Centre for Higher Secondary Education Department of Chemistry

TOPIC 7: INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

GRADE 11
SEMESTER 2/2021

Checklist
Students will be assessed on their ability to 
7.1 understand the nature of the following intermolecular forces:
i London forces (instantaneous dipole-induced dipole)
i permanent dipole-permanent dipole interactions
iii hydrogen bonds
7.2 understand the interactions in molecules, such as H2O, liquid NH3 and liquid HF, which give rise
to hydrogen bonding
7.3 understand the following anomalous properties of water resulting from hydrogen bonding:
i its high melting and boiling temperature when compared with similar molecules
ii the density of ice compared to that of water
7.4 be able to predict the presence of hydrogen bonding in molecules analogous to those
mentioned in 7.2
7.5 understand, in terms of intermolecular forces, physical properties shown by substances,
including:
i the trends in boiling temperatures of alkanes with increasing chain length
ii the effect of branching in the carbon chain on the boiling temperatures of alkanes
iii the relatively low volatility (higher boiling temperatures) of alcohols compared to
alkanes with a similar number of electrons
iv the trends in boiling temperatures of the hydrogen halides HF to HI
7.6 understand factors that influence the choice of solvents, including:
i water, to dissolve some ionic compounds, in terms of the hydration of the ions
ii water, to dissolve simple alcohols, in terms of hydrogen bonding
iii water, as a poor solvent for compounds (to include polar molecules such as
halogenoalkane), in terms of inability to form hydrogen bonds
iv non-aqueous solvents, for compounds that have similar intermolecular forces to
those in the solvent

Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 7- Intermolecular forces/2021/semester 2 Page 1 of 17

Centre for Higher Secondary Education Department of Chemistry

SPECIFICATION
7A INTERMOLECULAR INTERACTIONS OBJECTIVE 7.1,
7.2, 7.4
BACKGROUND TO NON – BONDED INTERMOLECULAR

INTERACTIONS

A number of interactions between molecules are considerably weaker than typical covalent
and polar covalent bonds. These interactions are usually described as:

• ‘Non – bonded interactions’ or

• ‘intermolecular’ because they occur between molecules

TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

• Instantaneous dipole – induced dipole interactions (London forces/temporary dipole –
dipole interactions/ dispersion forces)
• Permanent dipole –dipole interactions
• Hydrogen bonding

LONDON FORCES

London forces occur between all molecular substances and noble gases. They do not occur in
ionic substances.

• London Forces are also called instantaneous, induced

dipole- dipole interactions. They occur between all
simple covalent molecules and the separate atoms in
noble gases.

• In any molecule the electrons are moving constantly

and randomly. As this happens the electron
density can fluctuate and parts of the
molecule become more or less
negative i.e. small temporary or
transient dipoles form.

• These temporary dipoles can cause

dipoles to form in neighbouring
molecules. These are called induced
dipoles. The induced dipole is always the opposite sign to the original one.
Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 7- Intermolecular forces/2021/semester 2 Page 2 of 17
Centre for Higher Secondary Education Department of Chemistry

The two dipoles between molecules are arranged so that they will interact favourably with one
another. This favourable interaction is responsible for London force of attraction between two
molecules.

The diagram below shows many molecules being held together by Instantaneous dipole –
induced dipole interactions.

FEATURES OF LONDON FORCE

1. Size of the electron cloud

• The more electrons there are in a molecule, the greater the fluctuations in electron
density and the larger the instantaneous and induced dipoles created.
• This makes the London forces stronger between the molecules and more energy is
needed to break them so boiling points will be greater.

This can be demonstrated by observing the boiling temperatures of the noble gases.
Gas Helium Neon Argon Krypton Xenon Radon
Boiling temperature/ K 4.3 27.1 87.4 121 165 211

• The noble gases are monoatomic (consists of single atoms). London force is the only
force of attraction between the molecules.
• The increasing boiling points of the noble gases down the group 8 series can be
explained by the increasing number of electrons in the bigger atoms causing an
increase in the size of the London forces between the atoms.
• The stronger the force of attraction, the more energy is required to separate the
molecules and hence boiling temperature increases.

As the size of the electron cloud increases the

strength of London forces increases.

Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 7- Intermolecular forces/2021/semester 2 Page 3 of 17

Centre for Higher Secondary Education Department of Chemistry

2. Area or point of contact between the molecules

Shape of the molecule can also have an effect on the size of

the London forces. The more points of contact there are
between the molecules, the greater the overall London force.

