S P A T I U M , International Review,

No. 15-16, December 2007., Belgrade ISSN 1450-569X

SCOPE AND AIMS

The review is concerned with a multi-disciplinary approach to regional and urban planning and
architecture, as well as with different aspects of land use, including housing, environment, etc. It
attempts to contribute to better theoretical understanding of a new spatial development processes
and to improve the practice in the field.

EDITORIAL BOARD
Prof. Borislav Stojkov, PhD (Belgrade)
Prof. Predrag Cagić (Belgrade)
Prof. Darko Marušić (Belgrade)
Prof. Milica Bajić-Brković, PhD (Belgrade)
Prof. Branislav Đorđević, PhD (Belgrade)
Mihailo Čanak, PhD (Belgrade)
Nada Milašin, PhD (Belgrade)
Miodrag Vujošević, PhD (Belgrade)
Marija Nikolić, PhD (Belgrade)
Mila Pucar, PhD (Belgrade)
Slavka Zeković, PhD (Belgrade)
Branko Bojović, Arch. (Belgrade)
Igor Marić, PhD (Belgrade)
Ines Maričić, Arch. (Belgrade)
EDITORS
Prof. Dobrivoje Tošković, PhD (Belgrade)
Prof. Dušan Joksić, PhD (Belgrade)
Nada Milašin, PhD (Belgrade)
Marija Nikolić, PhD (Belgrade)
Mila Pucar, PhD (Belgrade)
Miodrag Vujošević, PhD (Belgrade)
Slavka Zeković, PhD (Belgrade )
Tijana Crnčević, MSc (Belgrade)
Acad. Vladimir Nikolaevič Belousov (Moscow)
Kaliopa Dimitrovska-Andrews, PhD (Ljubljana)
Vlatko Korobar, PhD (Skopje)
Prof. Juhani Pallasmaa (Helsinki)
EDITOR IN CHIEF
Nada Milašin, PhD
SECRETARY
Ines Maričić, Arch.
LECTOR
Snežana Lekić
COMPUTER DESIGN
Jelena Živanović
COVER PAGE DESIGN
Ines Maričić, Arch.
COVER PHOTOGRAPH
Ines Maričić, Arch
PUBLISHER
Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia
Nenad Spasić, PhD, director
ADDRESS
Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia
"spatium"
Serbia, 11000 Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II
E-mail: iaus@EUnet.yu fax: (381 11) 3370-203
FINANCIAL SUPPORT
Ministry of Science of the Republic of Serbia
Printed in Serbia by ARTGRAF, Belgrade
 ИНСТИТУТ ЗА АРХИТЕКТУРУ И УРБАНИЗАМ СРБИЈЕ
INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN & SPATIAL PLANNING OF SERBIA

“Spatium” No 15-16 is prepared on the occassion of the International Scientific Conference

"SUSTAINABLE SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT OF TOWNS AND CITIES"

Conference organisation:
Conference organiser is the Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia in cooperation with the
Faculties of Architecture and Civil Engineering in Belgrade. The Conference is supported by the Ministry of Science of the
Republic of Serbia, ISOCARP (The International Society of City and Regional Planners).
Conference Scientific Board:
dr Vujošević Miodrag, Senior Research Fellow, IAUS, President
dr Acebillo Josep, Professor, Barcelona’s Commissioner for Infrastructures and Urban Planning CEO Barcelona Regional,
Director, Institute for the Contemporary Urban Project and Responsabile of the Chair of Culture of Urban Territory in
Accademia di Architettura Mendrisio – Università della Svizzera italiana
dr Bajić Brković Milica, Full Professor, Faculty of Architecture in Belgrade, ISOCARP Secretary General
Bazik Dragana, MSc, Associate Professor, Faculty of Architecture in Belgrade
dr Cavrić Branko, MRTPI (UK), APA (US), Associate Professor, Department of Architecture and Planning - DAP, Faculty of
Engineering & Technology – FET, University of Botswana
dr Dimitrijević Branka, Director, Centre for the Built Environment, a joint initiative of Glasgow Caledonian University,
Strathclyde University and Mackintosh School of Architecture, UK
dr Dimitrovska Andrews Kaliopa, Director, Urbanistični Inštitut Slovenije
dr Đajić Nenad, Full Professor, Faculty of Mining and Geology in Belgrade
dr Đorđević Branislav, Full Professor, Faculty of Civil Engineering in Belgrade
dr Filipović Milorad, Associate Professor, Faculty of Economics in Belgrade
dr Getimis Panayiotis, Professor, Research University Institute of Urban Environmental and Human Resources, Panteion
University, Athens, Greece
dr Joksić Dušan, Full Professor, Faculty of Civil Engineering in Belgrade
dr Kafkalas Grigoris, Professor, Spatial Development and Research Unit, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
dr Nedović-Budić Zorica, Professor, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign, USA
dr Nikolić Marija, Research Counselor, IAUS
dr Petovar Ksenija, Associate Professor, Faculty of Architecture and Faculty of Geography in Belgrade
dr Pucar Mila, Research Counselor, IAUS
dr Schönbäck Wilfried, Professor, Head of the Centre, Department for Urban and Regional Planning, Centre Public Finanace
and Infrastructure Policy, Vienna University of Technology, Austria
dr Spasić Nenad, Senior Research Fellow, Director, IAUS
dr Stanković Milenko, B.Arch., Professor, Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering, University of Banja Luka
Stanković Siniša, Director BDSP Partnership Summit House, London, UK
dr Stojanović Božidar, Research Counselor, IAUS
dr Stojkov Borislav, Full Professor, Faculty of Geography in Belgrade
dr Tošić Dragutin, Associate Professor, Faculty of Geography in Belgrade
dr Tošković Dobrivoje, Research Counselor, IAUS
dr Tomasella Paolo, Expert for sustainable buildings at the Regione Autonoma Friuli Venezia Giulia, Italy
dr Zeković Slavka, Senior Research Fellow, IAUS

Conference Organisation Board:

dr Spasić Nenad, President
dr Bajić Brković Milica
Bazik Dragana, MSc in Architecture and Urban Design
Dželebdžić Omiljena, MSc in Spatial Planning, Secretary
dr Marić Igor
dr Milijić Saša
dr Petrić Jasna
dr Pucar Mila
dr Stupar Aleksandra, ISOCARP
dr Vujošević Miodrag
dr Zeković Slavka

Belgrade, Serbia, 25-26th January 2008.

