Research

Research is "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock

of knowledge".[1] It involves the collection, organization and analysis of
evidence to increase understanding of a topic, characterized by a particular
attentiveness to controlling sources of bias and error. These activities are
characterized by accounting and controlling for biases. A research project
may be an expansion of past work in the field. To test the validity of
instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of
prior projects or the project as a whole.

The primary purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied research) are
documentation, discovery, interpretation, and the research and development
(R&D) of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge.
Approaches to research depend on epistemologies, which vary considerably
both within and between humanities and sciences. There are several forms
of research: scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business,
marketing, practitioner research, life, technological, etc. The scientific study
of research practices is known as meta-research.

A researcher is a person engaged in conducting research, possibly

recognized as an occupation by a formal job title. In order to be a social
researcher or a social scientist, one should have enormous knowledge of
subjects related to social science that they are specialized in. Similarly, in Basrelief sculpture
order to be a natural science researcher, the person should have knowledge "Research holding the torch
of fields related to natural science (physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, of knowledge" (1896) by
zoology and so on). Olin Levi Warner. Library of
Congress, Thomas
Etymology Jefferson Building, in
Washington, D.C.

The word research is derived from the Middle French "recherche", which
means "to go about seeking", the term itself being derived from the Old
French term "recerchier" a compound word from "re-" + "cerchier", or
"sercher", meaning 'search'.[3] The earliest recorded use of the term was in
1577.[3]

Definitions
Research has been defined in a number of different ways, and while there are
similarities, there does not appear to be a single, all-encompassing definition
that is embraced by all who engage in it.
Aristotle, (384–322 BC),
Research in simplest terms is searching for knowledge and searching for truth.
one of the early figures
In a formal sense, it is a systematic study of a problem attacked by a
in the development of
deliberately chosen strategy which starts with choosing an approach to
the scientific method[2]
preparing a blueprint (design) and acting upon it in terms of designing research hypotheses, choosing
methods and techniques, selecting or developing data collection tools, processing the data, interpretation
and ends with presenting solution/s of the problem.[4]

Another definition of research is given by John W. Creswell, who states that "research is a process of steps
used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue". It consists of
three steps: pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the question.[5]

The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines research more generally to also include studying already
existing knowledge: "studious inquiry or examination; especially: investigation or experimentation aimed at
the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or
practical application of such new or revised theories or laws"[3]

Forms of research

Original research

Original research, also called primary research, is research that is not exclusively based on a summary,
review, or synthesis of earlier publications on the subject of research. This material is of a primary-source
character. The purpose of the original research is to produce new knowledge, rather than to present the
existing knowledge in a new form (e.g., summarized or classified).[6][7] Original research can be in various
forms, depending on the discipline it pertains to. In experimental work, it typically involves direct or
indirect observation of the researched subject(s), e.g., in the laboratory or in the field, documents the
methodology, results, and conclusions of an experiment or set of experiments, or offers a novel
interpretation of previous results. In analytical work, there are typically some new (for example)
mathematical results produced, or a new way of approaching an existing problem. In some subjects which
do not typically carry out experimentation or analysis of this kind, the originality is in the particular way
existing understanding is changed or re-interpreted based on the outcome of the work of the researcher.[8]

The degree of originality of the research is among major criteria for articles to be published in academic
journals and usually established by means of peer review.[9] Graduate students are commonly required to
perform original research as part of a dissertation.[10]

Scientific research

Scientific research is a systematic way of gathering data and

harnessing curiosity. This research provides scientific information
and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of
the world. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific
research is funded by public authorities, by charitable organizations
and by private groups, including many companies. Scientific
research can be subdivided into different classifications according to
their academic and application disciplines. Scientific research is a
Primary scientific research being
widely used criterion for judging the standing of an academic carried out at the Microscopy
institution, but some argue that such is an inaccurate assessment of Laboratory of the Idaho National
the institution, because the quality of research does not tell about the Laboratory
quality of teaching (these do not necessarily correlate).[11]
Generally, research is understood to follow a certain structural
process. Though step order may vary depending on the subject
matter and researcher, the following steps are usually part of most
formal research, both basic and applied:

