Chapter One

1. Introduction
By: Menberu Zeleke
 Chapter Outline

• Basic concepts of vibration

• Importance of studying vibration

• Vibration types

• Vibration analysis procedure

• Mechanical elements of vibrating systems

• Harmonic Motion

• Definitions and Terminology

 Basic Concepts of Vibration
• Vibration - any motion that repeats itself after an interval of time.
• It is oscillation of a mechanical or structural system about an equilibrium position.
• Examples: swinging of a pendulum and the motion of a plucked string.
• Vibrations are initiated when an inertia element is displaced from its equilibrium position
due to an energy imparted to the system through an external source.
• The vibration of a system involves the transfer of its potential energy to kinetic energy
and of kinetic energy to potential energy, alternately.
 Cont.
• Vibratory system consists of
• Mass or inertia for storing kinetic energy
• Spring or elasticity for storing potential energy and
• Damper for energy dissipation.
• If the system is damped, some energy is dissipated in each cycle of vibration and must be
replaced by an external source if a state of steady vibration is to be maintained.
 Importance of Studying Vibration
❖ Most prime movers have vibrational problems due to the inherent unbalance in the
engines. Vibrations can lead to excessive deflections and failure on the machines and
structures.
▪ Imbalance in diesel engines causes ground waves.
▪ Mechanical failures in turbines.
▪ Wear of machine parts in bearings and gears.
▪ Loosen fasteners such as nuts.
▪ Poor surface finish during metal cutting processes.
❖ Why we study vibration?
• To reduce vibration through proper design of machines and their mountings.
• To improve the efficiency of certain machining, casting, forging and welding processes.
• To simulate earthquakes for geological research and conduct studies in design of nuclear
reactor.
• To utilize profitability in several consumers and industrial applications in vibratory
conveyors, hoppers, sieves, compactors, washing machines, pile driving, etc.
 Cont.
• Degrees of freedom - the minimum number of independent coordinates required to
determine completely the positions of all parts of a system at any instant of time.
• Single-degree-of-freedom systems
• Three-degree-of-freedom systems

• Two-degree-of-freedom systems
 Discrete and Continuous systems
• Discrete or lumped parameter systems
• Systems with a finite number of degrees of freedom.
• Example: simple systems shown for one, two, and three dof systems in Fig. above.
• Continuous or distributed systems
• Systems with an infinite number of degrees of freedom
• Example: a cantilever beam (an infinite-number-of-degrees-of-freedom system for
specifying its deflection configuration)
 Classification of Vibration
Free and Forced Vibration
• Free Vibration – a system, after an initial disturbance, is left to vibrate on its own without
external force acts.
• Example: oscillation of a simple pendulum.
• Forced Vibration - a system is subjected to an external force.
• Example: oscillation arises from diesel engines.
• Resonance occurs when the frequency of the external force coincides with one of the
natural frequencies of the system.
Undamped and damped Vibration
• Undamped vibration
• When no energy is lost or dissipated in friction or other resistance during oscillation.
• Damped vibration
• When any energy is dissipated or lost in friction or other resistance during oscillation.
 Cont.
Linear and Nonlinear Vibration
• Linear Vibration
• All the basic components of a vibratory system—the spring, the mass, and the damper
behave linearly
• Nonlinear Vibration
• When any of the basic components behave nonlinearly.
• The differential equations that govern the behavior of linear and nonlinear vibratory
systems are linear and nonlinear, respectively.
Deterministic and random Vibration
• Deterministic vibration
• The value or magnitude of the excitation (force or motion) acting on a vibratory system
is known at any given time.
• Nondeterministic or random Vibration
• The value of the excitation at a given time cannot be predicted.
 Cont.
• Examples of deterministic and random excitations.
 Vibration analysis procedure
• A vibratory system is a dynamic one for which the variables such as the excitations (inputs)
and responses (outputs) are time dependent.
• The response of a vibrating system generally depends on the initial conditions as well as the
external excitations.
• Step 1: Mathematical Modeling
• Represent all the important features of the system for the purpose of deriving the
mathematical (or analytical) equations governing the system’s behavior
• Step 2: Derivation of Governing Equations
• Derive the equations that describe the vibration of the system by drawing the free-body
diagrams of all the masses involved.
• Step 3: Solution of the Governing Equations
• Finding the response of the vibrating system (such as the displacements, velocities, and
accelerations).
• Step 4: Interpretation of the Results
• Analysis and possible design implications of results.
 Mathematical modeling forging hammer
• A forging hammer consists of a frame, a falling weight known as the tup, an anvil, and a foundation block as shown in fig
(a). The anvil is a massive steel block on which material is forged into desired shape by the repeated blows of the tup. The
anvil is usually mounted on an elastic pad to reduce the transmission of vibration to the foundation block and the frame.
• First approximation - the frame, anvil, elastic pad, foundation block, and soil are modeled as a single-dof system (Fig ( b)).
• Refined approximation - the weights of the frame and anvil and the foundation block are represented separately with a two-
dof model (Fig ( c)).
 Cont.
Example 1: Mathematical model of a motorcycle
• A motorcycle with a rider is shown in the figure below. Develop a sequence of three
mathematical models of the system for investigating vibration in the vertical direction.
Consider the elasticity of the tires, elasticity and damping of the struts (in the vertical
direction), masses of the wheels, and elasticity, damping, and mass of the rider.
 Cont.
Solution: Let’s start with the simplest model and refine it gradually.

