Research

Research is "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge".[1] It
involves the collection, organization, and analysis of evidence to increase understanding of a topic,
characterized by a particular attentiveness to controlling sources of bias and error. These activities are
characterized by accounting and controlling for biases. A research project may be an expansion of past
work in the field. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may
replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole.

The primary purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied research) are documentation,
discovery, interpretation, and the research and development (R&D) of methods and systems for the
advancement of human knowledge. Approaches to research depend on epistemologies, which vary
considerably both within and between humanities and sciences. There are several forms of research:
scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, marketing, practitioner research, life,
technological, etc. The scientific study of research practices is known as meta-research.

A researcher is a person engaged in conducting research, possibly recognized as an occupation by a

formal job title. In order to be a social researcher or a social scientist, one should have enormous
knowledge of subjects related to social science that they are specialized in. Similarly, in order to be a
natural science researcher, the person should have knowledge of fields related to natural science
(physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, zoology and so on). Professional associations provide one
pathway to mature in the research profession.[2]

Etymology
The word research is derived from the Middle French "recherche", which
means "to go about seeking", the term itself being derived from the Old
French term "recerchier," a compound word from "re-" + "cerchier", or
"sercher", meaning 'search'.[4] The earliest recorded use of the term was in
1577.[4]

Definitions
Research has been defined in a number of different ways, and while there
are similarities, there does not appear to be a single, all-encompassing
definition that is embraced by all who engage in it. Aristotle, (384–322 BC),
one of the early figures
Research, in its simplest terms, is searching for knowledge and searching for in the development of
truth. In a formal sense, it is a systematic study of a problem attacked by a the scientific method[3]
deliberately chosen strategy, which starts with choosing an approach to
preparing a blueprint (design) and acting upon it in terms of designing
research hypotheses, choosing methods and techniques, selecting or developing data collection tools,
processing the data, interpretation, and ending with presenting solution(s) of the problem.[5]
Another definition of research is given by John W. Creswell, who states that "research is a process of
steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue". It
consists of three steps: pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to
the question.[6]

The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines research more generally to also include studying
already existing knowledge: "studious inquiry or examination; especially: investigation or
experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or
laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws"[4]

Forms of research

Original research
Original research, also called primary research, is research that is not exclusively based on a
summary, review, or synthesis of earlier publications on the subject of research. This material is of a
primary-source character. The purpose of the original research is to produce new knowledge rather
than present the existing knowledge in a new form (e.g., summarized or classified).[7][8] Original
research can take various forms, depending on the discipline it pertains to. In experimental work, it
typically involves direct or indirect observation of the researched subject(s), e.g., in the laboratory or
in the field, documents the methodology, results, and conclusions of an experiment or set of
experiments, or offers a novel interpretation of previous results. In analytical work, there are typically
some new (for example) mathematical results produced or a new way of approaching an existing
problem. In some subjects which do not typically carry out experimentation or analysis of this kind,
the originality is in the particular way existing understanding is changed or re-interpreted based on
the outcome of the work of the researcher.[9]

The degree of originality of the research is among the major criteria for articles to be published in
academic journals and usually established by means of peer review.[10] Graduate students are
commonly required to perform original research as part of a dissertation.[11]

