Methodology and Organization

of Scientific Research
LECTURE 1
 Introduction to the course.
 Course syllabus and course
policies.
 Science. The scientific method.
 Research: overview.
 Types of research and research
approaches.
Course goals:

 to introduce participants to the

fundamentals of scientific research in
general;
 to elucidate research methodology as
applied to Linguistics/Education: general
research strategy, basic research principles,
that outline the way in which research is to
be undertaken, and determine the use of
research methods;
Course goals:
 to focus on 1) methods common to all
scientific enquiries, 2) methods of data
gathering in Linguistics/Education, 3)
specific methods of data analysis;

 to get acquainted with 1) the general

scheme of scientific research, 2)
organization and planning of scientific
research, 3) rules for writing and
defending the research paper, 3)
specificity of conducting research in
Linguistics/Education.
Learning outcomes:

This course prepares students for scientific

investigation and for writing a research paper.

Students should know how to:

 collect, analyze and interpret original data;

 devise appropriate research questions and the

empirical methodologies with which to best address
these questions;

 present, both orally and in writing, empirically-based

findings in a logical, coherent and theoretically
compelling fashion.
The major area of our interest
lies in developing practical skills in
organizing, conducting, and
presenting scientific research in
the sphere of foreign
philology/education, thus
improving quality of research work.
Course syllabus and course policies

Course syllabus comprises 5

lectures and 5 seminars which cover
all the above mentioned problems:
1) preliminaries to scientific research;
2) writing and defending the research
paper;
3) theory and practice of scientific
research;
4) methods of data gathering and data
analysis in scientific research.
 This is a work-intensive course.
 Since the best way to learn research
methods is to actually practice them, you will
complete regular practical assignments
which are aimed at observation, description,
analysis, characterization and generalization
of scientific facts.
 You will also read and learn the
theoretical material concerning
fundamentals of scientific research in the
sphere of foreign philology/education.
 Active participation in all class discussions is
both expected and encouraged.
Course Policies
 Attendance and participation are mandatory.
 All written practical assignments must be
turned in on the due date during the seminar.
 Dissertation prospectus is due by the date of
Seminar 5 and presented at this Seminar.
Failure with a dissertation prospectus will be
penalized by lowering of the grade by 10
points.
 Individual projects are due by the date of
Seminar 5. Failure with an individual project
will be penalized by lowering of the grade by
10 points.
Assessment
Grading model:

 Current assessment – 40 %: 1) oral reports and

practical assignments – 10 % (average); 2) tests – 10
% (average); 3) dissertation prospectus – 10 %; 4)
individual projects – 10 %.

 Dissertation prospectus: each student will submit

a 1000 word prospectus (both in Ukrainian and in
English) which clearly lays out their proposed
dissertation topicality, purpose and tasks, object,
subject, materials, methods of analysis, novelty,
theoretical value, practical (applied) value,
approbation).
 Individual project (Philology) – Directions in
Modern Linguistic Research (each student will
be given a separate sub-field of Linguistics to
report on its 1) research field; 2) branches; 3)
problems; 4) object/objects; 5) methods of
analysis; 6) critical overview of a PhD thesis
performed within the given sub-field).
 Individual project (Education) – critical
overview of a PhD thesis performed within the
field of Education (research field; problems; the
object; methods of analysis; experiment(s) used;
results; conclusion).
 Final assessment – 60 %: final test – 30 %;
examination – 30 %.
Science. The scientific method.
 Science, any system of knowledge
that is concerned with the physical
world and its phenomena and that
entails unbiased observations and
systematic experimentation. In
general, a science involves a pursuit
of knowledge covering general
truths or the operations of
fundamental laws (Encyclopaedia
Britannica).
 The word "science" is derived from the
Latin word scientia, which is knowledge
based on demonstrable and reproducible
data, according to the
Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
 Science aims for measurable results
through testing and analysis. Science is
based on fact, not opinion or preferences.
The process of science is designed to
challenge ideas through research.
The scientific method
 When conducting research,
scientists use the scientific method
to collect measurable, empirical
evidence in an experiment related
to a hypothesis (often in the form of
an if/then statement), the results
aiming to support or contradict a
theory.
The steps of the scientific method
 Make an observation or observations.
 Ask questions about the observations and gather
information.
 Form a hypothesis — a tentative description of
what’s been observed, and make predictions
based on that hypothesis.
 Test the hypothesis and predictions in an
experiment that can be reproduced.
 Analyze the data and draw conclusions; accept or
reject the hypothesis or modify the hypothesis if
necessary.
 Reproduce the experiment until there are no
discrepancies between observations and theory.
Some key underpinnings to the
scientific method:
 The hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable.
Falsifiable means that there must be a possible
negative answer to the hypothesis.
 Research must involve deductive and inductive
reasoning. Deductive reasoning is the process of
using true premises to reach a logical true
conclusion while inductive reasoning takes the
opposite approach.
 An experiment should include a dependent
variable (which does not change) and an
independent variable (which does change).
 An experiment should include an experimental
group and a control group. The control group is
what the experimental group is compared against.
Research: overview
 Research (from the French rechercher “to search
closely”) is a human activity based on intellectual
investigation and aimed at discovering,
interpreting, and revising human knowledge on
different aspects of the world.
 The Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current
English lays down the meaning of research as “a
careful investigation or inquiry specially through
search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.”
 Scientific research is defined quite broadly as
“diligent and systematic enquiry or investigation
into a subject in order to discover new facts or to
collect information on a subject” (Random House
Webster’s College Dictionary).
Scientific research comprises:

