MODULE 14

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE/ ADOLESCENT STAGE

Introduction

The term adolescence comes from the Latin word “adolescere” meaning to grow to
maturity. It is the transitional period in the human life span linking childhood and adulthood, it
is the stage of human development in which a juvenile matures into adult. The transition
involves biological, social and psychological changes. It is customary to regard adolescents
beginning when children become more sexually mature and ending when they reach the age of
legal maturity.
Young people’s appearance change as a result of hormonal events of puberty. Their
thinking changes, too; they are better able to think abstractly and hypothetically. Their feelings
change about almost everything. All areas of development converge as adolescents confront
their major task “establishing an identity” – including sexual identity that they will carry over to
adulthood.
In this module we will see how adolescents incorporate their drastically changed
appearance, their physical yearnings.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of the topics and activities presented in this module you are expected to:

1. enumerate & explain the characteristics and developmental task of adolescents;

2. Summarize the overall physical growth
3. Describe the changes in brain maturation
4. Describe gender intensification
5. Identify eating disorders

LEARNING CONTENT
A. CHARACTERISTICS OF ADOLESCENCE:

 Adolescent is an important period

 Adolescent is transitional period
 Adolescent is period of change
 Adolescent is a problem age
 Adolescent is a time for search of identity
 Adolescent is a dreaded age
  Adolescent is a time of unrealism
 Adolescent is a threshold to adulthood
B. DEVELOPMENTAL TASK OF ADOLESCENCE
1. Achieving new and more mature relations with other.
2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role.
3. Achieving one’s physique.
4. Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults.
5. Preparing for marriage and family life.
6. Preparing for an economic task.
7. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior-developing an
ideology.
8. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior.

In a strict sense, the term puberty derived from the Latin word “Puberatum”(age of maturity,
manhood) refers to the bodily changes of sexual maturation rather than the psychosocial and
cultural aspects of adolescence development. Adolescence is the period of psychological and
social transition between childhood and adulthood. Adolescence largely overlaps the period of
puberty, but its boundaries are less precisely defined and it refers as much to the psychosocial
and cultural characteristics of development during the teen years as to the physical changes of
puberty.

Puberty can result in the following changes:

 Physical changes- such as rapid

growth spurts, the development of breasts in
girls and an increase in penis size in boys.
 Psychological changes- that often cause
teenagers to become moody, self-conscious,
and aggressive.
 Behavioral changes- that can cause
some teenagers to experiment with new and
potentially risky activities for example smoking,
drinking alcohol and sex .

C. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Puberty is the most important marker of the beginning of adolescence is heralded
by the rapid acceleration in height and weight termed “growth spurt”. It is a period of rapid
physical maturation involving hormonal and body changes (that occur primarily during early
adolescence) by which a child’s body becomes an adult body capable of reproduction

External Changes

Primary sexual characteristics are changes in the reproductive organs

Secondary sexual characteristics are visible physical changes not directly linked to reproduction
but signal sexual maturity.

Research have found that male pubertal characteristics develop in this order:

1. Increase in penis and testicle size.

In Boys, testicular enlargement is the first physical manifestation of puberty and termed
gonadarche. Testes in prepubertal boys change little in size from about 1 year of age to
the onset of puberty, averaging about 2-3 cm in length and about 1.5-2 cm in width.
Testicular size continues to increase throughout puberty, reaching maximal adult size
about 6 years after the onset of puberty. While 18-20 cc is an average adult size, there is
wide variation in the normal population.

The testes have two primary functions:

a . to produce hormone
b. to produce sperm

Male Anatomy
Primary sexual characteristics are changes in the reproductive organs. For males, this
includes growth of the testes, penis, scrotum, and spermarche or first ejaculation of
semen

Males have both internal and external genitalia that are

responsible for procreation and sexual intercourse. Males
produce their sperm on a cycle, and unlike the female's
ovulation cycle, the male sperm production cycle is
constantly producing millions of sperm daily. The main
male sex organs are the penis and the testicles, the latter of
which produce semen and sperm. The semen and sperm,
as a result of sexual intercourse, can fertilize an ovum in
the female's body; the fertilized ovum (zygote) develops
into a fetus which is later born as a child.

2. Appearance of straight pubic hair.

 Pubic hair-Pubic hair often appears on a boy shortly after genitalia begin to grow.

Body hair and facial hair- In the months and years following the pubic hair, other areas of
skin that respond to androgens may develop androgenic hair.

3. Minor voice change. Under the influence of androgens, the voice box or larynx, grows in
both sexes. This growth is far more prominent in boys, causing the male voice to drop and
deepen, sometimes abruptly but rarely “overnight”.

