a circle of radius 𝑎 about
an axis whose distance from the
circle’s center is b.

SOLUTION:
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑑
2
𝐴=𝜋 𝑎

𝑑 = 2𝜋 𝑏
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑎2 2𝜋𝑏
𝑉 = 2𝜋 2 𝑎2 𝑏
 2. If the parabolic area is rotated about the
x axis as shown, determine the volume
of the solid it generated.

A parabolic area is a common geometric shape, the centroid of the shape is

4 2
𝐴 = 𝑎ℎ ; 𝑦 = ℎ
3 5
By applying the second theorem of Pappus, the volume of the solid when it is rotated
about the x axis is
𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑦𝐴
2 4
𝑉 = 2𝜋 ℎ 𝑎ℎ
5 3
16
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑎2
15
PROBLEM SET
1. An egg is cut in half, now, determine the volume of the egg by rotating the
parabolic area about x-axis.

2. Find the volume of the object that is created when we take its circle area and
revolve it in x-axis.
3. Find the centroid of a uniform semicircle of radius R= 3.

4. A wall mounted bowl-shaped plant pot is hanged on the wall. Determine the
surface area of the outer layer of the plant pot, given that the parabolic cross
section shown beside.

5. A hole with a diameter of 1.5 inches is drilled into a sheet of steel that is 2
inches thick. The hole has been countersunk, as illustrated. Using the
Theorem of Pappus, calculate the volume of the steel during the
countersinking operation.
 CHAPTER 7

MOMENT OF INERTIA
In mechanics, a moment of inertia is a
quantitative measure of a body's rotational
inertia—that is, the resistance that the body
exhibits to having its speed of rotation about
an axis altered by the application of a torque
when the body is rotating about an axis
(turning force). The axis may be internal or
exterior in nature, and it may or may not be
fixed in any manner. The moment of inertia (I),
on the other hand, is always expressed in
terms of that axis, and it is defined as the total
of the products produced by multiplying the
mass of each particle of matter in a particular
body by the square of the distance between
Rectangular Moment of Inertia
the particle and the axis in question.
The moment of inertia definition provides a straightforward method for determining a
body's ability to prevent bending. It lacks a graphical or diagrammatic representation
and denoted by the expressions, 𝑑𝐼𝑥 = 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴and 𝑑𝐼𝑦 = 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴. This has resulted to
Rectangular Moments of Inertia around each of its axes:
Ix = ʃ y2 dA (Moment of inertia about the x – axis)
Iy = ʃ x2 dA ( Moment of inertia about the y – axis)

The reason that the square of the x and y-distance is included in the general formula
explains why the moment of inertia is sometimes referred to as the second moment
of area.
Polar Moment of Inertia
The Polar Moment of Inertia is the moment of inertia around the z-axis.
Additionally, the Polar Moment of Inertia is referred to as the second polar moment of
area. Typically, it is indicated with IZ. However, J or JZ are sometimes used as well.
Polar Moment of Inertia can be mathematically expressed using the following
formula;

𝐼𝑧 = ∫ 𝑟 2 𝑑𝐴
Here,
r denotes the distance from the element 𝑑𝐴.
= ∫ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴
 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝐴 + ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴
By solving using the Pythagorean Theorem ,
𝑰𝒛 = 𝑰𝒙 + 𝑰𝒚

It is equal to the sum of the moments of inertia around any two mutually
perpendicular axes perpendicular in its plane that cross on the polar axis for a given
area with respect to the perpendicular axis of the plane.
Radius of Gyration
In the context of an x-axis-centered shape, the Radius of Gyration refers to the
distance from the x-axis at which an imaginary thin strip with an area equal to that of
the original shape must be placed in order for its moment of inertia about the x-axis
to be the same as the original shape with respect to that same axis. This can be
expressed through the equation:

𝐼
𝑘=
𝐴

𝐼𝑥 𝐼𝑦 𝐼𝑧
𝑘𝑥 = ; 𝑘𝑦 = ; 𝑘𝑧 =
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴

Then,
𝐼 = 𝑘2 𝐴
Where,
I – mathematical expression or the symbol for the moment of inertia
A – cross-sectional area
k – the radius of gyration
Transfer Formula for Moment of Inertia

It is often essential to transfer the moment of

inertia across parallel axes. The transfer
formula enables this to be accomplished
without additional integration. For instance,
the moment of inertia with respect to a
The moment of inertia for the same area centroidal 𝑋 axisto(𝑋a0)parallel
with respect is givenaxis
by the
(X) formula:
located a
distance 𝑑 from the centroidal axis is given by the equation
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑝2 𝑑𝐴
2
𝐼𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦 + 𝑑 𝑑𝐴
 𝐼𝑥 = ∫ y 2 𝑑𝐴 + 2𝑑∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 + 𝑑 2 ∫ 𝑑𝐴
The 𝑑 is written outside the integral sign because it is a constant that
represents the distance separating the axes. In the second equation, y has the value
of zero because 𝑋0 passes through the centroid. Finally, It can be expressed as:
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐴𝑑 2
To further elaborate, this equation indicates that the moment of inertia with
regard to any axis in the plane of the area is equal to the moment of inertia with
respect to a parallel centroidal axis multiplied by the square of the distance between
the axes. Clearly, the moment of inertia with the least moment of inertia in any
direction of an axis is the centroidal moment of inertia. Keep in mind that the
centroidal axis used in the transfer formula is always the same as the area used in
the transfer term 𝐴𝑑2 .
Real Life Applications
The moment of inertia is a function of the area's
shape and is often utilized in mechanics
applications in real life. For example, a flywheel
is a large mass attached to an engine's
crankshaft. The flywheel's moment of inertia is
quite large, which helps in energy storage.

Another example is hollow shaft. When compared

to a solid shaft, a hollow shaft transfers greater
power even with both of same mass. Hollow shafts
have a higher Moment of inertia than solid shafts. In
this method, the mass in the core of the solid shaft
is removed and piled along the perimeter,
increasing the moment of inertia of the shaft.

Lastly, shipbuilding. Moment of Inertia has a

substantial influence on the shipbuilding
industry. A ship may sink as a result of rolling,
but it will never sink as a result of pitching.
The reason for this is because the moment of
inertia over pitching axis is substantially larger
than its over rolling axis. The moment of
inertia is high in battleships to minimize the
time period of oscillation caused by any
disturbance.
As observed in these examples, putting a substantial amount of mass far from the
axis of rotation or oscillation increases the moment of inertia.
SAMPLE PROBLEM

𝐼𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴
ℎ
2
𝐼𝑥 = 𝑦 2 𝑏 𝑑𝐴
−ℎ
2
ℎ
𝑦3 2
𝐼𝑥 = 𝑏 −ℎ
3
2

𝒃𝒉𝟑
𝑰𝒙 =
𝟏𝟐
2. Determine the moment of inertia for a rectangle of base 𝑏 and depth ℎ with respect
to (b) an axis coinciding the base.

𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐴𝑑2
𝑏ℎ3 ℎ 2
𝐼𝑥 = + 𝑏ℎ
12 2

𝒃𝒉𝟑
𝑰𝒙 =
𝟑

1. Determine the moment of inertia for a rectangle

of base 𝑏 and depth ℎ with respect to (a )a
3. Determine the moment of Inertia Ix of the shaded area about the x axis.

𝐼𝑥
For Rectangular (about base)
1
= 𝑏ℎ 3
3
3
40 30
=
3
= 360 000 𝑐𝑚4
Triangular Section
3
40 20 1 20 2
= + + × 20 × 40 30 +
36 2 3
= 546666.67 𝑐𝑚4
Circular section
4
𝜋 10 2 2
= − + 𝜋 10 × 20
4
= − 133517.69 𝑐𝑚4
𝐼𝑥 for total section
𝐼𝑥 = 360000 + 546666.67 − 133517.69
𝑰𝒙 = 𝟕𝟕𝟑, 𝟏𝟒𝟔. 𝟗𝟖 𝒄𝒎

𝑰𝒙 = 𝟖𝟓𝟓. 𝟑 𝒊𝒏𝟒
3 3
1 12 12 1 1 6 3
𝐼𝑦 = + +
12 12 12
𝑰𝒚 = 𝟏𝟔𝟑 𝒊𝒏𝟒
PRACTICE PROBLEM
1. Determine the moment of inertia of the area shown in the figure with respect to
its centroidal axis.

2. Determine the moment of inertia of the T-section shown in the figure with
respect to its centroidal axis.

3. An equilateral triangle has its base b horizontal. Show that the centroidal
moment of inertia with respect to horizontal & vertical axes are equal.
4. Determine moment of inertia of the area of the slice pizza with respect to x-axis.

5. A 150-gram ball and a 300-gram ball denoted as 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 respectively,

connected by a rod with a length of 8 cm. The axis rotation is located at the center of
the rod. Neglecting the mass of the rod, what is the moment of inertia of the ball
about the axis of rotation?
 CHAPTER 8

MOMENT OF INERTIA OF
BUILT-UP SECTIONS
Built-up sections are typically composed of a variety of sections, including
rectangular, channel, and I-sections. Typically, built-up parts are constructed by
symmetrically arranging and then welding or riveting these sections together. It
functions as a single unit. The moment of inertia of the constructed sections can be
determined in the conventional manner by calculating the moment of inertia of the
sections about their respective centres of gravity. Then, using the Parallel Axis
Theorem, shift these moments of inertia about the desired axis (x-axis or y-axis).
Most standard sections include the moment of inertia about their respective centers
of gravity. If it is not, it can be calculated first and then transferred to the appropriate
axis.

MOMENT OF INERTIA FOR COMPOSITE AREA

CALCULATING THE MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A BUILT-UP
SECTION
The centroid of a built-up section must be known in order to determine its
moment of inertia. For example, if the section's moment of inertia about its horizontal
(XX) axis is required, the vertical (y) centroid is needed first.

Calculate the moment of inertia of smaller segments when computing the area
moment of inertia. Make an attempt to divide them into basic rectangular sections.
The neutral axis (NA) or horizontal XX axis is then calculated; it is placed at the
centroid or centre of mass. Due to the fact that it has been divided into three
rectangular portions, we must determine the moment of inertia of each of these
sections.

1. Four Bars of Iron with similar size of 0.25m by

1m is used for the built-up section shown in the
figure. Determine the highest moment of inertia
possible about x-axis passing through the centroid
of the built-up section.

The built-up section as shown is an I-shape with maximum vertical and

horizontal dimension of 1.75m

Centroid is at: 𝑥 = 0.875𝑚 𝑦 = 1.875𝑚

0.50 × 13 1
𝐼𝑥 = 2 + 0.50 × 1 1.8752 + 2 × 1 × 1.753 + 0.50
12 12
× 1 12

𝐼𝑥 = 3.599 + 1.393

𝑰𝒙 = 𝟒. 𝟗𝟗𝟐 𝒎𝟒
2. Determine the moment of inertia of
the built-up section area of the shown
wooden beam about the x-axis.
PRACTICE PROBLEM
1. Find the force acting in all members of the truss

2. The structure in Fig. T-02 is a truss which is pinned to the floor at point A, and
supported by a roller at point D. Determine the force to all members of the
truss.

3. Find the force in each member of the truss shown in Fig. T-04.
4. Compute the force in all members of the truss shown in the figure.

5. The truss pinned to the floor at D, and supported by a roller at point A is

loaded as shown in Fig. T-06. Determine the force in member CG.
 CHAPTER 9

METHOD OF JOINTS

TRUSS
Basis Concepts on Truss Analysis

To fully understand our topic, let us first understand the basic concepts related
to it.

STRUCTURE: It is connected pieces that is meant to support loads. It is often

referred to as an interconnected element that has a stable position on the
ground. Structural Analysis is used to predict a structure’s reaction to external
loads.

TRUSS: It is a triangulation of members to make stabilized structures. It’s

stationary structures that support loads and has a long, straight components
called members and are joined at the ends by joints. The method of
determining the forces and reactions in the members of a truss is known as
truss analysis. Their main function is to carry the loads from the over
structures and provide adequate lateral stability to the entire structure.

TYPES OF TRUSS
Since we now know the function of a truss, here are some of the different
types of truss the gravitational pull between any two particles is governed by this
principle.

 Simple Truss - single triangular truss which are often used as the roof
trusses. To prevent collapse, the framework of a truss must be rigid
The simplest framework that is rigid or stable is a triangle.
 Compound Truss - a two-dimensional truss; if members are in planar
surface then it is planar truss. It is formed by connecting 2 or more
simple trusses together Often, this type of truss is used to support
loads acting over a larger span as it is cheaper to construct a lighter
compound truss than a heavier simple truss.