Scientific research
Scientific research is a systematic way of gathering data and
harnessing curiosity. This research provides scientific information
and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties
of the world. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific
research is funded by public authorities, by charitable
organizations, and by private groups, including many companies.
Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications
according to their academic and application disciplines. Primary scientific research being
carried out at the Microscopy
Generally, research is understood to follow a certain structural Laboratory of the Idaho National
process. Though the order may vary depending on the subject Laboratory
matter and researcher, the following steps are usually part of most
formal research, both basic and applied:
 1. Observations and formation of the topic: Consists of the
subject area of one's interest and following that subject area to
conduct subject-related research. The subject area should not
be randomly chosen since it requires reading a vast amount of
literature on the topic to determine the gap in the literature the
researcher intends to narrow. A keen interest in the chosen
subject area is advisable. The research will have to be justified
by linking its importance to already existing knowledge about
the topic.
2. Hypothesis: A testable prediction which designates the
relationship between two or more variables.
3. Conceptual definition: Description of a concept by relating it to
other concepts.
4. Operational definition: Details in regards to defining the
variables and how they will be measured/assessed in the
Scientific research equipment at
study.
MIT
5. Gathering of data: Consists of identifying a population and
selecting samples, gathering information from or about these
samples by using specific research instruments. The
instruments used for data collection must be valid and reliable.
6. Analysis of data: Involves breaking down the individual pieces
of data to draw conclusions about it.
7. Data Interpretation: This can be represented through tables,
figures, and pictures, and then described in words.
8. Test, revising of hypothesis
9. Conclusion, reiteration if necessary German maritime research vessel
Sonne
A common misconception is that a hypothesis will be proven (see,
rather, null hypothesis). Generally, a hypothesis is used to make
predictions that can be tested by observing the outcome of an experiment. If the outcome is
inconsistent with the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is rejected (see falsifiability). However, if the
outcome is consistent with the hypothesis, the experiment is said to support the hypothesis. This
careful language is used because researchers recognize that alternative hypotheses may also be
consistent with the observations. In this sense, a hypothesis can never be proven, but rather only
supported by surviving rounds of scientific testing and, eventually, becoming widely thought of as
true.

A useful hypothesis allows prediction and within the accuracy of observation of the time, the
prediction will be verified. As the accuracy of observation improves with time, the hypothesis may no
longer provide an accurate prediction. In this case, a new hypothesis will arise to challenge the old,
and to the extent that the new hypothesis makes more accurate predictions than the old, the new will
supplant it. Researchers can also use a null hypothesis, which states no relationship or difference
between the independent or dependent variables.

Research in the humanities

Research in the humanities involves different methods such as for example hermeneutics and
semiotics. Humanities scholars usually do not search for the ultimate correct answer to a question,
but instead, explore the issues and details that surround it. Context is always important, and context
can be social, historical, political, cultural, or ethnic. An example of research in the humanities is
historical research, which is embodied in historical method. Historians use primary sources and other
evidence to systematically investigate a topic, and then to write histories in the form of accounts of the
past. Other studies aim to merely examine the occurrence of behaviours in societies and communities,
without particularly looking for reasons or motivations to explain these. These studies may be
qualitative or quantitative, and can use a variety of approaches, such as queer theory or feminist
theory.[12]

Artistic research
Artistic research, also seen as 'practice-based research', can take form when creative works are
considered both the research and the object of research itself. It is the debatable body of thought
which offers an alternative to purely scientific methods in research in its search for knowledge and
truth.

The controversial trend of artistic teaching becoming more academics-oriented is leading to artistic
research being accepted as the primary mode of enquiry in art as in the case of other disciplines.[13]
One of the characteristics of artistic research is that it must accept subjectivity as opposed to the
classical scientific methods. As such, it is similar to the social sciences in using qualitative research
and intersubjectivity as tools to apply measurement and critical analysis.[14]

Artistic research has been defined by the School of Dance and Circus (Dans och Cirkushögskolan,
DOCH), Stockholm in the following manner – "Artistic research is to investigate and test with the
purpose of gaining knowledge within and for our artistic disciplines. It is based on artistic practices,
methods, and criticality. Through presented documentation, the insights gained shall be placed in a
context."[15] Artistic research aims to enhance knowledge and understanding with presentation of the
arts.[16] A simpler understanding by Julian Klein defines artistic research as any kind of research
employing the artistic mode of perception.[17] For a survey of the central problematics of today's
artistic research, see Giaco Schiesser.[18]

According to artist Hakan Topal, in artistic research, "perhaps more so than other disciplines,
intuition is utilized as a method to identify a wide range of new and unexpected productive
modalities".[19] Most writers, whether of fiction or non-fiction books, also have to do research to
support their creative work. This may be factual, historical, or background research. Background
research could include, for example, geographical or procedural research.[20]

The Society for Artistic Research (SAR) publishes the triannual Journal for Artistic Research
(JAR),[21][22] an international, online, open access, and peer-reviewed journal for the identification,
publication, and dissemination of artistic research and its methodologies, from all arts disciplines and
it runs the Research Catalogue (RC),[23][24][25] a searchable, documentary database of artistic
research, to which anyone can contribute.