Elasticity Mass
Damping
• Tires • Wheels
• Struts
• Struts • Rider
• rider
• rider • Vehicle body
 Spring Elements
• A spring is a type of mechanical link, which in most applications is assumed to have negligible
mass and damping.
• The most common type of spring is the helical-coil spring.
• The Spring force F in deforming a spring is given by
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥
• Where,
• 𝐹 = Spring force
• 𝑘 = the spring constant or spring stiffness
• 𝑥 = deformation (displacement of one end respect
to the other)
• The work done (U) in deforming a spring is stored as
strain or potential energy in the spring, and it is given
by
1 2
𝑈 = 𝑘𝑥
2
 Cont.
• Any elastic or deformable body or member, such as a cable, bar, beam, shaft, or plate, can be
considered as a spring.
• Spring Constant of a rod: Find the equivalent spring constant of a uniform rod of length l,
cross-sectional area A, and Young’s modulus E subjected to an axial tensile (or compressive)
force F as shown in Fig below.
• Solution:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝛿
• Strain, 𝜀 = =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑙
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 𝛿
• Stress, 𝜎 = = = 𝜀𝐸 = 𝐸
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 𝑙
𝐴𝐸𝛿
𝐹=
𝑙
• Hence, the spring constant, k, becomes
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝐹
𝑘= =
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝛿
𝐴𝐸
𝑘=
𝑙
 Cont.
❖ Spring Constant of a Cantilever beam:
• Find the equivalent spring constant of a cantilever beam subjected to a concentrated load F at
its end as shown in Figure below.
• Assume the self weight (or mass) of the beam is
negligible, the end deflection of the beam due to a
concentrated load of a point mass (F = W = 𝑚𝑔) is
given:
𝑊𝑙 3
𝛿=
3𝐸𝐼
• where E is the Young’s modulus and 𝐼 is the moment of
inertia of the cross section of the beam about the
bending or z-axis (i.e., axis perpendicular to the page).
• Hence, the spring constant of the beam is
𝑊 3𝐸𝐼
𝑘= = 3
𝛿 𝑙
 Combination of Springs
1. Spring in Parallel.
• The displacement of each spring in the system is the same.
• The resultant force acting on the block is the sum of the forces developed in the parallel
springs.
𝑊 = 𝑘1 𝛿𝑠𝑡 + 𝑘2 𝛿𝑠𝑡
• The equivalent spring constant (𝑘𝑒𝑞 ) of the combination of the two springs for the same
static deflection 𝛿𝑠𝑡 becomes:
𝑊 = 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝛿𝑠𝑡
𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 𝑘1 𝛿𝑠𝑡 + 𝑘2 𝛿𝑠𝑡
𝑘𝑒𝑞 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2
• In general, for n springs with spring constants
𝑘1 , 𝑘2 ,…, 𝑘𝑛 in parallel, 𝑘𝑒𝑞 can be obtained:
𝑛