 Complex Truss – three-dimensional truss. A complex truss is one that

cannot be classified as being either simple or compound. Telecom
towers are the common example.
DETERMINING COMPLETELY CONSTRAINED OR
DETERMINATE TRUSS
By comparing the total unknowns with the total number of available equilibrium
equations, we have:
b+ r=2j statically determinate while b+ r>2j statically indeterminate

To determine if a truss is or is not completely constrained and determinate,

calculate the number of its members (m), the number of its joints (j), and the number
of the reaction (r) components at its supports.

a.) If m + r < 2j, there are fewer unknowns than equations; partially constrained.
b.) If m + r > 2j, there are more unknowns than equations: indeterminate.
c.) If m + r = 2j, there are as many unknowns as there are equations.

Evaluate the responses at the truss's supports and the forces in its members
to determine if the truss is totally or poorly restricted. The truss is entirely restricted
and determined if all of them can be determined.

METHOD OF JOINTS
It is a method used in determining unknown forces in a truss system. It is
based on the premise that all forces operating on a joint must total up to zero. It is
one of the simplest ways for estimating the force exerted on the individual
components since it only includes two force equilibrium equations
Steps in Method of Joints
1. Calculate the reactions.
By doing this it would be easier for us to solve each joint.
2. Draw the Free body Diagram of each joint. (Assume everything is in tension)
We assume that all members are in a state of tension. A tension member is
subjected to pull forces on both ends of the bar, which are usually indicated by a
positive ( + ) symbol. When a member is pushed at both ends, the bar is considered
to be in compression mode and is labelled with a negative ( - ) symbol
3. Apply the equilibrium conditions (Better if unknown force is less than or equal
to 2) and determine if it’s tension or compression.
The equations ∑H = 0 and ∑V = 0 can be used to calculate the unknown forces in
members meeting at the joint. With these two equations, no more than two unknowns
may be determined at a time.
 A simple truss model supported by pinned and roller support at its end. Each
triangle has the same length, L and it is equilateral where the degree of angle, θ is
60° on every angle. The support reactions, Ra and Rc can be determined by taking a
point of moment either at point A or point C, whereas Ha = 0 (no other horizontal
force).

The best way to start is by selecting the easiest joint like joint C where the
reaction Rc is already obtained and with only 2 unknown forces of FCB and FCD.
Both can be evaluated with ∑ Fx = 0 and ∑ Fy = 0 rules. At joint E, there are 3
unknown forces of FEA, FEB and FED, which may lead to more complex solutions
compared to 2 unknown values. A positive answer indicates that the sense is correct,
whereas a negative answer indicates that the sense shown on the free-body diagram
must be reversed.

Trigonometric Function
Since we know that truss are triangular structures, trigonometric functions are very
useful when it comes to solving them. Here are some of the connections between x
and z.
Zero-Force Members
Truss analysis using method of joints is greatly simplified if one is able to first
determine those members that support no loading These zero-force members may
be necessary for the stability of the truss during construction & to provide support if
the applied loading is changed The zero-force members of a truss can generally be
determined by inspection of the joints & they occur in 2 cases.

Case 1

The 2 members at joint C are connected together at a right angle & there is no
external load on the joint The free-body diagram of joint C indicates that the force in
each member must be zero in order to maintain equilibrium.

Case 2

Zero-force members also occur at joints having a geometry as joint D. No external

load acts on the joint, so a force summation in the y-direction which is perpendicular
to the 2 collinear members requires that FDF = 0 Using this result, FC is also a zero-
force member, as indicated by the force analysis of joint F.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. Find the force in BF.

SOLUTION:
ΣMD = 0
12RA = 8(2.4) + 6(4.8)
RA = 4 kN

At Joint A:
ΣFV = 0
4 = 8/10 FAB
FAB = 5 kN (COMPRESSION)

ΣFH = 0
FAC = 6/10 FAB
FAC = 6/10 (5)
FAC= 3 kN (TENSION)

At Joint C:
By inspection
FBC = 4.8 kN (TENSION)
FCF = 3 kN (TENSION)

At Joint F:
ΣFH = 0
6/10 FBF = 3
FBF = 5 kN (COMPRESSION)
SAMPLE PROBLEM
2. Determine the force in each member of the roof truss as shown. State whether
the members are in tension or compression. The reactions at the supports
are::

SOLUTION:

.
PRACTICE PROBLEM
1. Find the force acting in all members of the truss

ANSWER:
FAB=5.56 kN tension

FAE=75.56 kN tension

FBC=4.45 kN tension

FBE=3.34 kN compression

FCD=88.87 kN compression

FCE=5.57 kN tension

FCF=50 kN tension

FDF=71.11 kN tension

FFE=71.11 kN tension

2. The structure in the figure is a truss which is pinned to the floor at point A and
supported by a roller at point D. Determine the force to all members of the
truss.
ANSWER:

FAB = 8.73 kN tension

FAG = 21.82 kN compression
FBC = 15.71 kN tension
FBF = 8.73 kN compression
FBG = 8.73 kN tension
FCD = 5.24 kN tension
FCE = 13.09 kN tension
FCF = 13.09 kN compression
FDE = 13.09 kN compression
FEF = 10.48 kN compression
FFG = 12.22 kN compression
3. Find the force in each member of the truss shown in the figure.

Top chords
FDE = 64 kN tension
FEF = 176 kN tension
Bottom chords
FAB = 120 kN compression
FBC = 32 kN compression
Web members
FAF = 140 kN tension
FAE = 150.78 kN compression
FBE = 150.78 kN tension
FBD = 86.16 kN compression
FCD = 86.16 kN tension
4. Compute the force in all members of the truss shown in the figure.

ANSWER:

5. The truss pinned to the floor at D and supported by a roller at point A is loaded
as shown in Fig. T-06. Determine the force in member CG.

ANSWER: FCG=8.01 kN tension

 CHAPTER 10

METHOD OF SECTIONS
The method of sections is used to solve for the unknown forces within specific
members of a truss without solving for them all. By cutting through the selected
members and analyzing the section as a rigid body, we can focus on it easier. The
advantage of the Method of Sections is that only the internal member forces that you
have cut through are exposed; the remaining internal member forces are not
exposed and thus ignored.

Since the entire truss is in equilibrium, any part of it must also be in

equilibrium. Either of the two parts of the truss can be considered and the three
equations of equilibrium ∑ Fx = 0, ∑ Fy = 0, and ∑ M = 0 can be applied to solve for
member forces.

The procedure to solve for unknown forces using the method of sections is

1. Determine if a truss can be modelled as a simple truss.

2. Identify and eliminate all zero-force members. Removing zero-force

members is not required but may eliminate unnecessary
computations.