Patricia Leavy addresses eight arts-based research (ABR) genres: narrative inquiry, fiction-based
research, poetry, music, dance, theatre, film, and visual art.[26]
In 2016, the European League of Institutes of the Arts launched The Florence Principles' on the
Doctorate in the Arts.[27] The Florence Principles relating to the Salzburg Principles and the Salzburg
Recommendations of the European University Association name seven points of attention to specify
the Doctorate / PhD in the Arts compared to a scientific doctorate / PhD. The Florence Principles
have been endorsed and are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS and SAR.

Historical research
The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by
which historians use historical sources and other evidence to research
and then to write history. There are various history guidelines that are
commonly used by historians in their work, under the headings of
external criticism, internal criticism, and synthesis. This includes lower
criticism and sensual criticism. Though items may vary depending on
the subject matter and researcher, the following concepts are part of
most formal historical research:[28]

Identification of origin date

Evidence of localization
Recognition of authorship
Analysis of data German historian Leopold
Identification of integrity von Ranke (1795–1886),
Attribution of credibility considered to be one of the
founders of modern source-
based history
Documentary research

Steps in conducting research

Research is often conducted using the hourglass model structure
of research.[29] The hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum
for research, focusing in on the required information through the
method of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then
expands the research in the form of discussion and results. The
major steps in conducting research are:[30]

Identification of research problem

Literature review
Research design and evidence
Specifying the purpose of research
Determining specific research questions
Specification of a conceptual framework, sometimes including a set of hypotheses[31]
Choice of a methodology (for data collection)
Data collection
Verifying data
Analyzing and interpreting the data
Reporting and evaluating research
 Communicating the research findings and, possibly,
recommendations
The steps generally represent the overall process; however, they
should be viewed as an ever-changing iterative process rather than
a fixed set of steps.[32] Most research begins with a general
statement of the problem, or rather, the purpose for engaging in
the study.[33] The literature review identifies flaws or holes in
previous research which provides justification for the study. Often,
a literature review is conducted in a given subject area before a
research question is identified. A gap in the current literature, as
identified by a researcher, then engenders a research question.
The research question may be parallel to the hypothesis. The Research cycle
hypothesis is the supposition to be tested. The researcher(s)
collects data to test the hypothesis. The researcher(s) then
analyzes and interprets the data via a variety of statistical methods, engaging in what is known as
empirical research. The results of the data analysis in rejecting or failing to reject the null hypothesis
are then reported and evaluated. At the end, the researcher may discuss avenues for further research.
However, some researchers advocate for the reverse approach: starting with articulating findings and
discussion of them, moving "up" to identification of a research problem that emerges in the findings
and literature review. The reverse approach is justified by the transactional nature of the research
endeavor where research inquiry, research questions, research method, relevant research literature,
and so on are not fully known until the findings have fully emerged and been interpreted.

Rudolph Rummel says, "... no researcher should accept any one or two tests as definitive. It is only
when a range of tests are consistent over many kinds of data, researchers, and methods can one have
confidence in the results."[34]

Plato in Meno talks about an inherent difficulty, if not a paradox, of doing research that can be
paraphrased in the following way, "If you know what you're searching for, why do you search for it?!
[i.e., you have already found it] If you don't know what you're searching for, what are you searching
for?!"[35]

Research methods
The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge or
deepen understanding of a topic or issue. This process takes three
main forms (although, as previously discussed, the boundaries
between them may be obscure):

Exploratory research, which helps to identify and define a The research room at the New York
problem or question.
Public Library, an example of
Constructive research, which tests theories and proposes secondary research in progress
solutions to a problem or question.
Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution
using empirical evidence.
There are two major types of empirical research design: qualitative research and
quantitative research. Researchers choose qualitative or quantitative methods
according to the nature of the research topic they want to investigate and the
research questions they aim to answer:

Qualitative research

Qualitative research refers to much more subjective non- quantitative, use

different methods of collecting data, analyzing data, interpreting data for
meanings, definitions, characteristics, symbols metaphors of things. Qualitative
research further classified into following types: Ethnography: This research Maurice Hilleman,
mainly focus on culture of group of people which includes share attributes, the preeminent
vaccinologist of the
language, practices, structure, value, norms and material things, evaluate human
20th century, is
lifestyle. Ethno: people, Grapho: to write, this disciple may include ethnic
credited with
groups, ethno genesis, composition, resettlement and social welfare saving more lives
characteristics. Phenomenology: It is very powerful strategy for than any other
demonstrating methodology to health professions education as well as best scientist in that
suited for exploring challenging problems in health professions educations. [37] time.[36]
In addition, PMP researcher Mandy Sha argued that a project management
approach is necessary to control the scope, schedule, and cost related to
qualitative research design, participant recruitment, data collection, reporting, as well as stakeholder
engagement.[38][39]

Quantitative research
This involves systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and
their relationships, by asking a narrow question and collecting numerical data to analyze it
utilizing statistical methods. The quantitative research designs are experimental, correlational,
and survey (or descriptive).[40] Statistics derived from quantitative research can be used to
establish the existence of associative or causal relationships between variables. Quantitative
research is linked with the philosophical and theoretical stance of positivism.

The quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured data collection
instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. These methods
produce results that can be summarized, compared, and generalized to larger populations if the data
are collected using proper sampling and data collection strategies.[41] Quantitative research is
concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory or being able to estimate the size of a
phenomenon of interest.[41]

If the research question is about people, participants may be randomly assigned to different
treatments (this is the only way that a quantitative study can be considered a true experiment). If this
is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational characteristics to
statistically control for their influence on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is to
generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ
probability sampling to select participants.[42]

In either qualitative or quantitative research, the researcher(s) may collect primary or secondary
data.[41] Primary data is data collected specifically for the research, such as through interviews or
questionnaires. Secondary data is data that already exists, such as census data, which can be re-used
for the research. It is good ethical research practice to use secondary data wherever possible.[43]

Mixed-method research, i.e. research that includes qualitative and quantitative elements, using both
primary and secondary data, is becoming more common.[44] This method has benefits that using one
method alone cannot offer. For example, a researcher may choose to conduct a qualitative study and
follow it up with a quantitative study to gain additional insights.[45]

Big data has brought big impacts on research methods so that now many researchers do not put much
effort into data collection; furthermore, methods to analyze easily available huge amounts of data
have also been developed. Types of Research Method 1. Observatory Research Method 2. Correlation
Research Method [46]

Non-empirical research

Non-empirical (theoretical) research is an approach that involves the development of theory as

opposed to using observation and experimentation. As such, non-empirical research seeks solutions
to problems using existing knowledge as its source. This, however, does not mean that new ideas and
innovations cannot be found within the pool of existing and established knowledge. Non-empirical
research is not an absolute alternative to empirical research because they may be used together to
strengthen a research approach. Neither one is less effective than the other since they have their
particular purpose in science. Typically empirical research produces observations that need to be
explained; then theoretical research tries to explain them, and in so doing generates empirically
testable hypotheses; these hypotheses are then tested empirically, giving more observations that may
need further explanation; and so on. See Scientific method.

A simple example of a non-empirical task is the prototyping of a new drug using a differentiated
application of existing knowledge; another is the development of a business process in the form of a
flow chart and texts where all the ingredients are from established knowledge. Much of cosmological
research is theoretical in nature. Mathematics research does not rely on externally available data;
rather, it seeks to prove theorems about mathematical objects.

Research ethics
Research ethics is a discipline within the study of applied ethics. Its scope ranges from general
scientific integrity and misconduct to the treatment of human and animal subjects. The societal
responsibilities science and reseach has are not traditionally included and less well defined.