𝑘𝑒𝑞 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝑛 = ෍ 𝑘𝑖
𝑖=1
 Cont.
2. Springs in Series
• The force developed in each spring is the same and equal to the force acting on the block.
• The displacement of the block is the sum of the changes in length of the springs.
• Since both springs are subjected to the same force W, we have the equilibrium
𝑊 = 𝑘1 𝛿1 = 𝑘2 𝛿2
• For the same static deflection, 𝑘𝑒𝑞 becomes:
𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝛿𝑠𝑡 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝛿𝑠𝑡
𝑊 = 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 𝑘1 𝛿1 = 𝑘2 𝛿2 𝛿1 = , and 𝛿2 =
𝑘1 𝑘2
• The total elongation (static deflection) of the system
𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝛿𝑠𝑡 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝛿𝑠𝑡
𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 𝛿1 + 𝛿2 = +
𝑘1 𝑘2
1 1 1
= +
𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝑘1 𝑘2
• In general, for n-springs in series:
1 1 1 1
= + +⋯+
𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘𝑛
 Cont.
• Exercice: Determine the equivalent spring constant of the system shown in Figure below.

(b)
 Cont.
• Example: A hinged rigid bar of length l is connected by two springs of stiffnesses and is
subjected to a force F as shown in Fig. below. Assuming that the angular displacement of the
bar 𝜃 is small, find the equivalent spring constant of the system that relates the applied
force F to the resulting displacement x.
 Cont.
• Solution: For a small angular displacement of the rigid bar (𝜃), the points of attachment of
springs 𝑘1 and 𝑘2 (𝐴 and 𝐵) and the point of application (𝐶) of the force 𝐹 undergo the
linear or horizontal displacements 𝑙1 sin𝜃, 𝑙2 sin𝜃, and 𝑙sin𝜃, respectively.
• Since 𝜃 is small, the horizontal displacements of points A, B, and C can be approximated as
𝑥1 = 𝑙1 𝜃, 𝑥2 = 𝑙2 𝜃 and 𝑥 = 𝑙𝜃, respectively. The reactions of the springs, 𝑘1 𝑥1 and 𝑘2 𝑥2 , will
be as indicated in Fig. (b).
𝑥1 𝑙1 𝑥2 𝑙2
𝑘1 𝑥1 𝑙1 + 𝑘2 𝑥2 𝑙2 = 𝐹(𝑙) or 𝐹 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2
𝑙 𝑙
• The equivalent spring constant of the system ( 𝑘eq ൯ referred to the point of application of
the force 𝐹 can be determined by considering the moment equilibrium of the forces about
the hinge point 𝑂 :
𝑥1 𝑙1 𝑥2 𝑙2
𝐹 = 𝑘eq 𝑥 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2
𝑙 𝑙
• Using 𝑥1 = 𝑙1 𝜃, 𝑥2 = 𝑙2 𝜃, and 𝑥 = 𝑙𝜃,
2 2
𝑙1 𝑙2
𝑘eq = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2
𝑙 𝑙
 Damping Elements
• In many practical systems, the vibrational energy is gradually converted to heat or sound.
• Due to the reduction in the energy, the response, such as the displacement of the system,
gradually decreases.
• The mechanism by which the vibrational energy is gradually converted into heat or sound is
known as damping.
• A damper is assumed to have neither mass nor elasticity, and damping force exists only if