Venue: Faculty of Civil Engineering – Main Conference Room

spatium
CONTENTS
Ass. Prof. Aleksandra Stupar, PhD 1 PATCHWORK OR MATRIX?
Ass. Prof. Aleksandra Đukić, MSc TESTING THE CAPACITY OF THE CONTEMPORARY
Faculty of Architecture, University of CITY
Belgrade

Ass Prof. Deddy Halim, PhD 9 A BIG LABORATORY NAMED CITY

Tarumanagara University, Jacarta

Assoc. Prof. Vladan Đokić, PhD 16 POLITICAL CIRCUMSTANCES AS A RISK FACTOR IN

Prof. Zoran Nikezić, PhD URBAN DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY
Faculty of Architecture, University of
Belgrade

Slavka Zeković, PhD 21 DEVELOPMENT OF NEW ECONOMIC POLES IN

Nenad Spasić, PhD METROPOLITAN AREAS: BELGRADE EXAMPLE
Tamara Maričić, MSc
Institute of Architecture and Urban &
Spatial Planning of Serbia
Lect. Horatio Ikgopoleng 28 AN EVALUATION OF THE SELF-HELP HOUSING
Assoc. Prof. Branko Cavrić, PhD SCHEME IN BOTSWANA, CASE OF GABORONE
Department of Architecture and CITY
Planning, University of Botswana

Prof. Aleksandra Krstić, PhD 37 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION POSSIBILITIES FOR

Faculty of Architecture, University of PHOTOVOLTAIC INTEGRATION IN EVELOPES OF
Belgrade NEW EXISTING BUILDINGS

Ass. Milanka Filipović, MSc 44 THE ANALYTIC HIERARCHY PROCESS AS A

Faculty of Architecture, University of SUPPORT FOR DECISION MAKING
Belgrade
Prof. Milica Jovanović Popović, PhD 60 REHABILITATION PROJECT OF AN APARTMENT
Dušan Ignjatović BUILDING IN BELGRADE, SERBIA
Nataša Ćurković-Ignjatović
Ass. Prof. Ana Radivojević, PhD
Faculty of Architecture, University of
Belgrade
Mila Pucar, PhD 66 LEGISLATIVE AND POLICY IN ENERGY EFFICIENT
Marina Nenković-Riznić, MSc DESIGNING AND RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES-
Institute of Architecture and Urban & APPLICATION IN SERBIA
Spatial Planning of Serbia
Tijana Crnčević, PhD 72 STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AS
Institute of Architecture and Urban & AN INSTRUMENT FOR ENHACEMENT OF PUBLIC
Spatial Planning of Serbia PARTICIPATION IN PLANNING

Marijana Pantić 77 SUBOTICA MUNICIPALITY AS A LEARNING

Institute of Architecture and Urban & REGION
Spatial Planning of Serbia

Saša Branković, MSc 80 THE NIŠAVA RIVER WATER QUALITY AS THE

Institute for nature protection of Serbia INDICATOR OF THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Ass.Prof. Slaviša Trajković, PhD OF THE CITY OF NIŠ
Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of
Niš

In memoriam
 UDC 711.41.122 (497.11)
711.2.122

PATCHWORK OR MATRIX?

TESTING THE CAPACITY OF THE CONTEMPORARY

CITY

Aleksandra Stupar, Aleksandra Đukić

Being exposed to the multiple needs of their contemporary users, the cities from all over the world have been forced to activate
all capacities in order to intensify their land use, adjust their urban structure and reinvent some forgotten segments (ex-
industrial areas, traffic nodes, docks, waterfronts) as generators of multilayered transformations and mutations. Therefore, the
purpose of this paper is to analyze and compare different approaches of this practice, as well as to emphasize the relation
between the applied global imperatives/trends/myths, local conditions and limitations, and the outcomes. Consequently, the
first part will be structured around four key-words which often ‘justify’ and activate multifunctional and intensive land use -
connectivity, profit, identity and sustainability.
The second part will be focused on the case of Serbia, describing a unique postmodern example of the fusion of local and
global influences. The multifunctional land use in this case is a result of numerous political and economic problems, the
plurality of values and (il)legal transformations of urban structure. This condition has finally affected the rising need for urban
redesign, the re-organization and revitalization of city centers, fringe areas, devastated and degraded urban zones, as well as
the development of existing transport and communication networks i.e. improvement of urban and regional connectivity.
Additionally, the ‘model of territorial values’ will be explained as a planning tool which could be used in order to increase the
level of urban attractiveness, define urban parameters and estimate land values.

INTRODUCTION visually and economically attractive and is quite uncertain what will happen if the urban
efficient. endurance reaches its limits.
Influenced by the process of globalization, the
city at the beginning of the third millennium is These urban turbulences reveal the ambiguity Alluring network society and tempting virtual
continuously excited by internal and external of the globalization, emphasizing the tension reality - will they be sufficient to back up and
economical, political and social stimulations. between global trends, local limitations and protect our fragile material body?
Displaying the new role, technological questionable outcomes. Hidden behind eye-
infrastructure and evolving identities, it catching images of the preferable future, the RESTRUCTURING THE CITY
promotes a different set of values and contemporary cities combine various
Under the influence of the new ‘globalizing’
objectives, reflects the space and time development strategies in order to strengthen
economy and the information revolution, our
contraction and supports the augmentation of four powerful pillars of global success - urban world has begun its new incarnation.
reality. Gradually, the city becomes an connectivity, profit, identity and sustainability. Accepting the post-modern logic of disjunction
incomprehensible fusion of multiple levels, However, their real significance is often
and numerous possibilities, forced
time sequences and spatial segments, while its (un)intentionally mimicked, creating the
fragmentation and negated wholeness it
authenticity is constantly challenged and numerous opportunities for manipulation and highlights its differences and individuality,
provoked. Consequently, our everyday further degradation of the living environment. instigates the uncertainty. At the same time,
experience, limitations and growing importance urban nodes, as the new centers of the
The city of our epoch has obviously become an
of global-local nexus, create a restructured contemporary community, form their internal
experimental tissue where all novelties could
urban space which should be, above all, and external networks, stepping into the
be tested, verified, accepted or rejected, but it
unknown territory of immaterial flows.