1. Observations and formation of the topic: Consists of the

subject area of one's interest and following that subject
area to conduct subject-related research. The subject
area should not be randomly chosen since it requires
reading a vast amount of literature on the topic to
determine the gap in the literature the researcher intends
to narrow. A keen interest in the chosen subject area is
advisable. The research will have to be justified by
linking its importance to already existing knowledge
about the topic.
2. Hypothesis: A testable prediction which designates the Scientific research equipment at MIT
relationship between two or more variables.
3. Conceptual definition: Description of a concept by
relating it to other concepts.
4. Operational definition: Details in regards to defining the
variables and how they will be measured/assessed in
the study.
5. Gathering of data: Consists of identifying a population
and selecting samples, gathering information from or
about these samples by using specific research German maritime research vessel
instruments. The instruments used for data collection Sonne
must be valid and reliable.
6. Analysis of data: Involves breaking down the individual
pieces of data to draw conclusions about it.
7. Data Interpretation: This can be represented through tables, figures, and pictures, and then
described in words.
8. Test, revising of hypothesis
9. Conclusion, reiteration if necessary

A common misconception is that a hypothesis will be proven (see, rather, null hypothesis). Generally, a
hypothesis is used to make predictions that can be tested by observing the outcome of an experiment. If the
outcome is inconsistent with the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is rejected (see falsifiability). However, if
the outcome is consistent with the hypothesis, the experiment is said to support the hypothesis. This careful
language is used because researchers recognize that alternative hypotheses may also be consistent with the
observations. In this sense, a hypothesis can never be proven, but rather only supported by surviving
rounds of scientific testing and, eventually, becoming widely thought of as true.

A useful hypothesis allows prediction and within the accuracy of observation of the time, the prediction will
be verified. As the accuracy of observation improves with time, the hypothesis may no longer provide an
accurate prediction. In this case, a new hypothesis will arise to challenge the old, and to the extent that the
new hypothesis makes more accurate predictions than the old, the new will supplant it. Researchers can
also use a null hypothesis, which states no relationship or difference between the independent or dependent
variables.

Research in the humanities

Research in the humanities involves different methods such as for example hermeneutics and semiotics.
Humanities scholars usually do not search for the ultimate correct answer to a question, but instead, explore
the issues and details that surround it. Context is always important, and context can be social, historical,
political, cultural, or ethnic. An example of research in the humanities is historical research, which is
embodied in historical method. Historians use primary sources and other evidence to systematically
investigate a topic, and then to write histories in the form of accounts of the past. Other studies aim to
merely examine the occurrence of behaviours in societies and communities, without particularly looking for
reasons or motivations to explain these. These studies may be qualitative or quantitative, and can use a
variety of approaches, such as queer theory or feminist theory.[12]

Artistic research

Artistic research, also seen as 'practice-based research', can take form when creative works are considered
both the research and the object of research itself. It is the debatable body of thought which offers an
alternative to purely scientific methods in research in its search for knowledge and truth.

The controversial trend of artistic teaching becoming more academics-oriented is leading to artistic research
being accepted as the primary mode of enquiry in art as in the case of other disciplines.[13] One of the
characteristics of artistic research is that it must accept subjectivity as opposed to the classical scientific
methods. As such, it is similar to the social sciences in using qualitative research and intersubjectivity as
tools to apply measurement and critical analysis.[14]

Artistic research has been defined by the School of Dance and Circus (Dans och Cirkushögskolan,
DOCH), Stockholm in the following manner – "Artistic research is to investigate and test with the purpose
of gaining knowledge within and for our artistic disciplines. It is based on artistic practices, methods, and
criticality. Through presented documentation, the insights gained shall be placed in a context." [15] Artistic
research aims to enhance knowledge and understanding with presentation of the arts.[16] A simpler
understanding by Julian Klein defines artistic research as any kind of research employing the artistic mode
of perception.[17] For a survey of the central problematics of today's artistic research, see Giaco
Schiesser.[18]