ANDROGENIC HAIR DEVELOPMENT

4. Minor voice change.

Under the influence of androgens, the voice box or larynx, grows both sexes. This growth is far
more prominent in boys, causing the male voice to drop and deepen, sometimes abruptly but
rarely “overnight” about one octave, because the longer and the ticker vocal folds have a lower
fundamental frequency.

5. Spermarche – boy’s first ejaculation (which usually occurs through

masturbation or wet dream); is the principal sign of sexual maturity for males.
6. Appearance of kinky pubic hair.
7. Onset of maximum growth.
8. Growth of hair in armpits.
9. More detectable voice changes.
10. Growth of facial hair.

Order of appearance of physical changes in females:

1. Either the breast enlarge or pubic hair appears.

a) Breast development
The first physical sign of puberty in females is usually a firm, tender lump under the center
stage of the areola of one or both breasts, occurring on average at about 10.5 years of age.

b) Pubic hair
Pubic hair is often second noticeable change in puberty, usually within a few months of
thelarche. It is referred to as pubarche. The pubic hairs are usually visible first among
the labia.
Female Anatomy
Female external genitalia is collectively known as the vulva, which includes the mons veneris,
labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, vaginal opening, and urethral opening. Female internal
reproductive organs consist of the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries. The uterus hosts
the developing fetus, produces vaginal and uterine secretions, and passes the male's sperm
through to the fallopian tubes while the ovaries release the eggs. A female is born with all her
eggs already produced. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the uterus
is attached to the ovaries via the fallopian tubes.

PHYSICAL CHANGES IN FEMALES

2. Hair appears in the armpits
3. As the first two changes occur, the females Increase in height.
4. Hips become wider than the shoulders
5. Menarche – girls first menstruation – comes rather late in the pubertal cycle, this is the
principal sign of sexual maturity for females.
6. By the end of puberty the female’s breast have become more fully rounded
7. Marked weight gains

Internal Changes:
1. Brain Development - recent research suggests that teens’ brains are not completely
developed. The amygdale which handles the processing of information about emotion
develops earlier than the prefrontal cortex which is involved in higher level cognitive
processing. This means that the brain region responsible for putting the brakes on risky
impulsive behavior is still under construction in adolescence.
2. Digestive System - The stomach becomes longer and less tubular, the intestines grow in
length and circumference, the muscle in the stomach and intestinal walls become thicker
and stronger.
3. Circulatory System - The heart grows rapidly during adolescence, by the age of 17 or 18,
it is twelve times as heavy as it was in birth.
4. Respiratory System - The lung capacity of girls is almost at the mature level at the age of
17, boys reach this level several years later.
5. Endocrine System - The increased activity of gonads at puberty results in a temporary
imbalance of the whole endocrine system in adolescence.
6. Body Tissues - The skeleton stops growing at an average age of 18. Tissues, other than the
bone, continue to develop after the bones have reached their mature size. This is especially
true of muscle tissue.

Adolescent Brain
The brain undergoes dramatic changes during adolescence. Although it does not get
larger, it matures by becoming more interconnected and specialized (Giedd, 2015). The
myelination and development of connections between neurons continues. This results in an
increase in the white matter of the brain and allows the adolescent to make significant
improvements in their thinking and processing skills. Different brain areas become myelinated
at different times. For example, the brain’s language areas undergo myelination during the first
13 years. Completed insulation of the axons consolidates these language skills but makes it more
difficult to learn a second language. With greater myelination, however, comes diminished
plasticity as a myelin coating inhibits the growth of new connections (Dobbs, 2012). Even as the
connections between neurons are strengthened, synaptic pruning occurs more than during
childhood as the brain adapts to changes in the environment.
 This synaptic pruning causes the gray matter of the brain, or the cortex, to become
thinner but more efficient (Dobbs, 2012). The corpus callosum, which connects the two
hemispheres, continues to thicken allowing for stronger connections between brain areas.
Additionally, the hippocampus becomes more strongly connected to the frontal lobes,
allowing for greater integration of memory and experiences into our decision making. The
limbic system, which regulates emotion and reward, is linked to the hormonal changes that
occur at puberty. The limbic system is also related to novelty seeking and a shift toward
interacting with peers. In contrast, the prefrontal cortex which is involved in the control of
impulses, organization, planning, and making good decisions, does not fully develop until the
mid-20s. According to Giedd (2015) the significant aspect of the later developing prefrontal
cortex and early development of the limbic system is the “mismatch” in timing between the two.
The approximately ten years that separates the development of these two brain areas can result
in risky behavior, poor decision making, and weak emotional control for the adolescent.
When puberty begins earlier, this mismatch extends even further. Teens often take more
risks than adults and according to research it is because they weigh risks and rewards differently
than adults do (Dobbs, 2012). For adolescents the brain’s sensitivity to the neurotransmitter
dopamine peaks, and dopamine is involved in reward circuits, so the possible rewards
outweighs the risks. Adolescents respond especially strongly to social rewards during activities,
and they prefer the company of others their same age. Chein et al. (2011) found that peers
sensitize brain regions associated with potential rewards. For example, adolescent drivers make
risky driving decisions when with friends to impress them, and teens are much more likely to
commit crimes together in comparison to adults (30 and older) who commit them alone
(Steinberg et al., 2017). In addition to dopamine, the adolescent brain is affected by oxytocin
which facilitates bonding and makes social connections more rewarding. With both dopamine
and oxytocin engaged, it is no wonder that adolescents seek peers and excitement in their lives
that could end up actually harming them.