spatium 1
Consequently, the genuine, multiple nature of control, finance and business sector, culture, particular attention is also given to the
the city and its new character(s) can be creativity and tourism. Nevertheless, these important transportation axes, which connect
discovered through numerous terms describing activities complement each other, generate airports, seaports and/or complementary urban
it as: numerous combinations and all together nodes within the urban region. These
depend on highly advanced technologies and transurban spines become a new magnet for
• informational city (Castells, 1989); information systems. business, information economy and some
• telematics city (Hepworth, 1990); types of tourism (mainly business and
• network city (Batten, 1995); Their position in the urban tissue is also congress), using the excellent connectivity as
• dual city (Castells, 1989; Mollenkopf, influenced by information and communication the main advantage (Amsterdam - Zuid, Paris -
Castells, 1991); logistic, which nowadays enables a more Roissy).
• intelligent city (Graham, Marvin, 1996; flexible approach. As a result, some
Hepworth, 1990); specialized types of business, financial and Evidently, the structure of the contemporary
• divided city (Fainstein at al., 1992); command/control activities are relocated to the city, shaped by so-called ‘flexible capitalism’,
• city of collective memory (Boyer, 1995); urban periphery and/or to smaller cities (for ex. ad-hoc strategies and ‘facing-the-deadline’
• city of spectacle (Short, Kim, 1999); Paris - St. Quentin-en-Yvelines, Tokyo - Omiya planning methodologies, reveals the logic of
• entrepreneurial city (Short, Kim, 1999); and Kawasaki). However, the historical urban the confusing patchwork, upgraded by the
• diffuse/compact city ... etc. cores are still playing their symbolical role - virtual matrixes and simulated experiences.
The traditional urban centers, their metropolitan demonstrating the tradition and continuity, Therefore, the city land represents just one of
areas and different urban regions are merging the traces of previous activities with the uncountable layers to be used by various
functioning simultaneously creating the unique the contemporary features and demands (City activities, but still the only one which we can
space-time continuum - without visible of London, Châtelet, Wall Street). At the same actually perceive by all our senses.
confines but with multiple centers (for ex. Ile time, their development potential is directed
towards the new set of activities, mainly based MULTIPLYING THE URBAN
de France region, London metropolitan area,
Tokyo with Tsucuba and Yokohama, Flemish upon culture, tourism, entertainment and art. EXISTENCE
Diamond, Randstad Holland, Rhine Ruhr Area,
The promising synergy between production The world is definitely getting smaller and the
Basque Country). Overlapping and coexisting
and consumption, established on the more new technologies facilitate our networking,
in the new realm of interconnections, they
sophisticated level, is also applied in the confirming the Stanley Milgram's theses (from
introduce a different logic of activities and
former high-class residential areas (West End, 1967) about six degrees of separation.
structures, shaping the ambivalent trans-urban
Champs Elysées) or new sub-centers (Tokyo - Fortunately, tête-à-tête communication is still
systems readable on uncountable levels and
Shinjuku, Berlin - Potsdamer Platz). important, but the movement of flows has
perceptible in various scales.
Additionally, the central zones, with powerful different configuration which connects new
However, in spite of these tremendous symbolical connotations, become targets of urban focuses: airport/highway/railway -
changes, the principle of agglomeration could ‘Grand projects’, raising the urban parking place/subway station -
still be recognized, even though it is now attractiveness and frequently causing the office/apartment building. Evidently, the
related to the production and processing of further spatial fragmentation and social introduction of new urban/global infrastructure
information. Furthermore, every urban segregation. systems is a necessity, but their harmonization
transformation usually mirrors the aspirations with the inherited urban context have to fulfill
The ex-industrial areas, with their abandoned needs of all consumers, especially those who
of urban center/node - the urban changes will
structures and unattractive scenery, are create the New World order.
certainly be more radical and visible if the city
regenerated and/or recycled, while their
has an important role in the world system or if
strategic importance and value are Connectivity vs. profit
it tends to increase the competitive advantages.
emphasized. Usually they are synchronized
The urban structure is also changing. The with the guidelines of sustainability and The high urban connectivity, which could be
small, multifunctional segments gradually adjusted to the demands of the techno-elite. attained by numerous traffic and information
disappear while the large monofunctional They introduce the new types of spaces and systems, enables the communication in the
zones become significant constituents. activities, mainly oriented to the new wider scale and, as a result, the systems of
Simultaneously, the monocentric form is technologies, design, information and fashion public transportation, systems of
substituted by polycentric one, composed of industry. business/tourist flows and systems for
several dispersed points. The driving force(s) information interchange (telecommunication
While the extensions of the traditional urban networks) open the numerous possibilities for
of these autonomous and usually self-sufficient
cores become prestigious business nodes, the urban integration. Obviously, the information
cells are activities which support political,
urban periphery becomes a valuable spatial infrastructure, as the most expanded mode of
economical, cultural and media globalization,
resource for media production, entertainment, global communication, becomes the important
i.e. international/national command and
science and specialized services. However, the

2 spatium
element of the global urban competitiveness physical and electronic accessibility, as a 'cathedrals' (for ex. Collezione - Tokyo,
intensifying the circulation of knowledge, guaranty of global sustainability and progress. Galeries Lafayette - Berlin, Toronto Galleria),
symbols and tokens. Due to that, the sense and The monumental geometry made of steel and fairs and Expo-s, as well as numerous theme-
the perception of the city space are highly glass is the expression of the global potential, parks which re-create past and future, science
influenced by its transport infrastructure but also represents the power of multinational or entertainment, become the top-spots for
(Sudjic, 1993) and the mental maps of or local corporations, state aspirations and the modern pilgrims searching for the new
passengers are acquiring new dimensions. global 'landmark' which should channel the sensations. Unfortunately, beside obvious
Although the result could sometimes be a international financial flows. urban benefits - improvement of infrastructure,
monotonous and incomprehensible city image, activation of devastated urban areas and
the modern traffic networks with their nodes Identity vs. sustainability introduction of new technologies, these places
represent a new logic of urban existence, could cause environmental misbalance and/or
Today, it is very difficult to establish
offering new urban landmarks and, above all, social segregation which cannot be annulled
equilibrium between pro-globalization and
reflecting the technological development and by (questionable) economical sustainability.
anti-globalization flows creating the
urban culture.
environment for the coordinated functioning of Similarly, the sports competitions (Olympic
Consequently, the first step of the global all identities which represent the unique Games, Championships, World cups) influence
initiation is usually creation of new city gates treasure of the contemporary city. Therefore, the spreading of the globalization using the
(airports, railway buildings) and establishment the urban space, as a place of the most intense powerful global financial/commercial
of economic and information contact zones - transformations, provides new modes of social apparatus which transforms sport into the new,
the impressive business areas with the vertical interaction, (dis)continuity and multiple glamorous kind of industry. The contemporary
accents of office towers. This physical and identities. Its infrastructure (physical and sports arenas modify themselves into the tools
symbolical frame, as a necessary pre-condition virtual) emphasizes its ethnical, cultural, social of competition directed by famous world
of globally recognizable image, raises the city and professional diversity, creates completely architects and corporations becoming a
above its national context and shapes its homogenized fragments and promotes this marketing resource and a display for regional,
structure into the monumental landscape. unusual collection of local-global values, as a state and international aspirations and values.
unifying force of the evolving global networks. They should provide a positive, recognizable
New city gates become the main contact points At the same time, different civil initiatives tend image of a city and multiple networking but
between different kinds of communication and to regenerate the civic life and public space in they could be also seen an important impetus
transform themselves into the complex mega- the alienated and dispersed cities, but their of urban and regional development (Barcelona,
structures, as the most vital organs of global way out from the introverted and passive urban Seoul, Athens, Madrid, Atlanta etc.). At the
centers. These symbols of the global prestige segments is usually hidden behind the same time, sports arenas could be
transmit symbolical messages by their computer screen. comprehended as a specific modern theater
attractive architectural appearance, glorifying with an extravagant appearance reflecting the
the power of modern technologies (Osaka, However, the global economy has taken
nature and the structure of a society, revealing
Paris-Roissy), expressing the national dignity advantage of these processes as well, and its
the tensions and hostility, staging the moment
(Jeddah, Oslo, Seoul) and/or reflecting the play with conscious and unconscious levels of
of public catharsis and - attracting the attention
importance of a city in the world hierarchy our psychological being becomes a new
of world media.
(London, Tokyo, Hong Kong). At the same generator of capital - clearly manifested in the
time, the railway and subway terminals, city space as well. Entertainment, consumption In contrast to these terrestrial impulses, the
although mostly important for regional and promotion on one side, and the genuine global cities also contain 'oasis' dedicated to
connectivity, have a twofold role. They could spiritual revelation on the other define a new the spirituality. Various centers of religious
be interpreted as reinvented urban landmarks image of uncountable desires which make our gathering are oriented towards introspection,
(Rotterdam-Blaak, Lyon-Satolas, Toyama- limited existence more fulfilled and justified. but it does not mean that they do not excite and
Takaoka) or they could be used as symbols of The effect, although brief and commercialized, inhibit the urban space and their users.
new urban regeneration (London, Bilbao, provides a possibility to step aside and to However, a great number of 'sacred' nodes,
Seville, Lisbon etc.). outdistance from the global current which takes besides their usual iconography inspired by
all of us in the same direction. accepted canons, adjust their form to the local
The connectors of capital, with their similar surrounding and, above all, to the global
skylines, emphasize the global character of Therefore, the logic of rational-irrational urban
demands of architectural virtuosity, scenic
financial and information flows integrated into animation, which varies between reality and
design, unexpected symbolic and - television
large business districts. However, even these illusion, symbol and simulacrum, has been
broadcasting.
oases of concentrated multinational applied in the 'sacred' and 'profane' nodes
corporations are based upon powerful urban whose difference cannot be clearly Furthermore, the city space and its activities
infrastructure that should provide excellent distinguished. The shopping areas with their create and modify collective memory while the