According to artist Hakan Topal, in artistic research, "perhaps more so than other disciplines, intuition is
utilized as a method to identify a wide range of new and unexpected productive modalities".[19] Most
writers, whether of fiction or non-fiction books, also have to do research to support their creative work.
This may be factual, historical, or background research. Background research could include, for example,
geographical or procedural research.[20]

The Society for Artistic Research (SAR) publishes the triannual Journal for Artistic Research (JAR),[21][22]
an international, online, open access, and peer-reviewed journal for the identification, publication, and
dissemination of artistic research and its methodologies, from all arts disciplines and it runs the Research
Catalogue (RC),[23][24][25] a searchable, documentary database of artistic research, to which anyone can
contribute.

Patricia Leavy addresses eight arts-based research (ABR) genres: narrative inquiry, fiction-based research,
poetry, music, dance, theatre, film, and visual art.[26]
In 2016, the European League of Institutes of the Arts launched The Florence Principles' on the Doctorate
in the Arts.[27] The Florence Principles relating to the Salzburg Principles and the Salzburg
Recommendations of the European University Association name seven points of attention to specify the
Doctorate / PhD in the Arts compared to a scientific doctorate / PhD. The Florence Principles have been
endorsed and are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS and SAR.

Historical research

The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which

historians use historical sources and other evidence to research and then to
write history. There are various history guidelines that are commonly used
by historians in their work, under the headings of external criticism,
internal criticism, and synthesis. This includes lower criticism and sensual
criticism. Though items may vary depending on the subject matter and
researcher, the following concepts are part of most formal historical
research:[28]

Identification of origin date

Evidence of localization
Recognition of authorship
Analysis of data German historian Leopold von
Identification of integrity Ranke (1795–1886),
Attribution of credibility considered to be one of the
founders of modern source-
based history
Documentary research

Steps in conducting research

Research is often conducted using the hourglass model structure of
research.[29] The hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for
research, focusing in on the required information through the
method of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands
the research in the form of discussion and results. The major steps
in conducting research are:[30]

Identification of research problem

Literature review
Research design and evidence
Specifying the purpose of research
Determining specific research questions
Specification of a conceptual framework, sometimes including a set of hypotheses[31]
Choice of a methodology (for data collection)
Data collection
Verifying data
Analyzing and interpreting the data
Reporting and evaluating research
Communicating the research findings and, possibly, recommendations
The steps generally represent the overall process; however, they
should be viewed as an ever-changing iterative process rather than a
fixed set of steps.[32] Most research begins with a general statement
of the problem, or rather, the purpose for engaging in the study.[33]
The literature review identifies flaws or holes in previous research
which provides justification for the study. Often, a literature review
is conducted in a given subject area before a research question is
identified. A gap in the current literature, as identified by a
researcher, then engenders a research question. The research
question may be parallel to the hypothesis. The hypothesis is the
supposition to be tested. The researcher(s) collects data to test the
hypothesis. The researcher(s) then analyzes and interprets the data
via a variety of statistical methods, engaging in what is known as Research cycle
empirical research. The results of the data analysis in rejecting or
failing to reject the null hypothesis are then reported and evaluated.
At the end, the researcher may discuss avenues for further research. However, some researchers advocate
for the reverse approach: starting with articulating findings and discussion of them, moving "up" to
identification of a research problem that emerges in the findings and literature review. The reverse approach
is justified by the transactional nature of the research endeavor where research inquiry, research questions,
research method, relevant research literature, and so on are not fully known until the findings have fully
emerged and been interpreted.