OTHER CHANGES:
Male musculature and body shape

 By the end of puberty, adult men have heavier

bones and nearly twice as much as skeletal muscle.
 This muscle develops mainly during the later stages
of puberty and muscle growth can continue even
after a male is biologically adult.
Body odor and acne - Rising levels of androgens can change the fatty acid composition of
perspiration, resulting in a more adult body odor. As in girls, another androgen effect is
increased secretion of oil (sebum) from the skin and the resultant variable amounts of acne.
Acne cannot be prevented or diminished easily, but it typically fully diminishes at the end of
puberty.

CHANGES IN FEMALES
Vagina, uterus, ovaries
- the mucosal surface of the vagina also changes in response to increasing levels of estrogen,
becoming thicker and a duller pink in color (in contrast to the brighter red of the prepubertal
vaginal mucosa). -Whitish secretions (physiologic leucorrhea) are a normal effect of estrogen as
well. In the two years following the larche, the uterus, ovaries and the follicles in the ovaries
increase in size. The ovaries usually contain small follicular cysts visible by ultrasound.

Menstruation and fertility- The first menstrual bleeding is referred to as menarche, and
typically occurs about two years after thelarche. The average age of menarche in girls is 11.75
years. The time between menstrual periods is not always regular in the first two years after
menarche. Ovulation is necessary for fertility, but may not accompany the earliest menses.

Body shape, fat distribution and body composition

- Fat issue increases to a greater percentage of
the body composition
than in males, especially in the
typical female distribution of breasts,
hips, buttocks, thighs, upper arms
and pubis. Progressive differences
in fat distribution as well as sex
differences in local skeletal growth
contribute to the typical female
body shape by the end of the puberty.
Body odor and acne
- Rising levels of androgens
can change the fatty acid composition
of perspiration, resulting in a more
adult body odor. This often precedes
thelarche and pubarche by one or
more years. Another androgen effect
is increased secretion of oil from
the skin. This change increases
the susceptibility to acne, a skin
condition that is characteristic of
puberty. Acne varies greatly in its severity.

How do these changes affect teens?

 Teens frequently sleep longer

 Teens may be more clumsy because of growth spurt.
 Teenage girls may become overly sensitive about their weight.
 Teens may be concerned because they are not physically developing at the same rate
as their peers.
 Teens may feel awkward about the demonstrating affection of the opposite sex
parent.
 Teens may ask more direct questions about sex.

D. PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH

 For most part, the adolescent years are relatively healthy. Health problems often are
associated with poverty or a risk taking lifestyle. Adolescents are less likely than younger
children to get regular medical care.
 Many adolescents especially girls, do not engage in regular, vigorous physical activity.
 Many adolescents do not get enough sleep.
 Concern with body image often leads to obsessive dieting.
 Three common eating disorders in adolescence are obesity, anorexia nervosa and
bulimia nervosa. All can have serious long term effects

o Anorexia Nervosa – eating disorder characterized by self-starvation.

o Bulimia Nervosa – eating disorder in which a person regularly eats huge
quantities of food and then purges the body by laxatives, induced vomiting,
fasting or excessive exercise.
o Obesity – extreme overweight in relation to age, sex, height and body type.

FIGURE 8.1 ANOREXIA NERVOSA

BULIMIA NERVOSA

 Adolescent substance abuse and dependence have lessened in recent years; still, drug use
often as children move to high school.
 Marijuana, alcohol and tobacco are the most popular drugs with adolescents can be
gateways to the use of hard drugs.
 The prevalence of depression increases in adolescence, especially among girls.
 Leading causes of death among adolescents include motor vehicle accidents, firearm use
and suicide.
Jean Piaget’s Formal Operations Stage

Adolescents not only look different from younger

children, they also think differently. Although their
thinking may remain immature in some ways, many
are capable of abstract reasoning and sophisticated
moral judgments and can plan more realistically for
the future.
According to Piaget, adolescents enter the highest
level of cognitive development – formal
operations – when they develop the capacity for abstract thought. This development,
manipulate information. They can engage in hypothetical-deductive reasoning – Piaget’s
formal operational concept that adolescents have the cognitive ability to develop hypotheses or
best guesses, about ways to solve problems such as algebraic equation.
By age 16-18 the average young person knows about 80,000 words and can define and
discuss such abstractions as law, justice, freedom, etc. They more frequently use such terms as
however, between, otherwise, anyway, therefore, really and probably to express logical relations
between clauses or sentences. Adolescents also become more skilled in social-perspectives-
taking, the ability to understand another person’s point of view and level of knowledge and to
speak accordingly. This ability is essential in order to persuade or just to engage in conversation
– conscious of their evidence, adolescents speak a different language with peers than with
adults.