spatium 3
cultural and historical symbolisms are used as Evidently, urban history could be recalled However, information technologies allow
ideological messengers. Accordingly, it is not whenever a city needs new financial resources monitoring large numbers of urban
surprising that the humanity again focuses its which would be helpful for further components at the same time, increasing the
attention on the urban waterfronts, while their development. The successful renewal and pace of their changes and development. One of
almost mythical role of regeneration, transformation of polluted and abandoned river the benefits of this method is the possibility to
purification and initiation becomes very banks, seashores, ex-industrial areas and old monitor spatial components through layers and
important for the officially imposed imperative city quarters enables important infusion of to anticipate different scenarios of their
of sustainability. As a result, images of the capital imposing a new (or rediscovered) urban activities and development. The changes of
recently regenerated ports and docks not only identity. Molded to attract exclusive clientele, urban structures are mostly influenced by
reflect the power of capital, but reanimate the these urban changes have a significant markets, and therefore the monitoring of
role of water which 'opens' the city and symbolical value for the circle of sustainability different aspects of development is an essential
connects it to the rest of the world. because the overcrowded urban nodes are tool within the planning process.
Consequently, the chance for the balanced and forced to recognize their own hidden potential
comprehensive development of these areas has which has been often neglected and The situation is even more sensitive in the
been found in the coordinated strategic actions misinterpreted. Consequently, the culture as an economically unstable environments, which
whose final output reveals amalgam of important resource of memories, images and have to balance between limited financial
complex and complementary activities and events, the purification and regeneration as an resources, chaotic regulations and inherited
preserved identity. This model, for example, opportunity for reanimation of neglected areas, practice, simultaneously adjusting to the new
has been applied by Helsinki and Hamburg, and, finally, the national dignity and rules of the inevitable global competition.
where the independent, ecologically reconciliation as catalysts of numerous global Therefore, it is necessary to stimulate
acceptable zones were established, while the and local tensions have been emphasized as implementation of the scientifically based
waterfronts in the lower Manhattan, Sidney, Le the places of urban identity. planning methods and tools, keeping the
Havre, London, Glasgow and along the Pacific professional distance but respecting the local
Rim (Tokyo, Osaka) have been occupied by The list of activities and interventions, guided conditions and sensing the everyday
global business which develops the new, by contemporary ‘mantras’ - connectivity, pulsations.
powerful financial/commercial front of techno- profit, identity and sustainability, is longer
every day. However, the main global aim - a Urban systems networking – theoretical
capitalistic power.
total multi-purpose networking still has to be background
In contrast, cities like Bristol, Buenos Aires, achieved. Are we ready to take this risk?
The basic principle, introduced by the method
Genoa or Jakarta used their own urban heritage,
FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE which will be described, is the equivalence of
emphasizing the importance of collective
complexity between planning process and
memory embodied in the old activities, their Shifting from the dazzling images of the central urban system itself, because every
spaces and cultural uniqueness. However, the urban nodes to the gloomy reality of the simplification of this process results in
example of Puerto Madero in Buenos Aires is a
peripheral ones is almost as difficult as the equivalent decrease of urban system's
reflection of global dichotomies which could
actual application and implementation of the reliability to respond to planned effects.
be found even in a sustainable planning
theoretical knowledge. However, the
approach. From the beginning, the urban methodological and analytical support The analysis of urban networking structures
regeneration of this waterfront was oriented provided by exact data, mathematical models development, from the earliest human
towards the promotion and preservation of the settlements up to a present day, leads to
and scenarios could facilitate the planning
old port identity, rehabilitation of the docks and conclusion that the most primitive forms of
process, especially in the environment full of
internal restructuring. New infrastructure, along these networks were central point based. More
contradictions and uncertainties. Therefore,
with the whole set of global activities and complex were linear (development of physical
each city can be perceived as a complex
famous architectural names, certainly has been structures by the side of the road) or in the
system of crossed network structures which are
attracting many investors but for the total form of crossroads. Finally, as the number of
the result of physical transformations and
success and its future sustainability few the elements gradually increased, systems
functional matrices from the past centuries.
problems have to be solved. One of them is were formed (towns and settlements),
Due to the increase of content within the urban
economic, social and spatial exclusiveness of eventually resulting in complex network
systems (qualitatively and quantitatively), we
this area which again underlines the huge structures (metropolis, regional centers).
have to address the issues of urban
social gaps, the second one is the lack of
development through multiple layers and
proclaimed city-river interaction and, finally, Spatial-corridor structures emerged when at
different aspects. (R)evolutionary changes of
there is the question of further investments least two points and a road were formed. For
the cities (in continuity or discontinuity of
which is always sensitive, especially in the example, some medieval cities in Europe
development) make the system even more
cases of unstable national economies. developed according to this model - there were
complex.
two nodes – profane square in front of the