Rudolph Rummel says, "... no researcher should accept any one or two tests as definitive. It is only when a
range of tests are consistent over many kinds of data, researchers, and methods can one have confidence in
the results."[34]

Plato in Meno talks about an inherent difficulty, if not a paradox, of doing research that can be paraphrased
in the following way, "If you know what you're searching for, why do you search for it?! [i.e., you have
already found it] If you don't know what you're searching for, what are you searching for?!"[35]

Research methods
The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge or
deepen understanding of a topic or issue. This process takes three
main forms (although, as previously discussed, the boundaries
between them may be obscure):

Exploratory research, which helps to identify and define The research room at the New York
a problem or question. Public Library, an example of
Constructive research, which tests theories and secondary research in progress
proposes solutions to a problem or question.
Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a
solution using empirical evidence.

There are two major types of empirical research design: qualitative research and quantitative research.
Researchers choose qualitative or quantitative methods according to the nature of the research topic they
want to investigate and the research questions they aim to answer:

Qualitative research
Qualitative research refers to much more subjective non- quantitative, use different
methods of collecting data, analyzing data, interpreting data for meanings,
definitions, characteristics, symbols metaphors of things.Qualitative research further
classified into following types: Ethnography: This research mainly focus on
culture of group of people which includes share attributes, language, practices,
structure, value, norms and material things, evaluate human lifestyle. Ethno: people,
Grapho: to write, this disciple may include ethnic groups, ethno genesis,
composition, resettlement and social welfare characteristics. Phenomenology: It is
very powerful strategy for demonstrating methodology to health professions
education as well as best suited for exploring challenging problems in health
professions educations.[37] Maurice Hilleman,
the preeminent
Quantitative research vaccinologist of the
This involves systematic empirical investigation of quantitative 20th century, is
properties and phenomena and their relationships, by asking a credited with
narrow question and collecting numerical data to analyze it utilizing saving more lives
statistical methods. The quantitative research designs are than any other
experimental, correlational, and survey (or descriptive).[38] Statistics scientist in that
derived from quantitative research can be used to establish the time.[36]
existence of associative or causal relationships between variables.
Quantitative research is linked with the philosophical and theoretical
stance of positivism.

The quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured data collection
instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. These methods produce
results that can be summarized, compared, and generalized to larger populations if the data are collected
using proper sampling and data collection strategies.[39] Quantitative research is concerned with testing
hypotheses derived from theory or being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest.[39]

If the research question is about people, participants may be randomly assigned to different treatments (this
is the only way that a quantitative study can be considered a true experiment). If this is not feasible, the
researcher may collect data on participant and situational characteristics to statistically control for their
influence on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is to generalize from the research participants
to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants.[40]

In either qualitative or quantitative research, the researcher(s) may collect primary or secondary data.[39]
Primary data is data collected specifically for the research, such as through interviews or questionnaires.
Secondary data is data that already exists, such as census data, which can be re-used for the research. It is
good ethical research practice to use secondary data wherever possible.[41]

Mixed-method research, i.e. research that includes qualitative and quantitative elements, using both primary
and secondary data, is becoming more common.[42] This method has benefits that using one method alone
cannot offer. For example, a researcher may choose to conduct a qualitative study and follow it up with a
quantitative study to gain additional insights.[43]

Big data has brought big impacts on research methods so that now many researchers do not put much effort
into data collection; furthermore, methods to analyze easily available huge amounts of data have also been
developed. Types of Research Method 1. Observatory Research Method 2. Correlation Research Method
[44]

Non-empirical research
Non-empirical (theoretical) research is an approach that involves the development of theory as opposed to
using observation and experimentation. As such, non-empirical research seeks solutions to problems using
existing knowledge as its source. This, however, does not mean that new ideas and innovations cannot be
found within the pool of existing and established knowledge. Non-empirical research is not an absolute
alternative to empirical research because they may be used together to strengthen a research approach.
Neither one is less effective than the other since they have their particular purpose in science. Typically
empirical research produces observations that need to be explained; then theoretical research tries to explain
them, and in so doing generates empirically testable hypotheses; these hypotheses are then tested
empirically, giving more observations that may need further explanation; and so on. See Scientific method.