Adolescent Egocentrism

This is the heightened self-consciousness of adolescents. David Elkind believes that

adolescent egocentrism has two key components: imaginary audience and personal fable
imaginary audience – adolescents’ belief that others are interested in them as they
themselves are, as well as attention-getting-behavior attempts to be noticed, visible and on
stage.
Personal fable – the part of adolescent egocentrism involving a sense of uniqueness and
invincibility. Adolescents’ sense of personal uniqueness makes them feel that no one can
understand how they really feel. They also show a sense of invincibility, believing that they
themselves will never suffer the terrible experiences
Information Processing
Cognitive Control
As noted in earlier chapters, executive functions, such as attention, increases in working
memory, and cognitive flexibility have been steadily improving since early childhood. Studies
have found that executive function is very competent in adolescence.
However, self-regulation, or the ability to control impulses, may still fail. A failure in self-
regulation is especially true when there is high stress or high demand on mental functions
(Luciano & Collins, 2012). While high stress or demand may tax even an adult’s self-regulatory
abilities, neurological changes in the adolescent brain may make teens particularly prone to
more risky decision making under these conditions.

Working memory is very short with at a time only 7 items being retained and that too for
a very short period of time. In case a person wants to keep the items for a longer period of time
or have larger number of items retained you may have to use strategies such as rehearsing to
keep the item for a longer period and chunking the various items into 7 groups and
remembering the chunks and the materials within. In contrast to the short term memory, the
long term memory stores information for longer periods of time. There is no need to rehearse
the items to keep it in memory for longer periods. Also any number of items can be stored and
there is no restriction about how much information is to be stored. To give an example,
whenever you are working in the office, you receive letters, emails, notings, phone calls etc. You
respond to some, postpone responding to others and do not give importance or any attention to
some items. You also file some of the notings and papers received as if we are sending the items
to long term memory. Sometimes when a certain note is received, you try to see and relate the
contents of the items with some stored files such as minutes of a board meeting in which you
had taken some decisions regarding that concerned matter. That is, we are retrieving items from
long term memory in some fashion or integrate them in some way to attack a complex problem.

In information processing also we do the same kind of complex action. Though the
diagram clearly explains how information is received, processed and stored etc., human brain is
not that simple, you are still not aware how many things happen about which you do not even
know anything and further research at a high level will be required to know what goes on in the
process mentioned above in the brain. Cognitive processes are also concerned with how people
learn, understand, think, store and recall the information that has been acquired over a period
of time. You go to school or college and you learn many things. A large number of things are
immediately available to you as you are able to remember them , but considerable information
may be available to you only when you put in some efforts and there are many more information
that are just not available to you even when you put in efforts. Sometimes you feel that it is there
and you can recall but it slips off and you do not remember. With certain cues you may be able
to recall that information. The entire process of registering, storing and retrieving information is
called information processing which all come under the rubric of cognitive psychology.
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning emerges in childhood and occurs when specific observations, or
specific comments from those in authority, may be used to draw general conclusions. This is
sometimes referred to as “bottom-up-processing”. However, in inductive reasoning the veracity
of the information that created the general conclusion does not guarantee the accuracy of that
conclusion. For instance, a child who has only observed thunder on summer days may conclude
that it only thunders in the summer.
In contrast, deductive reasoning emerges in adolescence and refers to reasoning that
starts with some overarching principle and based on this proposes specific conclusions. This is
sometimes referred to as “top-down-processing”. Deductive reasoning guarantees a truthful
conclusion if the premises on which it is based are accurate.

Intuitive versus Analytic Thinking

Cognitive psychologists often refer to intuitive and analytic thought as the Dual-Process
Model; the notion that humans have two distinct networks for processing information (Albert &
Steinberg, 2011). Intuitive thought is automatic, unconscious, and fast (Kahneman, 2011), and it
is more experiential and emotional. In contrast, analytic thought is deliberate, conscious, and
rational. While these systems interact, they are distinct (Kuhn, 2013). Intuitive thought is easier
and more commonly used in everyday life. It is also more commonly used by children and teens
than by adults (Klaczynski, 2001). The quickness of adolescent thought, along with the
maturation of the limbic system, may make teens more prone to emotional intuitive thinking
than adults.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Kohlberg’s Theory

Level III: Post Conventional Reasoning – the highest level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral
development. People now recognize conflicts between moral standards and make their own
judgments on the basis of principles of right, fairness, and justice. People generally do not reach
this level of moral reasoning until the least early adolescence, or more commonly in young
adulthood, if ever. In Kohlberg’s theory, it is the reasoning underlying a person’s response to a
moral development.
Stage 5: Morality of contract of individual rights and of democratically accepted
law.
People think in rational terms, valuing the will of the majority and welfare of society.
They generally see these values as best supported by adherence to the law. While they recognize
that there are times when human need and the law conflict, they believe it is better for society in
the long run if they obey the law.