4 spatium
castle, and sacramental square – in front of the provide even larger number of complex planning tools used to test suggested solutions
church, connected by the main city street. In structures. Diversity of phenomena within and to make implementation of the plan easier.
Serbia, this matrix of network development is network structures is ‘endless’, so it is The advantage of network strategies provides
mostly present in northern parts of the country, necessary to define different approaches for great possibilities for development strategies
while in central and southern parts network their identification. There are four basic by combining various relations between
structures developed through multiplication of approaches in defining their structure: formal, different numbers of layers and levels of urban
nodes/points and corridors. In this case, the analytical, quantitatively-structural and value- components. During the formulation of
development of the network started with main measurable approach. development strategies, which are directed
crossroads, points where two main streets towards feasible planning solutions, we should
crossed. After that, number of crossroads was Consequently, the main reason for constructing start from the following presumptions - level of
gradually increased, as well as the number of network structures is identifying and network content is changeable, spatial level is
corridors, none of which dominated the others. anticipating development courses of urban adoptable and physical forms must have a high
structures. Establishing urban networks allow level of diversity.
Functional networking is a result of spatial to perceive possible network strategies of
networking and they are closely related. urban development, to select directions of the Development is possible through several types
Functional networking influenced the activities adequately, as well as to implement of activities by:
development of spatial networking, caused the them within the planning documentation.
changes of certain characteristics within spatial - activating all the resources and potentials at
networks and vice versa - changes within Formalizing network systems – urban the same time (resulting in continual
spatial networking influenced the location of network structures uniformed development of the area);
activities, based on the complex mutual - activating single segments (most attractive
Basic elements of network structures are nodes locations or directions, resulting in sudden
relations.
(points on which relations cross between development of specific points which will
Functional network of settlement structure can themselves), relations (defining the relation have further effect on development of local
also be analyzed in number of layers in several between elements inside the network) and areas);
different ways. Most commonly used one is the flows (time-spatial corridors). As a basic - activating all the potentials but with different
classification according to activities (housing, networking module, point/node has several intensity (resulting in development which is
trade, enterprise, sport-recreational functions, different visible forms. In terms of spatial continual but not uniformed and preventing
commerce etc). Sometimes classification is recognition, it can be identified as line, matrix the development of contact areas from
conducted according to centrality (city core, or zone. As a subject framework, it can relate to previous case).
city limits area, suburbs, or it can be region, city, settlement, city zone, block,
Therefore, we can recognize several possible
numerically described). However, finding quarter, lot or open public city space. On the
development models for settlements and cities:
optimal location conditions for certain activities level of problem identification, it can consist of
sometimes requires the network of different layers: communication, organization, • activation of the most attractive points as the
attractiveness. In that case, specific segments production, formalization. Relations also very core of the changes;
or corridors are numerically described consist of types and shapes. According to the • activation of the specific nodes that have
depending on the level of attractiveness. direction of development, they can be pointed substantial spatial possibilities – others
in single/double/multiple directions and being activated only after previous are fully
Functional relations networking was the subject according to their characteristics they can be completed;
of theorists researching cities and regions (H. connected and dependent. Additionally, their • alteration of the content within nodes
Ebenezer, C. Alexander). In his theoretical content defines them as functional, physical, according to the principles of previous state;
model of garden city, Ebenezer observed the logical and visual. • relocation of content in order to concentrate
system of networks connecting satellite garden
on specific points and/or complex linear
settlements with the center of the city, while Network structure directions could have
structures which should spread their
Alexander recognized the urban system as different functions. They can present flows (of
influence across the neighborhood areas.
number of functional networks that are cross- users, merchandise, vehicles, energy and
related. Studying the courses of network information), time-spatial changes or Application of network systems in city
functional development, he concluded that frameworks through which we monitor inter- planning in Serbia
networks became more complex in term of dependence between points and relations.
Network systems were applied within the
functionality. In fact, due to large number of
framework of comprehensive and spatial
elements, classes of elements and relations, a Model options for development of cities
planning on the territory of Serbia, facing the
great number of combinations emerge. and settlements - trajectory principles
unpredictable demands of unstable political,
Observed in specific spatial areas and
Model options for urban development social and economic environment. In order to
combined with spatial-corridor structures, they
according to the trajectory principles are urban respond to different requests of various users,

spatium 5
a realistic and implementation-friendly
documentation was needed. Therefore, its
flexibility and adjustability were underlined as EXAMPLE A. Kragujevac, Serbia (~ 150.000 inhabitants)
much as possible.

Resources and potentials of the cities were

measured on three different levels: regional
level of development, city level and inter-city
level (urban modules level). On each of these
levels, the procedure of territorial resource
development was conducted in three basic
steps:

1. identification of the resources and their

inclusion into the network system;
2. spatial-physical territorial analysis
(identifying territorial resources and
capacities);
3. definition of the resource-planning
conditions based on their values and
possible expenditure of capacities.
Territorial resource development was Fig. 1. Network of the regional developmen Fig. 3. Evaluation of lines/corridors and
conducted for lines (mostly streets or nodes/points
infrastructural corridors), nodes/points
(crossroads, open space, parks and squares)
and areas (quarters and blocks).

The future course of development was planned

considering:

• rental value networks - connecting elements

of similar or same value levels, in order to
maximize additional values in the present
moment;
• balanced-effective networks - based on
input/output review of certain Fig. 4. Urban network - value trajectories
elements/segments, keeping the network
development in balance (‘positive
development’);
• capacity networks - established for minimal,
optimal and maximal capacities across
points and lines.
Development was observed through benefits,
segment related varying benefits and the
change of pace between specific elements.
This methodology has been applied on master
plans and plans of regulation in a few cities,
towns and villages in Serbia. The
municipalities have used it as an advanced tool
for the urbanization process in the uncertain Figure 5. Land value - urban zones
period of transition. Each city was perceived as Fig. 2. Value hierarchy of urban nodes
a complex system of crossed network
structures (mainly as a result of physical and
functional matrices), through multiple layers

6 spatium
 EXAMPLE B. Kostolac, Serbia (~15.000 inhabitants)

Fig. 6. Directing the further development - evaluation of the main arteries/corridors (1st, 2nd and 3rd rank lines)

Fig. 7. The synthesis of selected lines, nodes and areas (physical and functional)

and different aspects. The transformation of the places. The lots on these sites could be twice regional centers and smaller towns have used
urban pattern was also considered and these or triple expensive than on other sites in the these models, while the development of
matrices became the part of network structures. city. Belgrade, the capital of Serbia, still presents a
The most attractive parts of the city (main mixture of ambitious strategies, political
streets, open spaces, parks, main junctions, Planning based upon this method includes rhetoric and precisely targeted actions.
markets, commercial areas) were ‘transposed’ some additional variables and provides
into the lines and nodes of the network. They guidelines that are more precise. All of them Solving the urban puzzle?
were considered separately and/or combined could facilitate decision-making process as
well as enhance the dynamic of Driven by the power of capital, guided by the
with each other. At the intersections of these
implementation. However, so far mainly some global trends and limited by the inherited
lines and nodes, we got the most attractive
problems, Belgrade has started the imposed

