Assignment NO.

Rao Arslan
MCVS-021R20P-2

Q1. Define the following Terms.

a. Degree of freedom,

b. Single degree of freedom,

c. Force Displacement Relation.

d. Damping force.

e. Frequency and Time-period.

Degree of Freedom is defined as the minimum number of independent variables required to

If DOF > 0 It’s a Mechanism

If DOF = 0 It’s a Structure

and If DOF < 0 It’s a Pre-Loaded Structure

Single Degree of Freedom System:

• The system considered is shown schematically in Figure below.

• It consists of a mass m concentrated at the roof level, a massless frame that provides stiffness to
the system, and a viscous damper (also known as dashpot) that dissipates vibrational energy of
the system. Beams & columns are assumed to be inextensible axially.
• This system may be considered as an idealization of a one-story structure.

• Each structural member (beam, column, wall etc.) of the actual structure contributes to the inertial
(mass), elastic (stiffness or flexibility), and energy dissipation (damping) properties of the structure.

• In the idealized system, however, each of these properties is concentrated in three separate, pure
components: mass component, stiffness component, and damping component.

• The number of independent displacements required to define the displaced positions of all the masses
relative to their original position is called the number of degrees of freedom (DOFs) for dynamic
analysis.

• More DOFs are typically necessary to define the stiffness properties of a structure compared to the
DOFs necessary for the dynamic analysis.

• Consider the one-story frame as shown in previous figure, constrained to move only in the direction of
the excitation.

• Consider the one-story frame as shown in previous figure, constrained to move only in the direction of
the excitation.

• The static analysis problem has to be formulated with three DOFs – Lateral displacement and two
joints rotations – to determine the lateral stiffness of the frame (Next Section).

• In contrast, the structure has only one DOF – lateral displacement – for dynamic analysis if it is
idealized with mass concentrated at one location, typically the roof level. Thus we call this a Single-
degreeof-freedom (SDF) system.

• Two types of dynamic excitation will be considered: (1) external force () in the lateral direction (Fig. a),
and (2) earthquakeinduced ground motion (). In both cases denotes the relative displacement between
the mass and the base of the structure.
Force Displacement Relation:

• Consider the system (Fig. a) with no dynamic excitation subjected to an externally applied static force
along the DOF as shown.

• The internal force resisting the displacement u is equal and opposite to the external force (Fig. b).

• It is desired to determine the relationship between the force and the relative displacement associated
with deformations in the structure. • This force-displacement relation would be linear at small
deformations but would become non-linear at larger deformations (Fig. c), both non-linear and linear
relations are considered (Figs. C & d).

Linearly Elastic Systems:

• For a linear system the relationship between the lateral force and the resulting deformation is linear.

• Where, k is the lateral stiffness of the system; its units are force/length. Implicit in above equation is
the assumption that the linear − relationship determined for small deformations of the structures is also
valid for larger deformations. Because the resisting force is a single-valued function of u, the system is
elastic; hence we use the term linearly elastic system.

• Consider the frame (Fig. a) with the bay width L, height h, elastic modulus E, and second moment of
the cross-sectional area (or moment of inertia) about the axis of bending = and for the beam and
columns, respectively; the columns are clamped or fixed at the base.

• Lateral stiffness of the frame can readily be determined for the two extreme cases: If the beam is rigid
(i.e., flexural rigidity ---

Lateral stiffness of the frame can readily be determined for the two extreme cases: If the beam is rigid
(i.e., flexural rigidity

• Observe that for two extreme values of beam stiffness, the lateral stiffness of the frame is
independent of L, the beam length or bay width.
• The lateral stiffness of the frame with an intermediate, realistic stiffness of the beam can be calculated
by standard procedures of static structural analysis.

• The stiffness matrix of the frame is formulated with respect to three DOFs: the lateral displacement u
and the rotations of the two beamcolumn joints.

Damping Force:

• The process by which free vibration steadily diminishes in amplitude is called damping. In damping,
the energy of the vibrating system is dissipated by various mechanisms, and often more than one
mechanism be present at the same time.