PERMANENT DIPOLE – DIPOLE INTERACTIONS

• Polar molecules have a permanent dipole, meaning that there

is a permanent separation of charge.
• As a result, these molecules are attracted towards one
another by permanent dipole – dipole interactions, in which
the negative end of one molecule is attracted to the positive
end of another molecule.
• These interactions occur between molecules containing permanent dipoles but cannot
form hydrogen bonds.
• These dipole forces are weaker than hydrogen bonding but stronger than Vander Waals
forces.

• The problem here is that, for example, in a liquid, the random movement of the
molecules is such that the dipoles are not always aligned to produce a favourable
interaction.

• As a result, when averaged out, the interaction between permanent dipoles is usually
less than the interaction between instantaneous and induced dipoles. The London
force is usually more significant interaction between molecules.

Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 7- Intermolecular forces/2021/semester 2 Page 4 of 17

Centre for Higher Secondary Education Department of Chemistry

THE HYDROGEN BONDING

• It occurs in compounds that have a hydrogen atom covalently attached to one of the three
most electronegative atoms of nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine only, which has alone pair of
electrons.
• For example: a –O-H -N-H F- H bond. There is a large electronegativity difference between
the H and the O,N,F.
Example: Hydrogen fluoride HF
Water H2O
Ammonia NH3
• Bonds between hydrogen and these three elements are extremely polar.

Hydrogen bonding in water (H2O)

Hydrogen bonding in ammonia

(NH3)

Hydrogen bonding in hydrogen fluoride (HF)

• Due to the big difference between electronegativity of hydrogen and the elements (F, O,
N), a substantial amount of electron density is drawn away from hydrogen atom, leaving
it with a δ+ charge.
• Hydrogen atom does not have an inner shell of electrons. As a result, the nucleus of the
hydrogen atom is exposed by the shift in electron density.
• The lone pair of electrons in F, O or N in another molecule is attracted to the positive
hydrogen, leading to the formation of hydrogen bond.
Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 7- Intermolecular forces/2021/semester 2 Page 5 of 17
Centre for Higher Secondary Education Department of Chemistry

HYDROGEN BONDING THROUGH OXYGEN

Hydrogen bonding in water
All compounds containing an – O – H group form
intermolecular hydrogen bonds.

Example in water, the hydrogen bond forms

between the oxygen atom of one water molecule
and the hydrogen atom of second water molecule.

The interaction is not just that of an extreme dipole

– dipole interaction. There is some partial bond
formation using a lone pair of electrons on the
oxygen atom.

Hydrogen bonds are directional in nature. The bond

angle between the three atoms involved is often
180◦ or close to it.

Alcohols also form intermolecular hydrogen bonds.

HYDROGEN BONDING THROUGH NITROGEN

All compounds containing – N – H group can form intermolecular hydrogen bonds.

Example; Ammonia and organic compounds such as primary amines, which have the general
formula RNH2 form hydrogen bonding.

Hydrogen bonding in ammonia (NH3)

Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 7- Intermolecular forces/2021/semester 2 Page 6 of 17

Centre for Higher Secondary Education Department of Chemistry

HYDROGEN BONDING THROUGH FLOURINE

The only fluorine compound with intermolecular hydrogen bonding is hydrogen fluoride.

EXERCISE 1

1. Molecules of ethanoic acid dimerise through hydrogen bonding when dissolved in certain
organic solvent. The structure and shape of ethanoic acid molecule is:

Draw a diagram to show how hydrogen bonds are formed between two molecules of ethanoic
acid.

2. The boiling temperature of ethanol ( CH3CH2OH, 78.5◦C) is considerably higher than the
boiling temperature of methoxymethane (CH3OCH3, - 24.8◦C). The structures and shapes of
the molecules are:

In terms of intermolecular interactions involved, explain the difference in boiling

temperatures.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 7- Intermolecular forces/2021/semester 2 Page 7 of 17

Centre for Higher Secondary Education Department of Chemistry

Relative strengths of intermolecular forces

• Intermolecular forces are much weaker than intramolecular forces.
For example, covalent bond strengths are typically between 200 to 500 kJmol-1.
• In comparison, the strength of Hydrogen bonds is about 5 to 40 kJmol-1.
• Permanent dipole-dipole interactions are weaker than hydrogen bonds and London
forces are still weaker.
Hydrogen bonding > Permanent dipole-dipole interactions > London forces
• Intermolecular forces are not strong enough to influence chemical properties, but they
can affect physical properties.

7B INTERMOLECULAR INTERACTIONS AND SPECIFICATION

OBJECTIVE 7.3,
7.5, 7.6
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

BOILING TEMPERATURES OF ALKANES AND ALCOHOLS

UNBRANCHED ALKANES

The most significant intermolecular attraction between alkane molecules are London forces.