A simple example of a non-empirical task is the prototyping of a new drug using a differentiated application
of existing knowledge; another is the development of a business process in the form of a flow chart and
texts where all the ingredients are from established knowledge. Much of cosmological research is
theoretical in nature. Mathematics research does not rely on externally available data; rather, it seeks to
prove theorems about mathematical objects.

Research ethics
Research ethics is concerned with the moral issues that arise during or as a result of research activities, as
well as the conduct of individual researchers, and the implications for research communities.[45] Ethical
issues may arise in the design and implementation of research involving human experimentation or animal
experimentation. There may also be consequences for the environment, for society or for future generations
that need to be considered. Research ethics can be considered as a subfield of applied ethics.

Historically, scandals such as Nazi human experimentation and the Tuskegee syphilis experiment led to the
realisation that clear measures are needed for the ethical governance of research to ensure that people,
animals and environments are not unduly harmed by scientific inquiry. While there are no universally
accepted approach on management of research ethics across countries,[46][47][48] there is a significant body
of declarations and treaties and best practices developed. Tipically, research ethics committees (named as
institutional review board in the US) have emerged as one governance mechanism to ensure research is
conducted responsibly.

Research ethics affect all fields of knowledge that involve human and animal experimentation, from
medical research to social sciences. Research ethics is most developed as a concept in medical research,
with typically cited codes being the 1947 Nuremberg Code, the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki, and the 1978
Belmont Report. Informed consent is a key concept in research ethics thanks to these codes. Research in
other fields such as social sciences, information technology, biotechnology, or engineering may generate
different types of ethical concerns to those in medical research.[46][47][49][50][51][52]

Research ethics is commonly distinguished from the promotion of academic or research integrity, which
includes issues such as scientific misconduct (e.g. fraud, fabrication of data or plagiarism). Because of the
close interaction with integrity, increasingly research ethics is included as part of the broader field of
responsible conduct of research (RCR in North America) or Responsible Research and Innovation in
Europe, and with government agencies such as the United States Office of Research Integrity or the
Canadian Interagency Advisory Panel on Responsible Conduct of Research promoting or requiring
interdisciplinary training for researchers.

Problems in research

Meta-research

Meta-research is the study of research through the use of research methods. Also known as "research on
research", it aims to reduce waste and increase the quality of research in all fields. Meta-research concerns
itself with the detection of bias, methodological flaws, and other errors and inefficiencies. Among the
finding of meta-research is a low rates of reproducibility across a large number of fields. This widespread
difficulty in reproducing research has been termed the "replication crisis."[53]

Methods of research

In many disciplines, Western methods of conducting research are predominant.[54] Researchers are
overwhelmingly taught Western methods of data collection and study. The increasing participation of
indigenous peoples as researchers has brought increased attention to the scientific lacuna in culturally
sensitive methods of data collection.[55] Western methods of data collection may not be the most accurate or
relevant for research on non-Western societies. For example, "Hua Oranga" was created as a criterion for
psychological evaluation in Māori populations, and is based on dimensions of mental health important to
the Māori people – "taha wairua (the spiritual dimension), taha hinengaro (the mental dimension), taha
tinana (the physical dimension), and taha whanau (the family dimension)".[56]

Bias

Research is often biased in the languages that are preferred (linguicism) and the geographic locations where
research occurs. Periphery scholars face the challenges of exclusion and linguicism in research and
academic publication. As the great majority of mainstream academic journals are written in English,
multilingual periphery scholars often must translate their work to be accepted to elite Western-dominated
journals.[57] Multilingual scholars' influences from their native communicative styles can be assumed to be
incompetence instead of difference.[58]

For comparative politics, Western countries are over-represented in single-country studies, with heavy
emphasis on Western Europe, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Since 2000, Latin American countries
have become more popular in single-country studies. In contrast, countries in Oceania and the Caribbean
are the focus of very few studies. Patterns of geographic bias also show a relationship with linguicism:
countries whose official languages are French or Arabic are far less likely to be the focus of single-country
studies than countries with different official languages. Within Africa, English-speaking countries are more
represented than other countries.[59]