3. Solve for the external reactions, if necessary. Reactions will be

necessary if the reaction forces act on the section of the truss you
choose to solve below.

4. Use your imaginary chain saw to cut the truss into two pieces by
cutting through some or all of the members you are interested in.
The cut does not need to be a straight line.

Every cut member exposes an unknown internal force, so if you cut

three members you’ll expose three unknowns. Exposing more than
three members is not advised because you create more unknowns than
available equilibrium equations.

5. Select the easier of the two halves of the truss and draw its free-
body diagram. Include all applied and reaction forces acting on the
section, and show known forces acting in their known directions.

Draw unknown forces in assumed directions and label them. A common

practice is to assume that all unknown forces are in tension and label
them based on the endpoints of the member they represent.
 Write out and solve the equilibrium equations for your chosen section. If
you assumed that unknown forces were tensile, negative answers
indicate compression.

7. If you have not found all the required forces with one section cut,
repeat the process using another imaginary cut or proceed with the
method of joints if it is more convenient..

In this FBD, we are only interested in finding the value of members BC,EC,
and ED. The support reactions of Ra and Rd should be determined. Taking moments
at joint E (virtual point) clockwise for the whole RHS part would be much easier
compared to joint C (the LHS part).

Pass a section through a maximum of 3 members of the truss, 1 of which is

the desired member where it is dividing the truss into 2 completely separate parts, At
1 part of the truss, take moments about the point (at a joint) where the 2 members
intersect and solve for the member force, using ∑ M = 0, Solve the other 2 unknowns
by using the equilibrium equation for forces, using ∑ Fx = 0 and ∑ Fy = 0. Note: The
3 forces cannot be concurrent, or else it cannot be solved.

PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

The forces in the members of a truss may be determined by the method of

sections using the following procedure.

Free-Body Diagram.

● Make a decision on how to ―cut‖ or section the truss through the

members where forces are to be determined.

● Before isolating the appropriate section, it may first be necessary to

determine the truss’s support reactions. If this is done then the three
equilibrium equations will be available to solve for member forces at
the section.
 Draw the free-body diagram of that segment of the sectioned truss
which has the least number of forces acting on it.

● Use one of the two methods described above for establishing the
sense of the unknown member forces.

Equations of Equilibrium

● Moments should be summed about a point that lies at the

intersection of the lines of action of two unknown forces, so that the
third unknown force can be determined directly from the moment
equation.

● If two of the unknown forces are parallel, forces may be summed

perpendicular to the direction of these unknowns to determine
directly the third unknown force.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Determine the force in members CF and GC of the roof truss. State whether
the members are in tension or compression. The reactions at the supports
have been calculated.

SOLUTION:
 2. Determine the force in member GF and GD of the truss. State whether the
members are in tension or compression. The reactions at the supports have
been calculated.

SOLUTIONS:

The angles FGD and FGF make with the horizontal are

tan-1(4.5/3) = 56.3degrees

tan-1(4.5/9) = 26.6degrees
PRACTICE PROBLEM
1. Determine the force in members DF, DG, and EG of the Howe truss shown in
figure.

2. A roof truss is shown below. Using methods of sections, determine its force in
members CE, DE, and DF. State whether each member is in tension or
compression.
3. Use the method of sections to compute for the force in members DF, EF, and EG
of the cantilever truss.

4. Use the method of sections to determine the force in members DF, FG, and GI of
the triangular Howe truss shown in figure.

5. The force in members BC, BE, and EF.

 CHAPTER 11

GRAPHICAL METHOD
The graphical method is concerned primarily with the representation of
equilibrium for each joint on a graph. The primary advantage of the method is its
capacity to combine all of the force polygons that come from graphical equilibrium of
each joint into a single force polygon, known as Cremona's diagram, which is a
significant advantage in many situations. Luigi Cremona, an Italian mathematician, is
credited with developing the method.
In certain circumstances, a graphical method may be used to compute the bar
force of a truss, particularly when a rapid adjustment is necessary, as can be shown
in the example below. Because this method is predicated on the assumption that all
of the joints within the framework are in balance, as a result, the forces acting on the
joints may be scaled and orientated using the sides of the closed polygon as guides.
The direction of the force must be drawn in the same direction as the associated
member, and a given connection may create up to two unidentified forces at the
same time, unless otherwise specified. You will not be able to build force polygons if
you do not do so.
Through the use of a force polygon, it is possible to regard the totally known
force as the consequent of other completely known forces. As a result of this
technique, we can see that the fundamental quality that seems to be shared by both
the method of joints and Cremona's diagram is the key strategic component.
GRAPHICAL METHOD OF TRUSS ANALYSIS (MAXWELL’S
DIAGRAM)
For the graphical analysis of trusses, it is possible to utilize the method of
joints as a starting point. It was decided to use force polygons drawn to scale for
each joint for the graphical analysis; after that, the forces in each member were
measured from one of the force polygons. It is possible to significantly minimize the
number of lines that must be drawn if the different force polygons are layered on top
of one another. The Maxwell's Diagram is the name given to the truss diagram that
results as a consequence of this process.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Determine the forces in the members of the Warren truss shown in figure.
Note that all members are 1 m long.