The discipline is most developed in medical research. Beyond the issues of falsification, fabrication
and plagiarism that arise in every scientific field, research design in human subject research and
animal testing are the areas that raise ethical questions themselves most often.

The list of historic cases includes many large scale violations and crimes against humanity such as
Nazi human experimentation and the Tuskegee syphilis experiment which lead to international codes
of research ethics. No approach has been universally accepted, but typically cited codes are the 1947
Nuremberg Code, the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki, and the 1978 Belmont Report.

Today, research ethics committees, such as those of the US, UK and EU, govern and oversee the
responsible conduct of research.
Research in other fields such as social sciences, information technology, biotechnology, or engineering
may generate ethical concerns.

Problems in research

Meta-research
Meta-research is the study of research through the use of research methods. Also known as "research
on research", it aims to reduce waste and increase the quality of research in all fields. Meta-research
concerns itself with the detection of bias, methodological flaws, and other errors and inefficiencies.
Among the finding of meta-research is a low rates of reproducibility across a large number of fields.
This widespread difficulty in reproducing research has been termed the "replication crisis."[47]

Methods of research
In many disciplines, Western methods of conducting research are predominant.[48] Researchers are
overwhelmingly taught Western methods of data collection and study. The increasing participation of
indigenous peoples as researchers has brought increased attention to the scientific lacuna in culturally
sensitive methods of data collection.[49] Western methods of data collection may not be the most
accurate or relevant for research on non-Western societies. For example, "Hua Oranga" was created as
a criterion for psychological evaluation in Māori populations, and is based on dimensions of mental
health important to the Māori people – "taha wairua (the spiritual dimension), taha hinengaro (the
mental dimension), taha tinana (the physical dimension), and taha whanau (the family
dimension)".[50]

Bias
Research is often biased in the languages that are preferred (linguicism) and the geographic locations
where research occurs. Periphery scholars face the challenges of exclusion and linguicism in research
and academic publication. As the great majority of mainstream academic journals are written in
English, multilingual periphery scholars often must translate their work to be accepted to elite
Western-dominated journals.[51] Multilingual scholars' influences from their native communicative
styles can be assumed to be incompetence instead of difference.[52]

For comparative politics, Western countries are over-represented in single-country studies, with
heavy emphasis on Western Europe, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Since 2000, Latin
American countries have become more popular in single-country studies. In contrast, countries in
Oceania and the Caribbean are the focus of very few studies. Patterns of geographic bias also show a
relationship with linguicism: countries whose official languages are French or Arabic are far less likely
to be the focus of single-country studies than countries with different official languages. Within Africa,
English-speaking countries are more represented than other countries.[53]

Generalizability
Generalization is the process of more broadly applying the valid results of one study.[54] Studies with a
narrow scope can result in a lack of generalizability, meaning that the results may not be applicable to
other populations or regions. In comparative politics, this can result from using a single-country
study, rather than a study design that uses data from multiple countries. Despite the issue of
generalizability, single-country studies have risen in prevalence since the late 2000s.[53]

Publication peer review

Peer review is a form of self-regulation by qualified members of a profession within the relevant field.
Peer review methods are employed to maintain standards of quality, improve performance, and
provide credibility. In academia, scholarly peer review is often used to determine an academic paper's
suitability for publication. Usually, the peer review process involves experts in the same field who are
consulted by editors to give a review of the scholarly works produced by a colleague of theirs from an
unbiased and impartial point of view, and this is usually done free of charge. The tradition of peer
reviews being done for free has however brought many pitfalls which are also indicative of why most
peer reviewers decline many invitations to review.[55] It was observed that publications from
periphery countries rarely rise to the same elite status as those of North America and Europe, because
limitations on the availability of resources including high-quality paper and sophisticated image-
rendering software and printing tools render these publications less able to satisfy standards currently
carrying formal or informal authority in the publishing industry.[52] These limitations in turn result in
the under-representation of scholars from periphery nations among the set of publications holding
prestige status relative to the quantity and quality of those scholars' research efforts, and this under-
representation in turn results in disproportionately reduced acceptance of the results of their efforts
as contributions to the body of knowledge available worldwide.