 defining and redefining problems, formulating

hypothesis or suggested solutions;
 collecting, organising and evaluating data;
 making deductions and reaching conclusions;
 carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
Scientific research as an enquiry can be called
systematic if:
1) it has an explicit rationale,
2) it has a theoretical basis,
3) it is carried out with a deliberately chosen
methodology.
Objectives of research
 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to
achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or
formulative research studies);
 To portray accurately the characteristics of a
particular individual, situation or a group (studies
with this object in view are known as descriptive
research studies);
 To determine the frequency with which something
occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this object in view
are known as diagnostic research studies);
 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship
between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).
Motivation of research
 Desire to get a research degree along
with its consequential benefits;
 Desire to face the challenge in solving
the unsolved problems, i.e., concern
over practical problems initiates
research;
 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing
some creative work;
 Desire to be of service to society;
 Desire to get respectability.
Types of research
Descriptive vs. Analytical
 Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-
finding enquiries of different kinds. The major
purpose of descriptive research is description of
the state of affairs as it exists at present. The
main characteristic of this method is that the
researcher has no control over the variables; he
can only report what has happened or what is
happening.
 In analytical research, on the other hand, the
researcher has to use facts or information already
available, and analyze these to make a critical
evaluation of the material.
Applied vs. Fundamental

 Applied research aims at finding a solution for

an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organisation, whereas
fundamental research is mainly concerned with
generalisations and with the formulation of a
theory. Thus, the central aim of applied research
is to discover a solution for some pressing
practical problem.
 Fundamental/Basic research is directed
towards finding information that has a broad base
of applications and thus, adds to the already
existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative

 This distinction is somewhat simplistic as the

relationship is best thought of as a continuum of
research types.
 Quantitative research is based on the
measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable
to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of
quantity.
 Qualitative research, on the other hand, is
concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind.
 There are many parameters that can be used to
distinguish these research types, including the type
of data (quantitative or qualitative), the method of
analysis (interpretative or statistical), and the manner
of data collection (experimental or non-experimental)
Conceptual vs. Empirical

 Conceptual research is that related to

some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is
generally used by philosophers and thinkers
to develop new concepts or to reinterpret
existing ones.
 Empirical research relies on experience
or observation alone, often without due
regard for system and theory. It is data-
based research, coming up with conclusions
which are capable of being verified by
observation or experiment. We can also call
it as experimental type of research.
Some Other Types of Research:

 From the point of view of time, we can think of research

either as one-time research or longitudinal research. In the
former case the research is confined to a single time-period,
whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several
time-periods.
 Research can be field-setting research or laboratory
research or simulation research, depending upon the
environment in which it is to be carried out.
 The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized.
The objective of exploratory research is the development of
hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized
research studies are those with substantial structure and with
specific hypotheses to be tested.
 Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and
decision-oriented. While doing conclusion- oriented
research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the
enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he
wishes. Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a
decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free to
embark upon research according to his own inclination.
Research Approaches
3 types of quantitative approach
 The purpose of inferential approach to research is to form
a data base from which to infer characteristics or
relationships of population. This usually means survey
research where a sample of population is studied (questioned
or observed) to determine its characteristics, and it is then
inferred that the population has the same characteristics.

 Experimental approach is characterised by much greater

control over the research environment and in this case some
variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other
variables.

 Simulation approach involves the construction of an

artificial environment within which relevant information and
data can be generated. This permits an observation of the
dynamic behaviour of a system (or its sub-system) under
controlled conditions.
 Qualitative approach to research is
concerned with subjective assessment
of attitudes, opinions and behaviour.
Research in such a situation is a
function of researcher’s insights and
impressions. Such an approach to
research generates results either in
non-quantitative form or in the form
which are not subjected to rigorous
quantitative analysis.