Stage 6: Morality of universal ethical principles.

People do what they as individuals think is right, regardless of legal restrictions or the
opinions of others. They act in accordance with internalized standards, knowing that they would
condemn themselves if they did not.
According to Kohlberg, moral reasoning is based on a developing sense of justice and
growing cognitive abilities. Kohlberg proposed that moral development progresses from external
control to internalized societal standards to personal, principled moral codes.
Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized several grounds, including failure to credit the role
of emotion, socialization and parental guidance.

Changes in Morality During Adolescence

One of the important tasks adolescents must master is learning what the group expects
of them and then being willing to mold their behavior to conform to these expectations without
the constant guidance, supervision, prodding’s and threats of punishment they experienced as
children. They are expected to replace the specific moral concepts of childhood with general
moral principles and to formulate these into a moral code which will act as a guide to their
behavior. Equally important, they must now exercise control over behavior, a responsibility that
was formerly assumed by parents and teachers.

Five Fundamental Changes in Morality During Adolescents:

1. The individual’s moral outlook becomes progressively more abstract and

 less concrete.
2. Moral convictions become more concerned with what is right and less concerned with
what is wrong. Justice emerges as a moral force.
3. Moral judgment becomes increasingly cognitive. This encourages the adolescent to
analyze social and personal codes more vigorously than during childhood and to
decide on moral issues.
4. Moral judgment becomes less egocentric.

5. Moral judgment psychologically expensive in the sense that it takes an emotional toll
and creates psychological tension.

SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Self Concept and Self Esteem

In adolescence, teens continue to develop their self-concept. Their ability to think of the
possibilities and to reason more abstractly may explain the further differentiation of the self
during adolescence. However, the teen’s understanding of self is often full of contradictions.
Young teens may see themselves as outgoing but also withdrawn, happy yet often moody, and
both smart and completely clueless (Harter, 2012). These contradictions, along with the teen’s
growing recognition that their personality and behavior seem to change depending on who they
are with or where they are, can lead the young teen to feel like a fraud. With their parents they
may seem angrier and sullen, with their friends they are more outgoing and goofier, and at work
they are quiet and cautious. “Which one is really me?” may be the refrain of the young teenager.
As self-concept differentiates, so too does self-esteem. In addition to the academic,
social, appearance, and physical/athletic dimensions of self-esteem in middle and late
childhood, teens also add perceptions of their competency in romantic relationships, on the job,
and in close friendships (Harter, 2006). Self-esteem often drops when children transition from
one school setting to another, such as shifting from elementary to middle school, or junior high
to high school (Ryan, Shim, & Makara, 2013). These drops are usually temporary, unless there
are additional stressors such as parental conflict, or other family disruptions (De Wit, Karioja,
Rye, & Shain, 2011). Self-esteem rises from mid to late adolescence for most teenagers,
especially if they feel competent in their peer relationships, their appearance, and athletic
abilities (Birkeland, Melkivik, Holsen, & Wold, 2012).

Identity
Who am I? What am I all about? What am I going to do with my life? What is different about
me? How can I make it on my own? These questions reflect the search for an identity.
Identity is a self portrait composed of many pieces, including the following:
  The career and work path the person wants to follow (vocation, career identity).
 Whether the person is conservative, liberal, or middle-of-the road (political identity).
 Whether the person is single, married, divorced and so on (relationship identity)
 The extent to which the person is motivated to achieve and is intellectual. (achievement,
intellectual identity)
 Whether the person is heterosexual, homosexual or bisexual (sexual identity).
 Which part of the world or country a person is from and how intensely the person
identifies with his or her cultural heritage. (cultural/ethnic identity)
 The kind of things a person like to do, which can include sports, music, hobbies and so
on (interest)
 The individuals personality characteristics such as being introverted or extraverted,
anxious or calm, friendly or hostile and soon. (personality)
 The individuals body image (physical identity)

Erikson: Identity versus identity confusion (or role confusion)

This is the fifth developmental stage of Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Development

which individuals experience during adolescence. The chief task of adolescence said Erikson is
to resolve the “crisis” so as to become a unique adult with coherent sense of self and a valued
role in society.(the virtue that should arise from this crisis is fidelity). Adolescents who
satisfactorily resolve the crisis develops the virtue of fidelity; sustained loyalty, faith or a sense
of belonging to a loved one or to friends and companions. Fidelity can also mean identification
with a set of values, ideology and other components of identity mentioned earlier. Fidelity is also
an extension of trust, adolescents now extend their trust to mentors or loved ones.