The boiling point of alkanes increase with increase mass because:

1. when molecular mass increases the number of electrons per molecule increases. Hence
the instantaneous and induced dipoles also increase.
2. when the chain length increases, the number of points of contact between adjacent
molecules increases. The more points of contact there are, the greater the overall London
force of attraction.

Weaker London forces between two

methane molecules as there are fewer
Stronger London forces between two
contact points.
hexane molecules as there are more
contact points.

Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 7- Intermolecular forces/2021/semester 2 Page 8 of 17

Centre for Higher Secondary Education Department of Chemistry

BRANCHED ALKANES

• Branched chain alkanes have lower boiling temperatures than their unbranched isomers.
• Branching of the molecules lowers the melting and boiling temperature because side
chains interfere with the packing together of molecules and reduce the formation of
London forces, thus lowering the boiling points.

Table shows the boiling temperature of pentane and its isomers

.
ALCOHOLS

• Alcohols contain – O – H group and can therefore form intermolecular hydrogen

bonds in addition to London forces.
• Alcohols have a higher boiling temperature (low volatility) than the alkanes with same
number of carbons or same molecular mass. This is because in alkanes only weak
London forces are present whereas alcohols can form hydrogen bonding between its
molecules.
Table showing boiling point of alcohol and alkane

Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 7- Intermolecular forces/2021/semester 2 Page 9 of 17

Centre for Higher Secondary Education Department of Chemistry

Table showing enthalpy of vapourization of alcohol Table showing enthalpy of vapourization of alkane

• The enthalpy of vapourization of alcohols and alkanes shows that the predominant
intermolecular force of attraction in the first few members of alcohol is hydrogen bonding.
However, London forces predominate as the chain length increases.
• The enthalpy change of vapourization is a measure of the amount of energy that is required
to completely separate the molecules of a liquid into a gas at the same temperature. The
greater the enthalpy change of vapourization the greater the force of attraction between
the molecules.

Volatility is a measure of how easily molecules escape from liquids. Volatile substances
have a low boiling temperature.

• The viscosity of alcohols also increases as the number of hydrogen bonds per molecule
increases.

Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 7- Intermolecular forces/2021/semester 2 Page 10 of 17

Centre for Higher Secondary Education Department of Chemistry

NOBLE GASES

• Noble gases are monatomic.

• They have weak Van der Waals forces between the atoms.
• From helium to radon, the size of the electron cloud increases. This increases the
strength of Van der Waals forces between the atoms. Therefore, the boiling temperature
increases as more energy is required to overcome the forces.

BOILING TEMPERATURES OF THE HYDROGEN HALIDES

• In group IV hydrides, the boiling point increases as the electron cloud of the molecule
increases and relative molecular
mass increases. So, the strength of
the Van der Waals force increases.
• The anomalously high boiling points
of H2O, NH3 and HF are caused by the
hydrogen bonding between these
molecules in addition to their London
forces. The additional forces require
more energy to break and so have
higher boiling points

Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 7- Intermolecular forces/2021/semester 2 Page 11 of 17

Centre for Higher Secondary Education Department of Chemistry

• After the drop to PH3, H2S and HCl, there is

a steady upward trend in boiling
temperatures from PH3 to SbH3, H2S to
H2Te and HCl to HI.
• This is because despite the decrease in
permanent dipole-dipole forces between
the molecules there is an increase in the
instantaneous dipole- induced dipole
forces due to the increase in size of the
atoms.

ANOMALOUS PROPERTIES OF WATER

Water has some anomalous properties.

1. It has a relatively high melting and boiling temperature for a molecule with so few
electrons.
2. The density of ice at 0◦C is less than that of water at 0◦C.

MELTING AND BOILING TEMPERATURES

• The hydrogen bonds between water molecules are relatively strong.

• Water therefore, has a abnormally higher melting temperature ( 0◦C, 273K) and boiling
temperature (100◦C, 373 K) at 100kPa pressure.

Table showing strength of hydrogen bonding in water, ammonia and hydrogen fluoride

Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 7- Intermolecular forces/2021/semester 2 Page 12 of 17

Centre for Higher Secondary Education Department of Chemistry

Hydrogen bond strength for HF is greater than hydrogen bond strength for H2O, but its
boiling temperature is lower. Why?
This is because:
1. HF forms two hydrogen bonds per molecule whereas water can form up to four
hydrogen bonds per molecule. So hydrogen bonding in water is much more extensive.
2. Not all the hydrogen bonds in HF are broken on vapourization, since HF is substantially
polymerized even in gas phase.

Ammonia has the lowest boiling temperature of the three compounds.