In the given figure above, we must begin at a joint where there are no more
than two unknown forces, which may be either A or D in this case; we will choose A
in this case. The force polygon for joint A is built by circling the joint in a clockwise
direction, for example. After that, we must go around each joint in the same manner.
A vector 2-6 in the direction of AB or BA will represent the force in the member
AB at A, depending on whether the force is tensile or compressive. A vector 6-1 in
the direction of EA will represent the force in the member AE at A, again depending
on whether the force is tensile or compressive. The point 6 in the force polygon is
therefore identified by drawing a line through the point 2 parallel to the member AB
and intersecting it at 6 with a line drawn through the point 1 parallel to the member
AE, as shown in the diagram. As a result, we can observe from the force polygon
that the direction of the vector 2-6 is towards A, indicating that the member AB is in
compression, and the direction of the vector 61 is away from A, suggesting that the
member AE is in tension, as seen in the figure.
 Consider joint B, where there are now only two unknown member forces
because we have previously determined the force in the member AB; note that,
moving clockwise around B, this force is represented by the vector 6-2, which means
that it is acting towards B, as it should be because we have already established that
AB is in compression; and finally consider joint C, where there are now only two
unknown member forces because we have previously determined the force in the
member AB; note that, moving clockwise round B, this force is represented by the
We will superimpose the force polygon built for joint A on the force polygon
constructed for joint B rather than creating a new force polygon for joint B since the
vector 2-6 is shared by both; we will avoid creating a separate force polygon for joint
B. In order to show the 2 kN load to the same scale as previously, we draw a vector
2-3 vertically downwards from point 2 to the bottom of the graph. The force acting on
the member BC is represented by the vector 3-7 drawn parallel to BC, but the force
acting on the member BE is represented by the vector 7-6 drawn in the direction of
BE; as a result, the point 7 in the force polygon is identified as the source of the
force. In this case, the force in BC (vector 3-7) operates in the direction of B,
indicating compression, while the force in BE (vector 7-6) acts in the opposite
direction of the B, showing tension.
Consider the case of joint C, in which the unknown member forces are located
in CD and CE. Using the force polygon, the vector 7-3 represents the magnitude and
direction of the force acting on the member CB at C in the member CB. To depict the
3 kN load, we draw a vertically downward vector 3-4 from the point 3 to the position
4. As a result, the vectors 4-8 and 8-7 are drawn parallel to the members CD and CE,
respectively, and they indicate the forces acting on the members CD and CE. As a
result, we can observe that the force in CD (vector 4-8) operates in the direction of C,
suggesting that CD is in compression, but the force in CE (vector 8-7) acts in the
opposite direction of C, showing that CE is in tension.
 Finally, the vector 4-5 is drawn vertically upwards to represent the vertical
reaction (3.25 kN) at D and the vector 5-8, which must be parallel to the member DE,
is drawn horizontally upwards to represent the horizontal reaction (3.25 kN) at D. By
looking at the direction of the vector 5-8, we can see that the member DE is under
strain. It should be noted that the vectors in the force polygon may be read in either
way. As a result, the vector 2-6 represents the force operating at A in the member
AB, while the vector 6-2 indicates the force acting at B in the member AB.
In addition, it should be evident why we must travel around each joint in the
same way at all times; for example, the vector 2-6 shows the direction of the force at
A in the member AB when we go around A in the same direction as we move around
A in the clockwise manner. The vector 2-6, on the other hand, if we travelled in an
anticlockwise manner around the joint B, would reflect the magnitude and direction of
the force in AB at B and would suggest that AB is in tension, which is obviously not
the case, as we have shown.
2. Determine the force of each member in the truss shown using the
graphical method.

𝑀𝐹 = 0
𝐴𝑉 10 + 2 3 − 6 7 − 3 3 = 0
10𝐴𝑉 − 45 = 0
10𝐴𝑉 45
=
10 10
𝐴𝑉 = 4.5 𝑘𝑁
𝛴𝐹𝑉 = 0;
𝐹𝑉 + 𝐴𝑉 = 6 + 3
𝐹𝑉 = 9 − 4.5
𝐹𝑉 = 4.5 𝑘𝑁
�𝐹𝐻 = 0;
𝐴𝐻 − 2�� = 0
𝐴𝐻 = 2 𝑘𝑁
 Finally, the vector 4-5 is drawn vertically upwards to represent the vertical
reaction (3.25 kN) at D and the vector 5-8, which must be parallel to the member DE,
is drawn horizontally upwards to represent the horizontal reaction (3.25 kN) at D. By
looking at the direction of the vector 5-8, we can see that the member DE is under
strain. It should be noted that the vectors in the force polygon may be read in either
way. As a result, the vector 2-6 represents the force operating at A in the member
AB, while the vector 6-2 indicates the force acting at B in the member AB.
In addition, it should be evident why we must travel around each joint in the
same way at all times; for example, the vector 2-6 shows the direction of the force at
A in the member AB when we go around A in the same direction as we move around
A in the clockwise manner. The vector 2-6, on the other hand, if we travelled in an
anticlockwise manner around the joint B, would reflect the magnitude and direction of
the force in AB at B and would suggest that AB is in tension, which is obviously not
the case, as we have shown.
3. Determine the force of each member in the truss shown using the
graphical method.

𝑀𝐹 = 0
𝐴𝑉 10 + 2 3 − 6 7 − 3 3 = 0
10𝐴𝑉 − 45 = 0
10𝐴𝑉 45
=
10 10
𝐴𝑉 = 4.5 𝑘𝑁
𝛴𝐹𝑉 = 0;
𝐹𝑉 + 𝐴𝑉 = 6 + 3
𝐹𝑉 = 9 − 4.5
𝐹𝑉 = 4.5 𝑘𝑁
�𝐹𝐻 = 0;
𝐴𝐻 − 2�� = 0
𝐴𝐻 = 2 𝑘𝑁
Label the spaces between forces and truss members with identifying letters.
Plot the forces and direction according to scale 1 kN = 1cm.

From the diagram, the magnitude of the forces of members can be scaled off.

EQUIVALENT BAR
MEMBERS LENGTH (cm)
FORCE (kN)

ag 6.5 6.5 → T

cj 4.5 4.5 → C

fg 4.5 4.5 → C

gh 4.5 4.5 → C

hd 6.5 6.5 → T

ih 2.5 2.5 → C

jd 6.4 6.4 → T
PRACTICE PROBLEMS

1. Using the given figure determine the forces of each truss member using the
graphical method wherein reaction in D and E is both 1200 N.

2. Solve for the force in the members of this Pratt roof truss.

3. Using the given figure determine the forces of each truss member using the
graphical method wherein BC= 3m and AC= 4m.
4.Determine the force in the members of the truss.

5. Using the graphical method, determine the forces in each member of the
howe roof truss shown. State whether each member is in tension or
compression.
 CHAPTER 12

PARABOLIC CABLES
Cable has the property of being endlessly flexible and inextensible in theory.
Because cables are flexible, they will not be exposed to shear or bending moments
during their operation. While in-extensible refers to the cable's capacity to keep its
geometry after being loaded, extensible refers to the cable's ability to expand. This
implies that even after the load has been applied, the cable segment will retain its
original configuration. Because cable is similarly lightweight, its weight is not taken
into consideration. It is only capable of providing tensile resistance.
It is possible to modify the form of a loaded string when the slope of the string
is modified (either in magnitude or in location). Cables are used as structural
components in a variety of applications, including suspension bridges, transmission
lines, aerial tramways, and guy wires for tall buildings. Engineering constructions
typically use cable to support and/or convey loads from one component to another,
and this is true in many fields.
Because of their flexibility, cables may be formed into a variety of forms
depending on the sort of stress put to them. When applying loads to a cable, there
are four main kinds of loads that may be used. The following are presented below.
● Concentrated Load - When a concentrated load is applied, a cable adopts
the shape of numerous linear segments between the load's site of application
and the load's point of distribution.
● Non-Uniformly Distributed Loads - It is the load whose magnitude fluctuates
with a consistent rate over the length of the loading channel. The two forms of
uniformly variable loads are further subdivided into two categories: Triangular
Load & Trapezoidal Load.
● Uniformly Distributed Loads - A cable adopts the shape of a parabola when
a uniformly distributed load is applied to the cable.
● Catenary - Catenary or hyperbolic cosine curve are the shapes that are
formed by a cable that is carrying a constant load over its whole length, such
as its own weight.