spatium 7
competition - setting up the vital connections, development projects, while the good traffic administrative and cultural regional center. The
filling the blanks caused by the years of connections, accessibility and infrastructure blocks around the future railway station and the
negligence and promoting its forgotten have become a necessary backup for the new Belgrade Arena are planned to be exclusively
identity. Simultaneously, our capital activated activities. commercial, without housing, which is the
its own experimental tissue - New Belgrade - result of their attractive location.
the part of the city which represents an icon of Following the importance of regional
the Modern movement and a unique legacy of recognition, competition and urban needs of The zone between the river Sava, the railway
the post-war Yugoslav society. the contemporary users, the new Master plan and the natural plateau of Bezanija, as an
of Belgrade (2003) also defined a more independent urban segment of New Belgrade,
Since 2001, the macro blocks of New Belgrade attractive role for New Belgrade, emphasizing should also redefine its identity and utilize its
have suddenly become a place of accelerating its regional potential for the business activities connections with the central zone. Therefore,
economic bloom. Stimulated by the flows of and launching this area as a new hub, able to the main idea of the plan is to create a linear
globalization, this area has commenced its new respond to the numerous requirements center along one of the main boulevards, which
building cycle and most of its major imposed by the process of global integration. would stimulate a further development of this
disadvantages suddenly turned out to be its According to the plan, the central zone of New mainly residential area. Additionally, it is
new competitive advantages. Consequently, the Belgrade should be considered as an area with necessary to activate a number of micro-
low index of the built up areas has been the highest potential for commercial activities, centers along the river Sava, remove the
recognized as a possibility for the future large steadily evolving into the strong business, existing industrial complex and replace the old

Fig. 8. The master plan of Belgrade (2003) - position of New Belgrade and planned land use
(http://www.beograd.org.yu/documents/plan2021/02_plan_namene.jpg)

8 spatium
shipyard with more attractive central activities - preparing the fertile ground for its further channels the next phase of the urban
adjusted to the needs of future users and expansion. (r)evolution - widening the urban horizon,
suitable for the preferred ‘global image’ of New upgrading the electronic interaction and
Belgrade. All projects situated in the zone of New creating the thrilling images of absolute
Belgrade are introducing new investments, utilization. Obviously, the future city
The special role should be given to the area of promoting the growth and quality of the could/should be an ever-changing chimera, the
the old Expo pavilions. Although in close primary property market in Belgrade. At the kaleidoscope of experiences and, finally, the
proximity to the central zone and river, it has to same time, they are creating a new kind of powerful combination of various stimuli.
be transformed in accordance with its historical space - from the western grade office buildings
importance (it was used as a Nazi to the multipurpose leisure facilities, adjusted Are we prepared to face a new kind of reality?
concentration camp during the Second World to local and international environmental, health
War) and therefore protected as a cultural and safety standards and requirements. Bibliography
heritage, with appropriate cultural, commercial Therefore, their presence is certainly raising Appadurai, A. (1996) Modernity at Large:
and public spaces. the quality of life, offering various Cultural Dimensions of Globalization,
environmental opportunities and upgrading the Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press
Today, New Belgrade is a huge building site micro and macro area. Simultaneously, the Batten, D. (1995) "Network cities: creative
which attracts investors from all over the world. new activities are also playing a role of urban urban agglomerations for the 21st century",
Companies from England, France, Austria, the magnets, which should draw the elite Urban Studies, No. 32(2), pp. 313-327
Netherlands, Israel, Greece and Slovenia have consumers and create a fashionable image of Batty M. (1982) Urban Modeling Algorithms,
been investing there, implementing the ideas this former socialist architectural monument. Calibrations, Predictions, Cambridge: Cambridge
of the Master plan which should bring more However, the numerous stimulations are still
University Press
then a million square meters of new office insufficient to transform the whole area - some
Boyer, C. M. (1995) The City of Collective
space. Furthermore, New Belgrade, with more Memory, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press
parts of New Belgrade remained beyond the
then 230.000 inhabitants, represents one of the reach of globalization flows and they follow
Castells, M.(1998) The Rise of the Network
most developed municipalities in Belgrade. Society, Malden, MA: Blackwell
their own, almost suburban, rhythm. Crecine J.P. (1986) A Dynamic of Urban Structure, St.
The number of employed people has grown
Monica: The Rand Corporation
from 53.000 to 63.000, while the average Hopefully, there will be enough time for
Forrester J.W. (1976) Urban Dynamics, Cambridge:
salary is the highest in Belgrade and the thorough analysis and corrections which will MIT Press
second highest in Serbia. shape New Belgrade into a forward-looking Friedmann, J. (1986) The world city hypothesis.
modern city. Development and change, No. 17, pp. 69-83
The area around the Belgrade Arena gradually
becomes the Serbian replica of the Wall Street, Graham, S. and S. Marvin (1996),
CONCLUSION Telecommunication and the City: Electronic
concentrating the famous European banks. At
Living in the several coexisting realms is not a Spaces, Urban Places, London: Routledge
the same time, the monumental offices of
matter of imagination anymore. The Mollenkopf, J. (1993) Urban Nodes in The Global
international and local companies have been System, New York, NY: Social Science
shaping the new urban scenery which is no conventional understanding of the city has
Research Council
longer an allegeable metaphor of socialism but been radically transformed and its topography
Ralevic M., ed. (2004) Kragujevac – the Center of the
an evolving picture of capitalism. nowadays represents a multidimensional Sumadia Region, Beograd: Urbanologija AF (in
image of limitless networks, ambiguous nodes Serbian)
Recognized as the future business center of the and overlapping scales. The patterns of urban Sudjic, D. (1993) The 100 Mile City, San Diego,
South-eastern Europe, New Belgrade has been activities, as well as numerous functional New York, London: Harcourt Brace & Company
orientating itself towards new clientele, relations have become pluralistic, complex and Taylor, P. (2004) World City Network: A Global
changing its ‘urban menu’ to the needs of the diverse, reflecting the contemporary society Urban Analysis. London: Routledge
global techno-business elite. Currently, there and its dynamic. Therefore, entangled spaces Thrift, Nigel (1997) "Cities without modernity,
are several sites under construction and their of the contemporary city could be perceived as cities without magic", Scottish Geographical
future purpose and shape reveal the logic, vivid patchworks and/or unpredictable Magazine, No. 113, pp. 138-149
aesthetic and concept already applied in matrixes, revealing the collection of activities http://www.beograd.org.yu/documents/plan2021
numerous cities which were preparing more or less autonomous from spatial units
themselves for the global initiation and and traditional material structures.
recognition. Therefore, Belgrade, as one of the
announced European ‘capitals of the future’, is Consequently, the reinforced symbioses
using all the benefits of New Belgrade area, between tangible scenery and invisible flows

spatium 9
 UDC 711.1
72.01

A BIG LABORATORY NAMED CITY

Deddy Halim

The labyrinth is seen as a city. It "formed a circle, and was surrounded with walls and ramparts, but in a place of moats there
yawned a gloomy abyss, apparently boundless and bottomless. Light shone only above the city, while beyond the walls it was dark
pitch." –