Influence of the open-access movement

The open access movement assumes that all information generally deemed useful should be free and
belongs to a "public domain", that of "humanity".[56] This idea gained prevalence as a result of
Western colonial history and ignores alternative conceptions of knowledge circulation. For instance,
most indigenous communities consider that access to certain information proper to the group should
be determined by relationships.[56]

There is alleged to be a double standard in the Western knowledge system. On the one hand, "digital
right management" used to restrict access to personal information on social networking platforms is
celebrated as a protection of privacy, while simultaneously when similar functions are used by cultural
groups (i.e. indigenous communities) this is denounced as "access control" and reprehended as
censorship.[56]

Future perspectives
Even though Western dominance seems to be prominent in research, some scholars, such as Simon
Marginson, argue for "the need [for] a plural university world".[57] Marginson argues that the East
Asian Confucian model could take over the Western model.
This could be due to changes in funding for research both in the East and the West. Focused on
emphasizing educational achievement, East Asian cultures, mainly in China and South Korea, have
encouraged the increase of funding for research expansion.[57] In contrast, in the Western academic
world, notably in the United Kingdom as well as in some state governments in the United States,
funding cuts for university research have occurred, which some say may lead to the future decline of
Western dominance in research.

Neo-colonial approaches
Neo-colonial research or neo-colonial science,[58][59] frequently described as helicopter research,[58]
parachute science[60][61] or research,[62] parasitic research,[63][64] or safari study,[65] is when
researchers from wealthier countries go to a developing country, collect information, travel back to
their country, analyze the data and samples, and publish the results with no or little involvement of
local researchers. A 2003 study by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences found that 70% of articles in a
random sample of publications about least-developed countries did not include a local research co-
author.[59]

Frequently, during this kind of research, the local colleagues might be used to provide logistics
support as fixers but are not engaged for their expertise or given credit for their participation in the
research. Scientific publications resulting from parachute science frequently only contribute to the
career of the scientists from rich countries, thus limiting the development of local science capacity
(such as funded research centers) and the careers of local scientists.[58] This form of "colonial" science
has reverberations of 19th century scientific practices of treating non-Western participants as "others"
in order to advance colonialism—and critics call for the end of these extractivist practices in order to
decolonize knowledge.[66][67]

This kind of research approach reduces the quality of research because international researchers may
not ask the right questions or draw connections to local issues.[68] The result of this approach is that
local communities are unable to leverage the research to their own advantage.[61] Ultimately,
especially for fields dealing with global issues like conservation biology which rely on local
communities to implement solutions, neo-colonial science prevents institutionalization of the findings
in local communities in order to address issues being studied by scientists.[61][66]

Professionalisation
In several national and private academic systems, the professionalisation of research has resulted in
formal job titles.

In Russia
In present-day Russia, and some other countries of the former Soviet Union, the term researcher
(Russian: Научный сотрудник, nauchny sotrudnik) has been used both as a generic term for a
person who has been carrying out scientific research, and as a job position within the frameworks of
the Academy of Sciences, universities, and in other research-oriented establishments.

The following ranks are known:

 Junior Researcher (Junior Research Associate)
Researcher (Research Associate)
Senior Researcher (Senior Research Associate)
Leading Researcher (Leading Research Associate)[69]
Chief Researcher (Chief Research Associate)