Generalizability

Generalization is the process of more broadly applying the valid results of one study.[60] Studies with a
narrow scope can result in a lack of generalizability, meaning that the results may not be applicable to other
populations or regions. In comparative politics, this can result from using a single-country study, rather than
a study design that uses data from multiple countries. Despite the issue of generalizability, single-country
studies have risen in prevalence since the late 2000s.[59]

Publication peer review

Peer review is a form of self-regulation by qualified members of a profession within the relevant field. Peer
review methods are employed to maintain standards of quality, improve performance, and provide
credibility. In academia, scholarly peer review is often used to determine an academic paper's suitability for
publication. Usually, the peer review process involves experts in the same field who are consulted by
editors to give a review of the scholarly works produced by a colleague of theirs from an unbiased and
impartial point of view, and this is usually done free of charge. The tradition of peer reviews being done for
free has however brought many pitfalls which are also indicative of why most peer reviewers decline many
invitations to review.[61] It was observed that publications from periphery countries rarely rise to the same
elite status as those of North America and Europe, because limitations on the availability of resources
including high-quality paper and sophisticated image-rendering software and printing tools render these
publications less able to satisfy standards currently carrying formal or informal authority in the publishing
industry.[58] These limitations in turn result in the under-representation of scholars from periphery nations
among the set of publications holding prestige status relative to the quantity and quality of those scholars'
research efforts, and this under-representation in turn results in disproportionately reduced acceptance of the
results of their efforts as contributions to the body of knowledge available worldwide.

Influence of the open-access movement

The open access movement assumes that all information generally deemed useful should be free and
belongs to a "public domain", that of "humanity".[62] This idea gained prevalence as a result of Western
colonial history and ignores alternative conceptions of knowledge circulation. For instance, most
indigenous communities consider that access to certain information proper to the group should be
determined by relationships.[62]

There is alleged to be a double standard in the Western knowledge system. On the one hand, "digital right
management" used to restrict access to personal information on social networking platforms is celebrated as
a protection of privacy, while simultaneously when similar functions are used by cultural groups (i.e.
indigenous communities) this is denounced as "access control" and reprehended as censorship.[62]

Future perspectives

Even though Western dominance seems to be prominent in research, some scholars, such as Simon
Marginson, argue for "the need [for] a plural university world".[63] Marginson argues that the East Asian
Confucian model could take over the Western model.

This could be due to changes in funding for research both in the East and the West. Focused on
emphasizing educational achievement, East Asian cultures, mainly in China and South Korea, have
encouraged the increase of funding for research expansion.[63] In contrast, in the Western academic world,
notably in the United Kingdom as well as in some state governments in the United States, funding cuts for
university research have occurred, which some say may lead to the future decline of Western dominance in
research.

Neo-colonial approaches

Neo-colonial research or neo-colonial science,[64][65] frequently described as helicopter research,[64]

parachute science[66][67] or research,[68] parasitic research,[69][70] or safari study,[71] is when researchers
from wealthier countries go to a developing country, collect information, travel back to their country,
analyze the data and samples, and publish the results with no or little involvement of local researchers. A
2003 study by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences found that 70% of articles in a random sample of
publications about least-developed countries did not include a local research co-author.[65]

Frequently, during this kind of research, the local colleagues might be used to provide logistics support as
fixers but are not engaged for their expertise or given credit for their participation in the research. Scientific
publications resulting from parachute science frequently only contribute to the career of the scientists from
rich countries, thus limiting the development of local science capacity (such as funded research centers) and
the careers of local scientists.[64] This form of "colonial" science has reverberations of 19th century
scientific practices of treating non-Western participants as "others" in order to advance colonialism—and
critics call for the end of these extractivist practices in order to decolonize knowledge.[72][73]

This kind of research approach reduces the quality of research because international researchers may not
ask the right questions or draw connections to local issues.[74] The result of this approach is that local
communities are unable to leverage the research to their own advantage.[67] Ultimately, especially for fields
dealing with global issues like conservation biology which rely on local communities to implement
solutions, neo-colonial science prevents institutionalization of the findings in local communities in order to
address issues being studied by scientists.[67][72]

Professionalisation
In several national and private academic systems, the professionalisation of research has resulted in formal
job titles.