With the various types and cable forms, parabolic and catenary cables, which
are the most commonly seen, will be emphasized. Generally speaking, a parabolic
form is assumed for a cable bearing a linear load that is dispersed along the x axis.
However, the form of a cable that is free to move about under its own weight is
regarded to be in the shape of a catenary.
 In suspension bridges, steel is employed as a parabolic cable support
because it is very robust while under tension. In the study of parabolic cables, the
load (w) is considered to be equally distributed along the horizontal (x). As a
consequence, the total load W = wx is equal to zero. The tension in such a wire is at
its lowest position and at its greatest point, with the lowest point being the most
relaxed (where it is supported). There should be just three forces visible on an FBD
of one side of the cable beginning from its lowest point: the minimum tension T₀, the
maximum tension T, at the point of support, and the total load W (resultant) operating
midway between the lowest point and the point of support, in that order.

W = uniformly distributed load along the horizontal x

W = total load (wx)

T₀ = minimum tension

T = maximum tension

𝒘𝒙𝟐
If the distance between the lowest point and the point of support is y, then 𝒚 = 𝟐𝑻₀

Below are the formulas that can be used to compute parabolic cables,
𝒘𝑳𝟐
Horizontal Reactions (H) 𝑯 =
𝟖𝒚
𝒘𝑳
Vertical Reactions (V) 𝑽 =
𝟐

𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒗𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 𝒐𝒓
Maximum Tension (𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑻𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝟐 + 𝒘𝒙 𝟐

𝒘𝑳𝟐
𝑻𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝑯 =
Minimum Tension (𝑻𝒎𝒊𝒏 ) 𝟖𝒚
 A suspension bridge, in contrast to other types of bridges, literally suspends or
hangs the road using massive cables. The cables are looped around enormous
towers and then connected to anchors at each end of the bridge to form the bridge
itself. This precise balance of strength and accuracy is difficult to attain, and in reality,
parabolas are used by architects and structural engineers to assist in the
construction of these bridges and other structures.

Due to their parabolic form, they are able to maintain their structural integrity
while still supporting hundreds of automobiles and trucks every hour in the traffic
lanes below. Gravity, as well as compression and tension forces, are responsible for
the curve observed in the cables of suspension bridges. Aesthetically pleasing and
functionally sound, parabolic cables efficiently distribute bridge weight while also
transferring compression stresses to the towers to which they are linked.

● Consider a cable that is sustaining a load that is uniformly distributed horizontally,

such as the support cables for a suspension bridge.
● With a load on the cable from the lowest point C to a point D as determined by W =
wx, the magnitude and direction of the internal tension force are
𝒘𝒙
𝑻 = 𝑻𝟎 𝟐 + 𝒘𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 =
𝑻𝟎
 ● Summation of moments about D,
𝒙 𝒘𝒙𝟐
𝛴𝑴𝑫 = 𝟎: 𝒘𝒙 𝟐 −𝑻𝟎 𝒚 = 𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝒚 = 𝟐𝑻𝟎

The table forms a parabolic curve.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. The cable AE supports three vertical loads from the points indicated. If point C
is 1.5 m below the left support, determine (a) the elevation of points B and D,
and (b) the maximum slope and maximum tension in the cable.

SOLUTION 1.

Determine reaction force components at A from the solution of two equations formed
from taking the entire cable as free-body and summing moments about E, and from
taking cable portion ABC as a free- body and summing moments about C.

Calculate elevation of B by considering AB as a free-body and summing moments B.

Similarly, calculate elevation of D using ABCD as a free- body.

Evaluate maximum slope and maximum tension which occur in DE.

 Determine two reaction force components at A from solution of two equations
formed from taking entire cable as a free-body and summing moments about E,

𝛴𝑀𝐸 = 0:

and from taking cable portion ABC as a free-body and summing moments about C.

𝛴𝑀𝐶 = 0: − 1.5𝐴𝑋 − 9𝐴𝑌 ⬚ + 18 = 0

Solving simultaneously,

𝐴𝑋 = −18𝑘𝑁 𝐴𝑌 = 5𝑘𝑁

2. Calculate elevation of B by considering AB as a free-body and summing

moments B.
SOLUTION 2.

Calculate elevation of B by considering AB as a free-body and summing moments B.

𝛴 𝑴𝑩 = 𝟎: 𝒀𝑩 𝟏𝟖 − 𝟓 𝟔

𝒀𝑩 = −𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 𝒎

Similarly, calculate elevation of D using ABCD as a free-body.

𝛴𝑴 = 𝟎: − 𝟏𝟖 𝒀𝑫 − 𝟓 𝟏𝟑. 𝟓 + 𝟔 𝟕. 𝟓 + 𝟏𝟐 𝟒. 𝟓 = 𝟎

𝒀𝑫 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟓 𝒎
Evaluate maximum slope and maximum tension which occur in DE.

𝟏𝟒.𝟕 𝟏𝟖 𝒌𝑵
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 = 𝜽 = 𝟒𝟑. 𝟒 𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒔 𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟖 𝒌𝑵
𝟏𝟓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽

PRACTICE PROBLEMS
1. A suspension cable with supports at the same level has a span of 50 m and a
maximum dip of 5 m when the supports are at the same level. An evenly
distributed load of 10 kN/m is applied to the cable's length, resulting in a
uniform load distribution. Determine the maximum and minimum tension.

2. A suspension bridge has a parabolic supporting cable at the same level with a
span of 600 meters. The sag of the cable is 150 meters at its midway and
loaded with uniformly distributed load of 100 kN/m throughout its length.
Determine the maximum and minimum tension of the cable.