Jan Amos Komensky a.k.a Comenius (1592-1670)

The statement above is written by a Czech own city. They move around from one building interpret for the city is made for that. The
educational reformer and the Catholic leader as to another, automatically programmed in the different between both polarization lies on the
well in the everlasting classical book entitled routine activities day by day, driven by degree of complexity and the forms of the
The Labyrinth of the World and the Paradise of consumptive lifestyle and conditioned by labyrinth, but the bottom line is the same
the Heart on 1623. The bottom line of the book global capitalism. They go shopping inside and which people inside the city lives with anxiety
is to show that human being is only a pilgrim outside the malls, the shops, the bars and in confusing world, between choices and dead
in this world. Comenius was under frustration cafes, one after another just like going through ends. Of this perspective urban people is no
and with his deepest spirituality at that time. He labyrinth and stop for a while in one of its more than laboratory rats entrapped in a maze
wrote it while in hiding and was exiled from his chamber for eventually they continue to the to find the best chamber fitted to their live,
country Czechoslovakia, in the wake of the next chamber. They are not aware if their assumed secure (although not!) and comfort
Battle of White Mountain. The Brethren weren’t behavior is already conditioned. Moreover, they (only in rats mind!).
welcome in Bohemia anymore. Of course, don’t even know what they are doing. In their
Comenius wrote with a cynical edge to it. He mind only to find something they need as soon
wrote of a young man to symbolize himself as possible without knowing that actually the Fig. 2 Confusing
trying to find his way in the world but what a thing they are looking for is not necessary Rat
strange world it was. As a pilgrim he was a important.
Source: James
stranger in his own land, wandering around in
CITY LABYRINTH McGaug
his world, driven by invisible powers.
What the city looks like for their citizen? How
do they see their massive physical environment
settings? For Londoners, they will see
theirselves entrapped in a jungle of concrete
blocks while for Jakartans with 13 millions
inhabitants, they are undersieged in the chaotic
urban sprawl blocks, both inner city and
suburban area. The underground philosophies
are may opposed to western mental
constructions. Nevertheless, either Easterners
or Westerners, there still persists underground Fig.3 Slum Blocks Maze in developing
stream of thought in which architecture is sub country
ministers itself for its spaces. Both Londoners Source: www.flickr.com
and Jakartans, whether urban people in
Fig. 1 Labyrinth of the world,
developned countries or in developing
Source: Comenius, 1623
countries, look their city towards the labyrinth
as a form that they interpret. Or, we can also
Isn’t that what urban people experiencing their say the labyrinth is the form that tells us:
city nowadays? They become strangers in their

10 spatium
 People found their exit way from the labyrinth? loose his way and his bearings. Whoever walks
Or they just become entrapped more deep in through the labyrinth follows either the right
their city labyrinth since the maze is no longer path or the wrong one for there is one good
horizontal but vertical as well and developed path and one bad one. The idea is to find the
sprawling wildly without any patterns which way out as soon as possible. The sooner the
make human being hardly to understand the better for what is called effectiveness, or the
cities in their cognitive process. They are optimal way, which actually would be a straight
wandering around from one labyrinth to other line. Is it not in this same way that modern
labyrinth. culture thinks, where the idea of progress is
marked by the effectiveness of the straight line
FROM LABYRINTH TO LABYRINTH which, taken to the extreme, moves our society
Fig. 4 City Blocks Maze in London The labyrinth is psychological constructs to be very fast and gives meaning to urban life?
Source: www.flickr.com interpreted and its meaning goes beyond a
simple form. It is an imaginary space, an
Architecture, as for human activities, is intellectual space, a concept, an image, a
unnatural and thus aggress the environment. spatial form, and in its real form, an
Each architectural vision involves a wave of architectonic space. In the field of Urban &
violence and the potential for delinquency is Architectural Psychology, built environments
present in every architect. The architectural act and spaces always seen as mental constructs
implies destruction, for each building of people towards their physical world.
superposes itself either to an existing one or to
nature. But building is also an act of cultural If human beings are confronted with a real
continuity, the city represents its society's labyrinth, a constructed one, so the first
culture, it is the way in which the city impression will be that of a wall for it cannot be
communicates with its people, with its own grasped completely from its base. What makes
language (Van Berkel & Boss, 1994). a labyrinth is the wall that separates the outside
from the inside. A labyrinth invites in and it is
The city is also a labyrinth. It is that negative not such if one is still outside. The action
space we see from a bird's eye point of view. It happens inside since the labyrinth stimulates
is down there and once in it we don't see but action, movement that implies a course of time
its walls. We are able to know it is there and space. If human beings think of a labyrinth
because we live in it. But to understand it we they do not only think of a wall, they may think
have to visualize it from above. The city is not of a serpent in it, of a garden, or a drawing of Fig. 5 Sihlcity in Zurich, labyrinth in the
the buildings on the main square. The city is spirals with one way in and one way out, they shopping mall
each square, each street and each garden that imagine it from a bird's eye point of view. This
Source: www.flickr.com
makes it up (Cullen 1962). Every city has means they always think of a labyrinth from the
characteristics of the labyrinth. We have the outside and above. And it is natural if they want In city planning, the labyrinth has evolution
effective way to get to an appointment in to solve its secret for the best position to do so from only makes people walk through the
certain spot of place as soon as possible or, is from where we can contemplate the whole. whole in order to get to one center into more
the long way if we want to get to know the city than one center or sub center or the point of
by traveling around intentionally before we get A trace in the labyrinth seems to show us the
way and invites us or makes us walk through it. interest. There was only one door out and it is
to the spot. The city maintains its labyrinth the same one that gets you in, but nowadays
spaces for our pleasure, our confusion, or for This makes it a narrative space or a sequence.
For architect Rem Koolhas and his colleagues there are many doors to go in or out. Many
the most profound reflections of our mind. It centers position you and make you change
was forecasted and predicted very precisely by (1997) architecture is a negative space, in it
things happen, life goes on in its absences, in your bearing. The places that usually become
Comenius 400 years ago, when cities are not our identity which could be parks, landmarks,
yet developed and no metropolitan existed. them we expect something to happen; the non-
built space signifies and gives value to the squares and even more cafés, department
Today, thousands of skyscrapers and towers stores, movie theater in the malls, discotheque,
are built, flyovers, toll roads and interchanges architectonic spaces. Historically, at the
beginning the labyrinth or a maze in English library, museum or any other architectonic built
superimposed one another, super-blocks spaces which enable people to identify
arisen with its multifunction architecture, was essentially a garden created for the
amusement of people. One would enter it and themselves and affiliate with. Where is the
megalopolitan cities are born with their hyper confusion that we thought is intrinsic to the
complexities. But the question is: Has Urban try to find the way out as soon as possible. Its
intentions were to mislead or to make one labyrinth? We are faced once again by the

spatium 11
enigma of the labyrinth. This labyrinth is more destination in the San Francisco labyrinth for EXPERIMENT WITH URBAN PEOPLE
metaphorical. We cannot get lost on a road that its citizen and put the highest tower in the west
leads to only one place and with only one coast (again, could be not built!) to mark the According to Roland Barthes (1976), the
option to choose from, forward-backward, new center from distances. It is absolutely what pleasure of a labyrinth lies in moving through
inside out, unless we don't know if we are Kevin Lynch (1960) talked about how citizens it. The labyrinth is not only the centers but also
walking towards centers or away from it. Today perceive their own city. They use the the whole, walls shape its form but the space
the labyrinth seems to have more sense: Where mechanism of human cognitive process to that has any sense to us is the space we can
does good lie and evil? The purpose is not only identify places. move in: the negative space! And this negative
about finding our way out but to question
ourselves as to why we are heading in or out.
Thus it is a more reflective figure than
contemporary labyrinth.