• The amount of hydrogen bonding in ammonia is limited as each nitrogen atom has only
one lone pair of electrons. This means on average an ammonia molecule can form one
hydrogen bond using the lone pair on nitrogen and form one hydrogen bond involving
one of its δ+ hydrogen atoms.

DENSITY OF ICE

The molecules in ice are arranged in rings of six, held together by hydrogen bonds as shown
in the figure below.

Figure showing hydrogen bonding in ice and liquid water.

• In ice there are large area of open space inside the rings. When ice melts the ring
structure is destroyed and the average distance between molecules decreases,
causing an increase in density.

Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 7- Intermolecular forces/2021/semester 2 Page 13 of 17

Centre for Higher Secondary Education Department of Chemistry

CHOOSING SUITABLE SOLVENTS

For a substance to dissolve ;

1. The solute particles must be separated from each other and then become surrounded by
solvent particle
2. The force of attraction between solute and solvent particles must be strong enough to
over the solvent – solvent forces and solute – solute forces.

SOLUBILITY - DISSOLVING IONIC SOLIDS

Ionic compounds:
• Positive and negative ions are held in lattice structure by strong electrostatic force of
attraction.
• Energy is required to breakdown the lattice. This is called Lattice energy.
• Water molecules are polar, so hydrogen atoms have δ+ charge and oxygen atoms have δ-
charge.
• Attractive forces between these molecules and ions in the lattice break up the lattice to
form individual ions. These ions spread
throughout the water.
• Water molecules arrange themselves so that
positive ions are close to negative oxygen and
negative ions are close to positive hydrogens.
• This process is known as hydration and energy
released during this is known as hydration
enthalpy.
• If hydration enthalpy is more than or equal to
lattice enthalpy, the compound will dissolve in
water. If the hydration enthalpy is less than
Figure showing the process of dissolving
lattice enthalpy, the compound will not
sodium chloride
dissolve in water as the energy is insufficient to
break up the lattice.

Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 7- Intermolecular forces/2021/semester 2 Page 14 of 17

Centre for Higher Secondary Education Department of Chemistry

COMPOUNDS THAT CAN FORM HYDROGEN BONDS WITH WATER

Alcohols:
• Alcohols with relatively short carbon
chains dissolve in water.
• This is because alcohols can form
hydrogen bonds with water which is
stronger than the London forces
between the carbon chains of alcohols.
• The solubility in water gradually
Figure showing hydrogen bonding between water and
decreases with increasing carbon chain ethanol

length.
• This is because the non-polar group of the alcohols becomes bigger which results in an
increase in the strength of London forces between carbon chains of alcohol groups.
• More than one –OH group in the molecule increases solubility since more hydrogen
bonds can be formed between alcohol and water.
• Carboxylic acids dissolve in a similar way to alcohols.
Non-polar
Non-polar

Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 7- Intermolecular forces/2021/semester 2 Page 15 of 17

Centre for Higher Secondary Education Department of Chemistry

COMPOUNDS THAT CANNOT FORM HYDROGEN BONDS WITH WATER

• Do not dissolve in water.

• Forces between non-polar molecules are much weaker than hydrogen bonds in water.
• The attraction between the alkane molecules and water molecules is not sufficiently strong
to disrupt the hydrogen bond between water molecules.
• Therefore, they remain as a separate layer.
• Many polar compounds also have limited solubility in water. Compounds like
halogenoalkanes cannot disrupt the water structure even though the carbon-halogen bond
is polar. This is because the bulk of the molecule (hydrocarbon chain) is not polar.
• Ethoxyethane (CH3CH2OCH2CH3) is polar and is almost totally immiscible with water. The
force of attraction between ethoxyethane and water molecules are not large enough to
replace the relatively strong hydrogen bonding between water molecules.

Figure shows water and oil forming two immiscible layers

NON – AQUEOUS SOLVENTS

• Two non-polar liquids will mix completely. Example: hexane and octane
• Both liquids contain weak London forces that extend throughout the structure when they
are mixed.
Figure shows hexane dissolving in octane

Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 7- Intermolecular forces/2021/semester 2 Page 16 of 17

Centre for Higher Secondary Education Department of Chemistry

In general like dissolves like:

Non-polar solutes dissolve in non-polar solvents

Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents such as water (H2O) or

ethanol (C2H5OH)

Ionic solutes such as sodium chloride (NaCl) generally dissolve in

polar solvents but not in non-polar solvents.

Checkpoint question page 179 Chemistry Student Book 1

Write the answers in a separate answer sheet.

Grade 11/Unit 2/Topic 7- Intermolecular forces/2021/semester 2 Page 17 of 17