Adolescent Sexuality

Sexual orientation which is the focus of

consistent sexual, romantic and affectionate
interests either heterosexual (of the other
sex), homosexual (of the same sex),
bisexual (of both sexes) appears to be
influenced by an interaction of biological and
environmental factors and maybe at least
partly genetic.
Adolescence is a time of sexual exploration
and experimentation of sexual fantasies and
realities, of incorporating sexuality into ones identity. They think about whether they are
sexually attractive, how to do sex, and what future hold for their sexual lives. Majority of
adolescents eventually manage to develop a mature sexual identity but most experience times of
vulnerability and confusion.
 Sexual behaviors are more liberal than in the past. Teenage sexual activity involves risks
of pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases (STD). Adolescents at greatest risks are those
who begin sexual activity early, have multiple partners, do not contraception and are ill
informed about sex.
Regular condom is the best safeguard for sexually active teens, this gives some protection
against SDT’s as well as against pregnancy. Many teenagers get misleading information about
sexuality.
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Early adolescence is a time when emotional highs and lows increase. Young adolescents
can be on top of the world one moment and down in the dumps the next. In many instances, the
intensity of their emotions seems out of proportion to the events that elicit them. It is important
for adults to recognize that moodiness is a normal aspect of early adolescence; and most
adolescents make it through this moody times to become competent adults. Emotional
fluctuation in early adolescence maybe related to significant hormonal changes during this
period. However, most researchers conclude that hormonal influences are small and that when
they occur they usually are associated with other factors such as stress, eating patterns, sexual
activity and social relationships. Both hormonal changes and environmental experiences are
involved in the changing emotional landscape of adolescence – control of one’s emotions is an
important aspect of adolescent development.

James Marcia and Self-Identity

James Marcia is another influential theorist who expanded upon Erikson's concept
of identity crisis and identity confusion. Marcia's theory descriptively categorizes four main
points or stations along the continuum of identity development. These stations or points
describe very different identity conditions, ranging from a diffuse and indeterminate individual
identity to a precisely defined and highly specific individual identity.
Similar to Erikson, Marcia believed that certain situations and events (called "crises")
serve as catalysts prompting movement along this continuum and through the various identity
statuses. These crises create internal conflict and emotional upheaval, thereby causing
adolescents to examine and question their values, beliefs, and goals. As they explore new
possibilities, they may form new beliefs, adopt different values, and make different choices.
According to Marcia's theory, these developmental crises ultimately cause adolescents to
develop a progressively greater commitment to a particular individual identity via the process of
identity exploration prompted by developmental crises.
 Identity diffusion describes youth who have neither explored nor committed to any
particular identity. Thus, this identity status represents a low level of exploration and a low level
of commitment. These adolescents haven't considered their identity at all, and haven't
established any life goals. They are reactive, passively floating through life and dealing with each
situation as it arises. Their primary motivation is hedonic; the avoidance of discomfort and the
acquisition of pleasure.

Identity foreclosure status represents a low degree of exploration but a high degree
of commitment. At this identity status adolescents are not actively trying to determine what is
important to them. They are not questioning the values and beliefs they have been taught.
Instead, these youth obtain their identity simply by accepting the beliefs and values of their
family, community, and culture. In a sense, they passively accept the identity assigned to them.
While these youth are committed to values and life goals assigned to them, they do not question
why they should be, nor do they consider any alternatives.

Moratorium represents high degree of exploration but a low degree of commitment. At

this status, youth are in the midst of an identity "crisis" which has prompted them to explore
and experiment with different values, beliefs, and goals. However, they have not made any final
decisions about which beliefs and values are most important to them, and which principles
should guide their lives. Thus, they are not yet committed to a particular identity. They are
keeping their options open.

Identity achievement represents both a high degree of exploration and a high degree
of commitment. Youth are said to have achieved their identity by a process of active exploration
and strong commitment to a particular set of values, beliefs, and life goals that has emerged
from this active exploration and examination. At this identity status youth will have decided
what values and goals are most important to them, and what purpose, or mission will direct
their life. Youth at the identity achievement status are able to prioritize what is important to
them and have sorted through the many possibilities of who they want to be. They will have
experimented with many different beliefs and values, and analyzed their pathway in life.