3. A suspension cable that has two supports at the same level has a span of 25
m and a central sag of 5m. If the cable is subjected to a uniformly distributed
load of 300 kN/M, determine the minimum and maximum tension in the cable.
4. Determine the maximum tension force in the parabolic cable shown

5. A suspension bridge has a span of 100 meters and is supported by a

parabolic cable that runs parallel to the ground. During its midspan, the cable
has a 5 meter sag, and it is loaded with a 75 kN/m load that is evenly spread
throughout its length. Calculate the maximum and lowest tensions of the
cable.
 CHAPTER 13

CATENARY CABLES
The catenary is a planar curve, which is the form that a cable assumes as a
result of its own weight. This form is often found on transmission cables or electricity
cables that are suspended by their separate weights, and it is referred to as catenary
cables.
Catenary Cable, despite the fact that it takes a curved form, is not a parabola
since it hangs freely due to its constant mass per unit length and gravitational pull.
Catenary, in contrast to the parabolic cable, which has the load spread in a uniform
axis, has its own weight as the load disperses throughout the body.

x length from one support to the other

W weight of the load

s length of cable
 Because the wire is considered to be straight, therefore x = s. This results in a nearly
identical relationship between the length of the cable (s) and the distance between the
supports (x). W = wx, where W is the mass per unit length and x is the length from one
support to the other.

Because one support is slightly higher than the other without making a significant
difference, x is almost or equal to s. The distance between the supports (x) is generally equal
to the length of the cable, hence W = wx.

We know that s is greater than x because the supports are not leveled, and that the
path of action of W is unknown since the supports are not even.
A catenary arch is a structural element that has the capacity to endure the weight of
the material from which it is formed without collapsing. The catenary is the optimal curve
for an arch with uniform density and thickness, which is solely capable of sustaining its own
weight. Catenary arches are powerful because they convert the vertical force of gravity into
compression forces that push along the arch's curve, rather than the other way around. The
path of thrust travels through the middle of a catenary arch that has been evenly weighted.
Consider a cable that has been evenly weighted throughout its length, such as cables
that are hanging under their own weight.
 Considering the loading on the wire from the lowest point C to the highest point D as
determined by the internal tension force magnitude,

To relate horizontal distance x to cable length s,

To relate x and y cable coordinates,

which is the equation of a catenary.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. A cable 20 meters long weighs 25 N/m. It hangs between two points A and B
at the same level. If the central dip of the cable is 5 m, find the distance
between the two supports. Also find the maximum tension in the cable.

SOLUTION
𝑽
1. At support B: 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 = 𝑯

250
y=5+c 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛⬚−1 187.5

s = 10 m 𝜃 = 53.13°

𝑦2 = 𝑐2 + 𝑠2
2
5+𝑐 = 𝑐 2 + 102

25 + 10𝑐 ⬚ + 𝑐 2 ⬚ = 𝑐 2 + 100⬚

10𝑐 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑐 2 = 100 − 25

10𝑐 = 75

𝑐 = 7.5 𝑚

Vertical Tension at point B

𝑉 = 𝑤𝑠

𝑉 = 25 𝑁/𝑚 10 𝑚

𝑉 = 250 𝑁
Distance

𝑳 = 𝟐 𝟐. 𝟑 𝒄 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝜽 + 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽

𝑳 = 𝟐 𝟐. 𝟑 𝟕. 𝟓 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑 + 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑

𝑳 = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟓𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟑

𝑳 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟒𝟔 𝒎

Maximum Tension

𝑇 = 𝑤𝑦

𝑇 = 25 5 + 𝑐

𝑇 = 25 12.5

𝑇 = 312.5 𝑁

2. Solve for the (a) y, (b) length of the cable, (c)weight of the cable, (d) minimum
tension, and (e) maximum tension if it is suspended in supports at different levels.

𝑥 = 15 𝑚
𝑤 = 100 𝑁/𝑚
ℎ = 20𝑚
To begin, find the value of c since it is involved in the majority of catenary
equations, particularly if the number of variables is restricted.
𝒙
𝒚 = 𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉
𝒄
 Given that they both indicate the distance between the highest point of the
cable and the x-axis, y may be expressed by the equation h + c.

𝟏𝟓
𝟐𝟎 + 𝒄 = 𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉
𝒄
𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟓
+ 𝟏 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉
𝒄 𝒄

Make a table to keep track of your values. Input a range of feasible values for
𝑥 ℎ
c that, when replaced, would result in 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ = + 1 when the equation is
𝑐 𝑐
𝑥
rewritten. Depending on your desire, you may alternatively use ℎ + 𝑐 and 𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑐
as equivalences for the table. The value of c will remain constant regardless of the
situation.

If required, adjust the values upwards or downwards. Consider that raising the
value of c results in a reduction in the value of the result of the equations where c
would be replaced in the equations.

c 𝟏𝟓 𝟐𝟎
𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 + 𝟏
𝒄 𝒄

8 3.337 3.5

7.5 3.762 3.667

7.9 3.414 3.532

7.6 3.668 3.632

7.665 3.609 3.609

Solve for y. Solve for s.
𝑦 = ℎ + 𝑐 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒔𝟐 = 𝒄𝟐
𝟐
𝑦 = 20 + 7.665 𝟐𝟕. 𝟔𝟔𝟓 − 𝒔𝟐 = 𝟕. 𝟔𝟔𝟓 𝟐

𝑦 = 27.665 𝑚 𝒔 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟓𝟖𝟏 𝒎

Solve for W. Solve for 𝑻𝒎𝒊𝒏

𝑾 = 𝒘𝒔 𝑻𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝒄𝒘
𝑾 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟔. 𝟓𝟖𝟏 𝑻𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟕. 𝟔𝟔𝟓 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑾 = 𝟐𝟔𝟓𝟖. 𝟏 𝑵 𝑻𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟕𝟔𝟔. 𝟓 𝑵
Solve for 𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑻 = 𝒘𝒚
𝑻 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟕. 𝟔𝟔𝟓
𝑻 = 𝟐𝟕𝟔𝟔. 𝟓 𝑵

PRACTICE PROBLEMS

1. A cable weighing 4 lb/ft is suspended between two points at the same

elevation that are 180 ft apart. Determine the smallest allowable sag of the
cable if the maximum tension is not to exceed 720 lb.
2. A uniform cable shown weighs 1.5 kN/m supported at point A and B with the
distance of 30m. Determine the minimum and the maximum tension in the
cable where H is 5 m.