Publishing
Academic publishing is a system that is necessary for academic
scholars to peer review the work and make it available for a wider
audience. The system varies widely by field and is also always
changing, if often slowly. Most academic work is published in
journal article or book form. There is also a large body of research
that exists in either a thesis or dissertation form. These forms of
research can be found in databases explicitly for theses and
dissertations. In publishing, STM publishing is an abbreviation for
academic publications in science, technology, and medicine. Most
established academic fields have their own scientific journals and
other outlets for publication, though many academic journals are
somewhat interdisciplinary, and publish work from several
distinct fields or subfields. The kinds of publications that are
accepted as contributions of knowledge or research vary greatly
between fields, from the print to the electronic format. A study
suggests that researchers should not give great consideration to
Cover of the first issue of Nature, 4
findings that are not replicated frequently.[70] It has also been
November 1869
suggested that all published studies should be subjected to some
measure for assessing the validity or reliability of its procedures to
prevent the publication of unproven findings.[71] Business models are different in the electronic
environment. Since about the early 1990s, licensing of electronic resources, particularly journals, has
been very common. Presently, a major trend, particularly with respect to scholarly journals, is open
access.[72] There are two main forms of open access: open access publishing, in which the articles or
the whole journal is freely available from the time of publication, and self-archiving, where the author
makes a copy of their own work freely available on the web.

Research statistics and funding

Most funding for scientific research comes from three major sources: corporate research and
development departments; private foundations; and government research councils such as the
National Institutes of Health in the US[73] and the Medical Research Council in the UK. These are
managed primarily through universities and in some cases through military contractors. Many senior
researchers (such as group leaders) spend a significant amount of their time applying for grants for
research funds. These grants are necessary not only for researchers to carry out their research but also
as a source of merit. The Social Psychology Network provides a comprehensive list of U.S.
Government and private foundation funding sources.
The total number of researchers (full-time equivalents) per million inhabitants for individual
countries is shown in the following table.
 Country researchers (full-time equivalents) per million inhabitants 2018[74] [show]
Algeria 819

Argentina 1192

Austria 5733

Belgium 5023

Bulgaria 2343

Canada 4326

Chile 493

China 1307

Costa Rica 380

Croatia 1921

Cyprus 1256

Czechia 3863

Denmark 8066

Egypt 687

Estonia 3755

Finland 6861

France 4715

Georgia 1464

Germany 5212

Greece 3483

Hungary 3238

Iceland 6131

India 253

Indonesia 216

Iran 1475
Ireland 5243

Israel 2307

Italy 2307

Japan 5331

Jordan 596

Kazakhstan 667
Kuwait 514

Latvia 1792

Lithuania 3191
 Country researchers (full-time equivalents) per million inhabitants 2018[74]
Luxembourg 4942

Malaysia 2397
Malta 1947

Mauritius 474

Mexico 315
Moldova 696

Montenegro 734

Morocco 1074

Netherlands 5605

New Zealand 5530

North Macedonia 799

Norway 6467

Pakistan 336

Poland 3106

Portugal 4538

Romania 882

Russia 2784

Serbia 2087

Singapore 6803

Slovakia 2996

Slovenia 4855

South Africa 518

South Korea 7980

Spain 3001

Sweden 7536

Switzerland 5450

Thailand 1350

Tunisia 1772

Turkey 1379

Ukraine 988

United Arab Emirates 2379

United Kingdom 4603

United States of America 4412

Uruguay 696
 Country researchers (full-time equivalents) per million inhabitants 2018[74]
Vietnam 708

Research expenditure by type of research as a share of GDP for individual countries is shown in the
following table.
 Research expenditure as a share of GDP by type of research (%), 2018[75] [show]
Country
Basic Applied Development

Algeria 0.01 0.27 0.02

Argentina 0.14 0.27 0.12

Austria 0.54 1.00 1.46

Belgium 0.30 1.24 1.16

Bulgaria 0.08 0.47 0.20

Chile 0.10 0.14 0.08

China 0.12 0.24 1.82

Costa Rica 0.10 0.07 0.02

Croatia 0.33 0.28 0.25

Cyprus 0.08 0.30 0.18

Czechia 0.50 0.77 0.66

Denmark 0.56 0.95 1.54

Estonia 0.35 0.28 0.66

France 0.50 0.92 0.78

Greece 0.35 0.37 0.41

Hungary 0.26 0.30 0.78

Iceland 0.43 0.95 0.66

India 0.10 0.15 0.13

Ireland 0.22 0.42 0.55

Italy 0.31 0.58 0.49

Israel 0.52 0.51 3.93

Japan 0.41 0.62 2.10

Kazakhstan 0.02 0.07 0.03

Kuwait 0.00 0.06 0.00

Latvia 0.16 0.22 0.13

Lithuania 0.24 0.38 0.28

Luxembourg 0.48 0.49 0.33

Malaysia 0.42 0.81 0.21

Malta 0.30 0.19 0.09

Mauritius 0.03 0.12 0.02

Mexico 0.10 0.09 0.12

Montenegro 0.10 0.21 0.04

Netherlands 0.52 0.87 0.60

 Research expenditure as a share of GDP by type of research (%), 2018[75]
Country
Basic Applied Development