In Russia

In present-day Russia, and some other countries of the former Soviet Union, the term researcher (Russian:
Научный сотрудник, nauchny sotrudnik) has been used both as a generic term for a person who has been
carrying out scientific research, and as a job position within the frameworks of the Academy of Sciences,
universities, and in other research-oriented establishments.

The following ranks are known:

Junior Researcher (Junior Research Associate)

Researcher (Research Associate)
Senior Researcher (Senior Research Associate)
Leading Researcher (Leading Research Associate)[75]
 Chief Researcher (Chief Research Associate)

Publishing
Academic publishing is a system that is necessary for academic
scholars to peer review the work and make it available for a wider
audience. The system varies widely by field and is also always
changing, if often slowly. Most academic work is published in
journal article or book form. There is also a large body of research
that exists in either a thesis or dissertation form. These forms of
research can be found in databases explicitly for theses and
dissertations. In publishing, STM publishing is an abbreviation for
academic publications in science, technology, and medicine. Most
established academic fields have their own scientific journals and
other outlets for publication, though many academic journals are
somewhat interdisciplinary, and publish work from several distinct
fields or subfields. The kinds of publications that are accepted as
contributions of knowledge or research vary greatly between fields,
from the print to the electronic format. A study suggests that
researchers should not give great consideration to findings that are
not replicated frequently.[76] It has also been suggested that all
published studies should be subjected to some measure for Cover of the first issue of Nature, 4
assessing the validity or reliability of its procedures to prevent the November 1869
publication of unproven findings. [77] Business models are different
in the electronic environment. Since about the early 1990s,
licensing of electronic resources, particularly journals, has been very common. Presently, a major trend,
particularly with respect to scholarly journals, is open access.[78] There are two main forms of open access:
open access publishing, in which the articles or the whole journal is freely available from the time of
publication, and self-archiving, where the author makes a copy of their own work freely available on the
web.

Research statistics and funding

Most funding for scientific research comes from three major sources: corporate research and development
departments; private foundations; and government research councils such as the National Institutes of
Health in the US[79] and the Medical Research Council in the UK. These are managed primarily through
universities and in some cases through military contractors. Many senior researchers (such as group leaders)
spend a significant amount of their time applying for grants for research funds. These grants are necessary
not only for researchers to carry out their research but also as a source of merit. The Social Psychology
Network provides a comprehensive list of U.S. Government and private foundation funding sources.

The total number of researchers (full-time equivalents) per million inhabitants for individual countries is
shown in the following table.
 Country researchers (full-time equivalents) per million inhabitants 2018[80]
Algeria 819

Argentina 1192

Austria 5733

Belgium 5023

Bulgaria 2343

Canada 4326

Chile 493

China 1307

Costa Rica 380

Croatia 1921
Cyprus 1256

Czechia 3863

Denmark 8066

Egypt 687

Estonia 3755

Finland 6861

France 4715

Georgia 1464

Germany 5212

Greece 3483

Hungary 3238

Iceland 6131

India 253

Indonesia 216

Iran 1475

Ireland 5243

Israel 2307

Italy 2307

Japan 5331

Jordan 596

Kazakhstan 667

Kuwait 514

Latvia 1792

Lithuania 3191
Luxembourg 4942

Malaysia 2397

Malta 1947

Mauritius 474

Mexico 315

Moldova 696

Montenegro 734

Morocco 1074

Netherlands 5605

New Zealand 5530

North Macedonia 799

Norway 6467

Pakistan 336

Poland 3106

Portugal 4538

Romania 882

Russia 2784

Serbia 2087

Singapore 6803

Slovakia 2996

Slovenia 4855
South Africa 518

South Korea 7980

Spain 3001

Sweden 7536

Switzerland 5450

Thailand 1350

Tunisia 1772

Turkey 1379

Ukraine 988

United Arab Emirates 2379

United Kingdom 4603

United States of America 4412

Uruguay 696

Vietnam 708
Research expenditure by type of research as a share of GDP for individual countries is shown in the
following table.
 Research expenditure as a share of GDP by type of research (%), 2018[81]
Country
Basic Applied Development