Relationship with Family, Peers and Adult Society

Adolescents spend more time with peers and less with family. However, most teenagers’
fundamental values remain close to their parents than is generally realized. Even as adolescents
to peers for companionship and intimacy, they look to parents for a “secure base” from which
they can try their wings.
Family interactions change during the teenage years. There is more intimacy but also
more conflict over issues of autonomy. Conflict with parents tends to be most frequent during
early adolescence and most intense during mid-adolescence. Authoritative parenting is
associated with the most positive outcomes. Competent adolescent development is most likely
when adolescents have parents who:

 Show them warmth and respect and avoid the tendency to be too controlling or too
permissive.
 Demonstrate sustained interest in their lives. Parents need to spend time with their
adolescents and monitor their lives.
 Understand and adapt to their cognitive and socioemotional development
 Communicate expectations for high standards of conduct and achievement.
 Display constructive ways of dealing with problems and conflict. Moderate conflict is a
normal part of the adolescent’s desire for independence and search for an identity.
 Understand that adolescents don’t become adults overnight. Adolescence is a long
journey.

Effects of divorce and single parenting on adolescents’ development depend on the way
they affect family atmosphere. Genetic factors may affect the way young adolescents adapt to
divorce.
Effects of maternal employment depend on such factor as the presence of the other
parent, how closely parents monitor adolescents’ activity, and the mother’s workload. A
mother’s working may help shape attitudes toward gender roles.
Economic stress or lack of money is a major problem in many single-parent families as
well as two-parent families. Poverty can complicate family relationships – and also harm
adolescents’ development – through its impact on parent’s emotional state.
Peers are important source of emotional support during the complex transition of
adolescence, as well as a source of pressure for behavior that parents may strongly disapprove.
The peer group is a source of affection, sympathy, understanding and moral guidance; a place
for experimentation; and a setting for achieving autonomy and independence from parents. The
influence of peers is strongest in early adolescence; and declines during middle and late
adolescence as relationships with parents are renegotiated.
 Adolescents tend to choose friends who are like them and friends influence each other to
become even more alike. Friends tend to have similar academic attitudes and performance.
Intimacy with same sex friends increases during early to mid adolescence after which it declines
as intimacy with the other sex grows. The increased intimacy of adolescent friendship reflects
cognitive as well as emotional development. The capacity for intimacy is also related to
psychological adjustment and social competence. Adolescents who have close, stable supportive
friendships generally have a high opinion of themselves, do well in school, are sociable and are
unlikely to be hostile, anxious or depressed. A bidirectional process seems to be at work: good
friendships foster adjustment, which in turn foster good friendships.

Antisocial Behavior and Juvenile Delinquency

Research suggests that early and continuing patterns of parent-child interaction often
pave the way for negative peer influence which reinforces and promotes antisocial behavior.
Antisocial adolescents tend to have antisocial friends, and their antisocial behavior
increases when they associate with them each day. Authoritarian parenting can help young
people internalize standards that may insulate them against negative peer influences and open
them to positive ones. Improvements n parenting during adolescents can reduce delinquency by
discouraging association with deviant peers.

Juvenile Delinquency
A juvenile delinquent is an adolescent who breaks the law of engages in behavior that is
considered illegal. Adolescent becomes a juvenile delinquent only after being judged guilty of a
crime by a court of law. Heredity, identity problems, community influences and family
experiences have been proposed as causes of juvenile delinquency.
Chronic delinquency is associated with multiple interaction of risk factor, including
ineffective parenting, school failure, peer influences, neighborhood influences and low
socioeconomic status.
Some interventions can reduce or prevent youth violence. Prevention efforts should
include developmentally appropriate schools, supportive families, and youth community
organizations. One promising strategy for preventing youth violence is the teaching of conflict
management as part of health education in elementary and high school.

This period is heightened emotions, glands function under social pressure

 Problems related to romance

 Easily excited and explodes emotionally
 Temper tantrums, mood swings
  Intense self-consciousness
 Daydreaming

Social changes
 searching for identity: young people are busy working out who they are and where they fit in
the world. This search can be influenced by gender, peer group, cultural background, media,
school and family expectations
 seeking more independence: this is likely to influence the decisions your child makes and the
relationships your child has with family and friends
 seeking more responsibility, both at home and at school
 looking for new experiences: the nature of teenage brain development means that teenagers
are likely to seek out new experiences and engage in more risk-taking behaviour. But they’re
still developing control over their impulses
 thinking more about “right” and “wrong”: your child will start developing a stronger
individual set of values and morals. Teenagers also learn that they’re responsible for their
own actions, decisions and consequences. They question more things. Your words and
actions shape your child’s sense of ‘‘right’’ and “wrong”
 influenced more by friends, especially when it comes to behaviour, sense of self and self-
esteem
 starting to develop and explore a sexual identity: your child might start to have romantic
relationships or go on “dates”. These are not necessarily intimate relationships. For some
young people, intimate or sexual relationships don’t occur until later on in life
 communicating in different ways: the internet, cell phones and social media can significantly
influence how your child communicates with friends and learns about the world.