New Zealand 0.34 0.55 0.48

North Macedonia 0.09 0.23 0.05

Norway 0.38 0.79 0.93

Poland 0.30 0.18 0.55

Portugal 0.29 0.51 0.53

Romania 0.10 0.31 0.09

Russia 0.15 0.21 0.65

Serbia 0.29 0.34 0.29

Singapore 0.46 0.61 0.87

Slovakia 0.33 0.20 0.30

Slovenia 0.33 0.82 0.71

South Africa 0.22 0.44 0.17

South Korea 0.68 1.06 3.07

Spain 0.26 0.50 0.45

Switzerland 1.41 1.09 0.88

Thailand 0.10 0.27 0.64

Ukraine 0.11 0.10 0.27

United Kingdom 0.30 0.74 0.64

United States of America 0.47 0.56 1.80

Vietnam 0.07 0.30 0.04

See also
Advertising research
European Charter for Researchers
Funding bias
Internet research
Laboratory
List of countries by research and development spending
List of words ending in ology
Market research
Marketing research
Open research
Operations research
Participatory action research
Psychological research methods
Research integrity
 Research-intensive cluster
Research organization
Research proposal
Research university
Scholarly research
Secondary research
Social research
Society for Artistic Research
Timeline of the history of the scientific method
Undergraduate research

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71. J. Scott Armstrong & Peer Soelberg (1968). "On the Interpretation of Factor Analysis" (https://web.
archive.org/web/20100621000352/http://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/documents/research/On%
20the%20interpretation%20of%20factor%20analysis.pdf) (PDF). Psychological Bulletin. 70 (5):
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72. J. Scott Armstrong & Robert Fildes (2006). "Monetary Incentives in Mail Surveys" (https://web.arch
ive.org/web/20100620211539/http://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/ideas/pdf/Armstrong/MakingPro
gressinForecasting.pdf) (PDF). International Journal of Forecasting. 22 (3): 433–441.
doi:10.1016/j.ijforecast.2006.04.007 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijforecast.2006.04.007).
S2CID 154398140 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154398140). Archived from the
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74. Research input and output worldwide, various years since 2014, Statistical Annex, by country,
Table C2: Total researchers and researchers per million inhabitants, 2015 and 2018 (https://www.u
nesco.org/reports/science/2021/en/statistics,)
75. Research input and output worldwide, various years since 2014, Statistical Annex, by country,
Table B1: Research expenditure as a share of GDP and in purchasing power parity dollars
(PPP$), 2015–2018, year 2018 (https://www.unesco.org/reports/science/2021/en/statistics,)

Further reading
 Groh, Arnold (2018). Research Methods in Indigenous Contexts. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-3-
319-72774-5.
Cohen, N.; Arieli, T. (2011). "Field research in conflict environments: Methodological challenges
and snowball sampling". Journal of Peace Research. 48 (4): 423–436.
doi:10.1177/0022343311405698 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022343311405698).
S2CID 145328311 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145328311).
Soeters, Joseph; Shields, Patricia and Rietjens, Sebastiaan. 2014. Handbook of Research
Methods in Military Studies (https://books.google.com/books?id=ENDpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT23)
New York: Routledge.
Talja, Sanna and Pamela J. Mckenzie (2007). Editor's Introduction: Special Issue on Discursive
Approaches to Information Seeking in Context, The University of Chicago Press.

External links
The dictionary definition of research at Wiktionary
Quotations related to Research at Wikiquote
Media related to Research at Wikimedia Commons

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