there is relative velocity between the two ends of the damper.
 Cont.
• Viscous Damping:
• Viscous damping is the most commonly used damping mechanism in vibration analysis.
• When mechanical systems vibrate in a fluid medium such as air, gas, water, or oil, the
resistance offered by the fluid to the moving body causes energy to be dissipated.
• In this case, the amount of dissipated energy depends on many factors, such as the size and
shape of the vibrating body, the viscosity of the fluid, the frequency of vibration, and the
velocity of the vibrating body.
• In viscous damping, the damping force is proportional to the velocity of the vibrating body.
• Typical examples of viscous damping include
• Fluid film between sliding surfaces
• Fluid flow around a piston in a cylinder
• Fluid flow through an orifice, and
• Fluid film around a journal in a bearing.
 Cont.
❖ Coulomb or Dry-Friction Damping
• It is caused by friction between rubbing surfaces that either are dry or have insufficient
lubrication.
• The damping force is constant in magnitude but opposite in direction to that of the
motion of the vibrating body.
❖ Material or Solid or Hysteretic Damping
• When a material is deformed, energy is absorbed and dissipated by the material.
• The effect is due to friction between the internal planes, which slip or slide as the
deformations take place.
• When a body having material damping is subjected to vibration, the stress-strain
diagram shows a hysteresis loop.
• The area of this loop denotes the energy lost per unit volume of the body per cycle due
to damping.
 Cont.
• When the load applied to an elastic body is increased, the stress 𝜎 , and the strain 𝜀 in the
body also increase. The area under the 𝜎 − 𝜀 curve, given by 𝑢 = ‫ 𝜀𝑑 𝜎׬‬denotes the energy
expended (work done) per unit volume of the body.
• When the load on the body is decreased, energy will be recovered. When the unloading path
is different from the loading path, the area ABC in Fig. (b), the area of the hysteresis loop in
Fig. (a), denotes the energy lost per unit volume of the body.
 Cont.
❖ Combination of Dampers
• When two translational dampers, with damping constants 𝑐1 and 𝑐2 appear in combination,
the equivalent damping constant 𝑐𝑒𝑞 can be found as:
• Parallel dampers: 𝑐𝑒𝑞 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2
1 1 1
• Series dampers: = +
𝑐𝑒𝑞 𝑐1 𝑐2
 Mass or Inertia Elements
• The mass or inertia element is assumed to be
a rigid body; it can gain or lose kinetic energy
whenever the velocity of the body changes.
• Consider a multistory building subjected to an
earthquake.
• Assuming that the mass of the frame is
negligible compared to the masses of the
floors, the building can be modeled as a multi-
degree-of-freedom system.
• The masses at the various floor levels
represent the mass elements.
• The elasticities of the vertical members
denote the spring elements.