Emotional Changes
Teens show strong feelings and intense emotions at different times. Moods might seem
unpredictable. These emotional ups and downs can lead to increased conflict. Your child’s brain
is still learning how to control and express emotions in a grown-up way
 is more sensitive to your emotions: young people get better at reading and processing other
people’s emotions as they get older. While they’re developing these skills, they can sometimes
misread facial expressions or body language
 is more self-conscious, especially about physical appearance and changes. Teenage self-
esteem is often affected by appearance - or by how teenagers think they look. As they
develop, teens might compare their bodies with those of friends and peers
 goes through a “invincible” stage of thinking and acting as if nothing bad could happen to
him. Your child’s decision-making skills are still developing, and your child is still learning
about the consequences of actions.

Changes in relationships
Teens want to spend less time with family and more time with friends
 has more arguments with you: some conflict between parents and children during the
teenage years is normal as teens seek more independence. It actually shows that your child is
maturing. Conflict tends to peak in early adolescence. If you feel like you’re arguing with your
child all the time, it might help to know that this isn’t likely to affect your long term
relationship with your child
 sees things differently from you: this isn’t because your child wants to upset you. It’s because
your child is beginning to think more abstractly and to question different points of view. At
the same time, some teens find it hard to understand the effects of their behaviour and
comments on other people. These skills will develop with time.

ACTIVITY 1
Identify the correct answer to the following situations.
1. Androgen is to male as _______________ is to female.
a. estradiol
b. testosterone Adolescent
c. estrogen
d. hormone
e. gonadotropin
2. Gonads are
a. the testes and penis in males.
b. the ovaries and uterus in females.
c. the glands that produce gonadotropins.
d. part of the hypothalamus.
e. the testes in males and the ovaries in females.
3. Which of the following plays a role in pubertal growth?
a. pituitary gland
b. thyroid
c. estrogen
d. testosterone
e. All the above are correct.
4. What is a girl's first menstruation called?
a. menarche
 b. menses
c. amenorrhea
d. menopause
e. melatonin
5. Puberty is the time when a person changes from a child into _____.
a) a person
b) an adult
c) a woman
d) a man
e) an old person
6. Puberty usually begins at around ages _____.
a. 4 to 6
b. 7 to 8
c. 8 to12
d. 13 to 16
7. Sometimes people have pimples during puberty. This is normally caused by _____.
a. catching a virus
b. worrying too much about things
c. getting too much sun
d. a natural increase in the skin’s oils
8. During puberty, _____ begins to grow under a person’s arms and in the pubic area.
a. hair
b. pimples
c. perspiration
d. layers of fat
e. all of the above
9. When people reach puberty, they need to take showers and wash their hair more often than
when they were young children because _____.
a. they get dirtier than young children
b. they perspire more than young children
 c. they need to use up extra energy
d. showers help you grow faster
10. People start growing quite quickly during puberty because of increased_____ in their blood.
a. hormones
b. sugar
c. protein
d. glands

11. The _____ gland in the brain causes the body to produce growth hormones. a. sweat
b. pituitary
c. salivary
d. puberty
12. During puberty, both boys’ and girls’ voices change because the _____ grows bigger. This is
also known as the Adam’s apple.
a. lungs
b. mouth
c. abdomen
d. larynx
13. During puberty, a girl’s body produces hormones called _____.
a. pituitaries
b. excedrins
c. estrogens
d. menstruations
14. Menstruation is the periodic shedding of the lining of the _____.
a. vagina
b. uterus
c. pituitary
d. larynx
15. Ovaries produce hormones throughout the month, but once in each menstrual cycle, a
female’s ovaries produce _____.
 a. a period
b. cramps or aches
c. a pregnancy
d. an egg or ovum

Activity 2
True or False
As a team, answer these questions.

T F 1. Females should not exercise during their period.

T F 2. Puberty happens at different times for different children.

T F 3. The fluid released from the penis during ejaculation is made up of sperm and
urine.

T F 4. The size of a male’s penis determines the amount of sperm he produces.

T F 5. Sometimes it is hard for children and parents to talk to each other about sex.
T F 6. You should always do what your friends want to do.
T F 7. There is no “right time” to begin dating.
T F 8. There is no such thing as a “perfect female” or a “perfect male” body.
T F 9. If a person has a question about sex, the best place s /he can go to get an
answer is a friend.
T F 10. It is common for a female to have one breast that is slightly bigger than the
other

SELF-ASSESSMENT
 How will you apply your learnings to real-life situations?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________.

REFERENCES

[1] https://www.peelregion.ca/health/commhlth/bodyimg/changes-in-me/lessons/pdf/
LessonEight-b.pdf
[2] http://www.rhodeslab.org/files/Midtermfinalkey.pdf