Algeria 0.01 0.27 0.02

Argentina 0.14 0.27 0.12

Austria 0.54 1.00 1.46

Belgium 0.30 1.24 1.16

Bulgaria 0.08 0.47 0.20

Chile 0.10 0.14 0.08

China 0.12 0.24 1.82

Costa Rica 0.10 0.07 0.02

Croatia 0.33 0.28 0.25

Cyprus 0.08 0.30 0.18

Czechia 0.50 0.77 0.66

Denmark 0.56 0.95 1.54

Estonia 0.35 0.28 0.66

France 0.50 0.92 0.78

Greece 0.35 0.37 0.41

Hungary 0.26 0.30 0.78

Iceland 0.43 0.95 0.66

India 0.10 0.15 0.13

Ireland 0.22 0.42 0.55

Italy 0.31 0.58 0.49

Israel 0.52 0.51 3.93

Japan 0.41 0.62 2.10

Kazakhstan 0.02 0.07 0.03

Kuwait 0.00 0.06 0.00

Latvia 0.16 0.22 0.13

Lithuania 0.24 0.38 0.28

Luxembourg 0.48 0.49 0.33

Malaysia 0.42 0.81 0.21

Malta 0.30 0.19 0.09

Mauritius 0.03 0.12 0.02

Mexico 0.10 0.09 0.12

Montenegro 0.10 0.21 0.04

Netherlands 0.52 0.87 0.60

 New Zealand 0.34 0.55 0.48

North Macedonia 0.09 0.23 0.05

Norway 0.38 0.79 0.93

Poland 0.30 0.18 0.55

Portugal 0.29 0.51 0.53

Romania 0.10 0.31 0.09

Russia 0.15 0.21 0.65

Serbia 0.29 0.34 0.29

Singapore 0.46 0.61 0.87

Slovakia 0.33 0.20 0.30

Slovenia 0.33 0.82 0.71

South Africa 0.22 0.44 0.17

South Korea 0.68 1.06 3.07

Spain 0.26 0.50 0.45

Switzerland 1.41 1.09 0.88

Thailand 0.10 0.27 0.64

Ukraine 0.11 0.10 0.27

United Kingdom 0.30 0.74 0.64

United States of America 0.47 0.56 1.80

Vietnam 0.07 0.30 0.04

See also
Advertising research
European Charter for Researchers
Funding bias
Internet research
Laboratory
List of countries by research and development spending
List of words ending in ology
Market research
Marketing research
Open research
Operations research
Participatory action research
Psychological research methods
Research integrity
Research-intensive cluster
Research organization
Research proposal
 Research university
Scholarly research
Secondary research
Social research
Society for Artistic Research
Timeline of the history of the scientific method
Undergraduate research

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Further reading
Groh, Arnold (2018). Research Methods in Indigenous Contexts. New York: Springer.
ISBN 978-3-319-72774-5.
Cohen, N.; Arieli, T. (2011). "Field research in conflict environments: Methodological
challenges and snowball sampling". Journal of Peace Research. 48 (4): 423–436.
doi:10.1177/0022343311405698 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022343311405698).
S2CID 145328311 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145328311).
Soeters, Joseph; Shields, Patricia and Rietjens, Sebastiaan. 2014. Handbook of Research
Methods in Military Studies (https://books.google.com/books?id=ENDpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT
23) New York: Routledge.
Talja, Sanna and Pamela J. Mckenzie (2007). Editor's Introduction: Special Issue on
Discursive Approaches to Information Seeking in Context, The University of Chicago Press.

External links
The dictionary definition of research at Wiktionary
Quotations related to Research at Wikiquote
Media related to Research at Wikimedia Commons

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