Idealization of a multistory building as a multi-

degree-of-freedom system.
• Combination of masses:
• Case 1: Translational Masses Connected by a Rigid Bar.
• Let the masses be attached to a rigid bar that is pivoted at one end, as shown in (a).
• Assume the location of the equivalent mass to be that of mass 𝑚1 .
 Cont.
• The velocities of masses 𝑚2 (𝑥ሶ 2 ) and 𝑚3 (𝑥ሶ 3 ) can be expressed in terms of the velocity of
mass 𝑚1 (𝑥ሶ 2 ) by assuming small angular displacements for the bar, as
𝑙2 𝑙3
𝑥Ǘ 2 = 𝑥Ǘ , 𝑥Ǘ 3 = 𝑥Ǘ and 𝑥Ǘ eq = 𝑥Ǘ1
𝑙1 1 𝑙1 1
• Equating the kinetic energy of the three-mass system to that of the equivalent mass system
1 1 1 1
𝑚1 𝑥Ǘ 12 + 𝑚2 𝑥Ǘ 22 + 𝑚3 𝑥Ǘ 32 = 2
𝑚eq 𝑥Ǘ 𝑒𝑞
2 2 2 2
2 2
𝑙2 𝑙3
𝑚eq = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3
𝑙1 𝑙1
 Cont.
• Case 2: Translational and Rotational Masses Coupled Together
• Let a mass m having a translational velocity 𝑥ሶ be coupled to another mass (of mass moment
of inertia 𝐽0 ) having a rotational velocity 𝜃ሶ , as in the rack-and-pinion arrangement as shown.
• These two masses can be combined to obtain either
• A single equivalent translational mass 𝑚𝑒𝑞 or
• A single equivalent rotational mass 𝐽𝑒𝑞
 Cont.
1. Equivalent translational mass
1 1
• The kinetic energy of the two masses: 𝑇 = + 𝐽0 𝜃Ǘ 2
𝑚𝑥Ǘ 2
2 2
1 2
• The kinetic energy of the equivalent mass: 𝑇eq = 𝑚eq 𝑥Ǘ eq
2
• Since 𝑥Ǘ eq = 𝑥Ǘ and 𝜃Ǘ = 𝑥/𝑅,
Ǘ the equivalence of 𝑇 and 𝑇eq gives
2
1 2
1 2
1 𝑥Ǘ
𝑚𝑒𝑞 𝑥Ǘ = 𝑚𝑥Ǘ + 𝐽0
2 2 2 𝑅
𝐽0
𝑚eq = 𝑚 + 2
𝑅
2. Equivalent rotational mass
• Here 𝜃Ǘeq = 𝜃Ǘ and 𝑥Ǘ = 𝜃𝑅,
Ǘ and the equivalence of 𝑇 and 𝑇eq leads to
1 1 1
𝐽eq 𝜃 = 𝑚(𝜃𝑅) + 𝐽0 𝜃Ǘ 2
Ǘ 2 Ǘ 2
2 2 2
Hence,
𝐽eq = 𝐽0 + 𝑚𝑅2
 Harmonic Motion
• Oscillatory motion may repeat itself regularly, as in the case of a simple pendulum, or it
may display considerable irregularity, as in the case of ground motion during an earthquake.
• If the motion is repeated after equal intervals of time, it is called periodic motion. The
simplest type of periodic motion is harmonic motion. The motion imparted to the mass
m due to the Scotch yoke mechanism is an example of simple harmonic motion.
• In this system, a crank of radius A rotates about the point O.
The other end of the crank, P, slides in a slotted rod, which
reciprocates in the vertical guide R.
• When the crank rotates at an angular velocity 𝜔 , the
displacement x (in time t) of mass m of the spring-mass system
from its middle positions given by:
𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑥
• The velocity of mass m at time t: = 𝜔𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥 2
• Acceleration of mass m at time t : = −𝜔 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 = −𝜔2 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2
Scotch yoke mechanism.
 Cont.
Definitions and Terminology
• Cycle - the movement of a vibrating body from its
equilibrium position to its extreme position in one
direction, then to the equilibrium position, then to
its extreme position in the other direction, and back
to equilibrium position.
• Amplitude (A) - the maximum displacement of a
vibrating body from its equilibrium position
• Period of oscillation ( 𝝉 ) - the time taken to
complete one cycle of motion
• Frequency of oscillation (f) - the number of cycles
per unit time.
• Natural frequency (𝝎𝒏 ) - the frequency with which
a system, after an initial disturbance, is left to
vibrate on its own without external forces

𝜏 = 2𝜋 𝑓 = 1𝜏 = 2𝜋
𝜔 𝒌ൗ
𝜔 ; ; 𝝎𝒏 = 𝒎
Where 𝜔 is called the circular frequency.
 Cont.
• Phase angle - consider two vibratory motions denoted by
𝑥1 = 𝐴1 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑥2 = 𝐴2 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
• The two harmonic motions are called synchronous because they have the same frequency or
angular velocity, 𝜔.
• Vector 𝑂𝑃2 leads 𝑂𝑃1 by an angle ∅, known as the phase angle.
• The maximum of vector 𝑂𝑃2 would occur ∅ radians earlier than vector 𝑂𝑃1 .
• The two vectors are said to have a phase difference of ∅.