• In simple “clean” systems such as the laboratory models, the most of the energy dissipation
presumably arises from the thermal effect of repeated elastic straining of the material and from the
internal friction when a solid is deformed. In actual structures, however, many other mechanisms also
contribute to the energy dissipation.

• In a vibrating building these include friction at steel connections, opening and closing of microcracks in
concrete, friction between the structure itself and nonstructural elements such as partition walls. It
seems impossible to identify or describe mathematically each of these energy-dissipating mechanisms in
an actual building.

• As a result, the damping in actual structures is usually represented in a highly idealized manner. For
many purposes the actual damping in a SDF structure can be idealized satisfactorily by a linear viscous
damper or dashpot. Damping coefficient is selected so that the vibrational energy it dissipates is
equivalent to the energy dissipated in all the damping mechanisms, combined, present in the actual
structure. This idealization is therefore called Equivalent Viscous Damping.

• Unlike the stiffness of a structure, the damping coefficient cannot be calculated from the dimensions
of the structure and the sizes of the structural elements.

• This should not be surprising because, it is not feasible to identify all the mechanisms that dissipate
vibrational energy of actual structures.

• Thus vibration experiments on actual structures provide the data for evaluating the damping
coefficient.
• These may be free vibration experiments that lead to data such as those shown in previous figure; the
measured rate at which motion decays in free vibration will provide a basis for evaluating the damping
coefficient.

Frequency and Period:

• The reciprocal value of the period is the natural frequency f=1/T

• Natural frequency f is usually expressed in hertz or cycles per second (cps).

• Because the quantity differs from the natural frequency f only by the constant factor 2, also is
sometimes referred to as the natural frequency.

• To distinguish between these two expressions for natural frequency, may be called the circular or
angular natural frequency. Most often, the distinction is understood from the units. Natural frequency f
is measured in cps, while circular frequency should be in radians per second (rad/sec).

A time period (denoted by 'T' ) is the time taken for one complete cycle of vibration to pass a given
point.[1] As the frequency of a wave increases, the time period of the wave decreases. The unit for
time period is 'seconds

Q2. Explain the Equation of Motion with respective method

We can derive the differential equation governing the displacement () by two methods using (1)
Newton’s Second Law of Motion, and (2) Dynamic Equilibrium.

Using Newton’s Second Law of Motion:

• The forces acting on the mass at some instant of time are shown in Fig. 1.5.1b. These include the
external force p(t), the elastic resisting force , and the damping force .

• The external force is taken to be positive in the direction of the x-axis, and the displacement u(t),
velocity ̇(), and acceleration ̈() are also positive in the direction of the x-axis

The elastic and damping forces are shown acting in the opposite direction because they are internal
forces that resist the deformation and velocity,
The resultant force along the x-axis is p-f s-fD

and Newton’s second law of motion gives:

p-fs-fD=mu

• This is the equation of motion governing the deformation or displacement () of the idealized structure
of Fig. 1.5.1a, assumed to be linearly elastic, subjected to an external dynamic force ().

• The units of mass are Force / Acceleration.

• This derivation can readily be extended to inelastic systems. The equations is still valid and all that
needs to be done is to replace it with revised equation, valid for inelastic systems. For such systems,
therefore, the equation of motion is:

mu+cu+fs(u,u)=p(t)

Dynamic Equilibrium:

• In terms of equilibrium of forces, structural engineers may find D’Alembert’s Principle of Dynamic
Equilibrium.

• This principle is based on the notion of a fictitious inertia force, a force equal to the product of mass
time its acceleration and acting in a direction opposite to the acceleration.

• It states that with inertia forces included, a system is in equilibrium at each time instant.

• Thus a free-body diagram of a moving mass can be drawn, and principles of statics can be used to
develop the equation of the motion.

• Fig. 1.5.1c is the free body diagram at time t with the mass replaced by its inertia force, which is shown
by a dashed line to distinguish this “fictitious” force from the real forces.

• Setting the sum of all the forces equal to zero, as derived earlier using Newton’s Second Law of
Motion.
Springs in Parallel or in Series:

• Sometimes it is necessary to determine the equivalent spring constant for a system in which two or
more springs are arranged in parallel as shown in Fig. a or in series as shown in Fig. b.