3. Determine the total span of a catenary cable with a length of 50 meters and
sag of 10 meters.

4. A cable is supported at two points 250ft apart and at the same elevation. If the
sag is 20 ft and the weight per unit length of the cable is 6lb/ft, determine the
length of the cable and the tension at the low point.
5. Catenary cable AB has a total length of 98m. If the sag of the cable is 15 m,
determine the total span of the cable.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Arreola, Matias A. Solutions to Problems in Engineering Mechanics. SI (Metric
Edition). (1996)
Hibbeler, R.C. Engineering Mechanics: Statics (Twelfth Edition). Pearson (2010)
Meriam, J.L., Kraige, L.G.. Engineering Mechanics: Statics 5th Edition, Volume 1.
United States: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (2002)
Meriam, J.L., Kraige, L.G.. Engineering Mechanics: Statics 7th Edition, Volume 1.
United States: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (2012)
Singer, Ferdinand L. Engineering Mechanics (Second Edition). New York: Harper &
Row (1941)
Wiley. Meriam Engineering Mechanics - Statics 5th Edition. (2002)

REFERENCES
Mass moments of inertia - engineering mechanics statics ... (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://tonted.com/to/mass-moments-of-inertia-engineering-mechanics-statics-
lecture-slides/. Equilibrium of a rigid body & free-body diagrams today’s ... (n.d.).
Retrieved from
https://www.kpu.ca/sites/default/files/Faculty%20of%20Science%20%26%20Horticult
ure/Physics/Ch5-%201%20-%20Static%20Equilibrium_0.pdf. Chapter 3 static
equilibrium. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www2.tntech.edu/leap/murdock/books/v2chap3.pdf.
ME 101: Engineering mechanics - IIT guwahati. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.iitg.ac.in/rkbc/me101/Presentation/L01-03.pdf.
Centroids centroids principles of ENGINEERINGTM - ppt download. SlidePlayer.
(n.d.). Retrieved from https://slideplayer.com/slide/15532481/. ME 101: Engineering
mechanics - IIT guwahati. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://iitg.ac.in/rkbc/me101/Presentation/L16-18.pdf. Centroid. Mathwords. (n.d.).
Retrieved from https://www.mathwords.com/c/centroid.htm. Centroid. Math is Fun.
(n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/centroid.html.
Geometric properties of areas ... - virginia tech. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.setareh.arch.vt.edu/safas/007_fdmtl_13_geometric_properties_of_areas.
html. Soh, G. Y. (n.d.). C4.2 centroids. engineering core courses. Retrieved from
http://www.engineeringcorecourses.com/statics/C4-centreofmass-centroids-
momentofinertia/C4.2-centroids/theory/.
Daniel W. Baker, W. H. (n.d.). Engineering statics: Open and interactive. Statics.
Retrieved from https://engineeringstatics.org/Chapter_07-centroids.html. Ray. (2018,
June 26). Calculating the centroid of compound shapes using the method of
geometric decomposition. Owlcation. Retrieved from
https://owlcation.com/stem/How-to-Solve-Centroids-of-Compound-Shapes.
Soh, G. Y. (n.d.). Question 3. engineering core courses. Retrieved from
http://www.engineeringcorecourses.com/statics/C4-centreofmass-centroids-
momentofinertia/C4.3-centroid-of-composite-bodies/question3/. 8 further applications
of integration further applications of. SlideToDoc.com. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://slidetodoc.com/8-further-applications-of-integration-further-applications-of.
Moment of inertia - Illinois Institute of Technology. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://web.iit.edu/sites/web/files/departments/academic-affairs/academic-resource-
center/pdfs/Moment_Inertia.pdf.
Libretexts. (2021, July 28). 5.5: Method of sections. Engineering LibreTexts.
Retrieved from
https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Mechanical_Engineering/Mechanics_Map_(Mo
ore_et_al.)/05%3A_Engineering_Structures/5.05%3A_Method_of_Sections.
6.4 the method of sections - Islamic University of Gaza. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://site.iugaza.edu.ps/malqedra/files/Lecture-6.2.pdf.
Samuel, S. (2019, January 24). ENGG1300 lecture 2 moments and couples.
Academia.edu. Retrieved from
https://www.academia.edu/38216009/ENGG1300_Lecture_2_Moments_and_couple
s.
Introduction to Fluid Mechanics CIVL 151 (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.coursehero.com/file/52987751/CIVL151-20Full-20Lecture-20Notes-20-
2001-20Introduction-20to-20Fluid-20Mechanicspdf/.
Wedge friction - statics.marcks.cc. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://statics.marcks.cc/friction/pdf/wedge_friction.pdf.
Screw friction - statics.marcks.cc. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://statics.marcks.cc/friction/pdf/screw_friction.pdf.
Üstündağ, C. (n.d.). Analysis of statically determinate trusses. Retrieved from
https://web.itu.edu.tr/~ustunda1/course/restlecturesys.pdf.
3 methods for truss analysis - teacherengineer. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://teacherengineer.weebly.com/uploads/2/0/2/8/20282305/3_methods_for_truss_
analysis.pdf.
Deflection of beams - free. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://freeit.free.fr/Knovel/Structural%20and%20Stress%20Analysis/31961_13.pdf.
Analysis of cables subjected to concentrated and uniformly ... (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://tonted.com/to/analysis-of-cables-subjected-to-concentrated-and-uniformly-
distributed-loads/.
Afsar, J. (2014, April 4). Types of load: Explanation: Examples: Load diagrams.
Engineering Intro. Retrieved from https://www.engineeringintro.com/mechanics-of-
structures/sfd-bmd/types-of-load/
.Structures. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://personal.strath.ac.uk/j.wood/Biomimetics/Engineering%20Areas/structures/ST
RUCTURES.htm.https://meangreenmath.files.wordpress.com/2016/03/bridge2.jpghtt
ps://meangreenmath.files.wordpress.com/2016/03/bridge2.jpg
I like this maple application - parabolic suspension cable. Parabolic Suspension
Cable - Application Center. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.maplesoft.com/applications/view.aspx?sid=154412&amp;view=html.
Determine The Maximum Tension Force In The Parabolic Cable Shown.- chegg.com.
(n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/questions-and-
answers/2-determine-maximum-tension-force-parabolic-cable-shown-20-m-24m-15-
m-b-1500-n-m-q57686950
 STATICS DAILY
ENGINEERING MECHANICS
STATICS OF RIGID BODIES: MODULE

Prepared by: Σmalameg

Gonzales, Mizzy E.
Roman, Franceska Louise L.
Santonil, Penelope Anne Louisse G.
Selga, Jobelle E.
CE – 2107

Prepared for:
Engr. Ernesto Magundayao
Instructor

Checked By:

Engr. Reitian Louise C. Macatangay Coleen Loise P. Carle

Registered Civil Engineer Civil Engineering Graduate

Jean Karen M. Eleda

4th Year Civil Engineering Student
University of Batangas