Urban people are wandering around from one

labyrinth to another, starting from their home
where they are separated within rooms from
their own family, going to work when they drive
the braiding roads and entrapped by partition
with their workstation, shopping thru the malls
from one shop to another, walking in the
downtown narrow gangways and alleys, lost in Fig. 6. Transbay Terminal by Skidmore Owings &
the building blocks jungle and tower and so Merril propose a new center as the destination in
on. All urban people are living their live from the San Francisco labyrinth
one labyrinth to another. Source: SOM LLM Rockefeller Group
Develoment Corp.
Trying to labyrinth the megalopolitan cities, the
recent competition of Transbay Terminal in San
Francisco announced by the Governor Arnold The tower is accompanied by a transit terminal
Schwarzenegger and held by the Transbay that is intended to become a major civic
gateway. Through this facility, San Francisco Fig. 7 Labyrinth gangways in the
Joint Powers Authority, a regional government ensanche of Bilbao, Spain
body created in 2001 to bring about the people can create a statement to the rest of the
construction of a new transit terminal in San world while creating a seamless transportation space, is it not the one that interests
Francisco is clearly shows that urban people, network connecting the Bay Area to the rest of architecture?
even in the most powerful nation in the world, the region and state so that the labyrinth now is
extended to the regional scale and cities For urban people the image of whole city was
is still entrapped in the labyrinth, even worst
become only sub centers. In the early planning, important because it was seen as a metaphor
they entrapped deeper and deeper.
it was assumed that any tower alongside would for the cognitive process. They don't know the
King and Curiel (2007) reported three climb no higher than 550 feet. Now, though city while loosing its petals. To know the city
proposals for what would be the tallest building public officials say the extra height is merited they must understand that it is a whole and
on the US West Coast were unveiled and amid not just to boost the land sales, but to show only then will they know it. They can not grasp
architectural fanfare and political buzz. The that San Francisco continues to measure itself the city labyrinth while in it; they know the city
three proposals are similar in several ways: against other cities of global status that are labyrinth from the outside but they must go
cloaks the terminal in glass, and each tops the seeing super tall towers proposed. Will we through it. The labyrinth is a whole, from
tower with a translucent or open crown with labyrinth not only the city and the country but narrow gangways and alleys to the super
wind turbines tucked inside it. Although there's also the world and beyond? Whatever highways. From the moment they see the
no guarantee that any of the towers will be built proposals do emerge will be scrutinized by labyrinth able to represent a more abstract
or the designs to be selected by public officials potential foes in a city long wary of high-rises. concept than form, they can also see it as a
will reach the vision by the development Indeed, to erect any tower will cast shade on a representation of a way of thinking, for
teams, but the designs and the favorable public park. Again, Comenius is right for eventually can reflect their cultures. If they are
response from elected officials - showed that saying light shone only above the city, while no longer on the right path and they see that
the recent startling changes to the city's skyline beyond the walls it is pitch dark. even progress is not marked by the straight
are only a prelude to what architecture could line, they still can believe in the circularity of
offer to the city labyrinth. They are no more daily living processes or even philosophical,
than proposing another new center as the and build a different reality from the one they

12 spatium
live in. Some people will move from one block
to another while others jump to next city if they
can not hold the labyrinth any longer. It is clear
our inability to understand other cultures is due
to this simple difference between one labyrinth
and other, or to clarify to the conception of one
metaphor or other.

Fig. 9 Lost in Maui traditional market, Hawaii

Fig. 11 Light horse interchange, Sidney

Source: www.smh.com.au

Fig. 10 Disorientation in Narita shopping arcade,

Japan
Fig. 8 Labyrinth alleys in the old city
of Lahore, Pakistan Fig. 12 Interchange & Spaghetti
CITY AND CONDITIONING
Source: news.windingroad.com
Manipulating urban people with the labyrinth
City is a place to form the behavior of human
setting and layout is applied very common
being. Forming behavior relied on received
among shopping mall managements; from the
stimulus which is later given a meaning based
traditional market to deluxe mall, in the western
on knowledge and experience. The
or in eastern part of the world. The more
interchanges are the obvious samples how
people lose their orientation the more easy
easy individual’s behavior can be formed. No
they are persuaded to buy something (Cook,
matter how complex the labyrinth of the
1970). While their body exhausted and fatigue
interchange - like spaghetti - will confuse
by being lost, their mind will be easy to be
urban people but if they follow the right
fascinated with eye-catching products just for
direction they can arrive to the destination set
releasing tension and anxiety of being lost.
up before. Not obeying path and direction will
Even Junkfoods can be most wanted escape
cause chaos. Although there are tempting short
since foods release seratonin in the brain to
ways to cut off the lanes but if they won’t obey
make our mind relax but usually before it backs
the rule they will suffer traffic and accident.
normal people has driven by consumptive
Here we can see that rules and regulations can
mode. It is exactly like Barthes paraphrased
be used to form urban people behavior where
about the pleasure of labyrinth.
eventually they will internalize the rules and Fig. 13 Route 1O interchange, Los Angeles
become habits for driving their car Source: www.ens-newswire.com
programmed unconsciously. Regulations can
differentiate good behaviors from the bad.

spatium 13
How to convert a person whom formerly TO SPOIL OR TO THREAT behaviors difficult to perform. Instead of using
altruistic and having prosocial behavior into an electric shocks or spying on people, put tall
egoistic individual? Just move him into the Basically there are two ways of creating a concrete wall or constrictor fence which cannot
city! Slow but sure he will become selfish. behavior that is by giving reward or be through in the median so that people cannot
Psychologists affirm that behavior of human punishment. One creates a spoiling across. Here we can see that physical objects,
being intrinsically represents individual atmosphere while the other creates a threat like street furniture, bus stops, pavements, up
interaction process with its environment as nuance. Therefore if we want to make a society to architectures can be used as conditioning
manifested that he is a life being. According to having certain behaviors as wanted, just create tools. Therefore if we want to create a society
behaviorist point of view, attitude and the fear (terror for instance) so that with high level of individualism, just put them
behavioral patterns can be formed through environmental atmosphere makes people will in vertical dwelling units as higher as possible
environmental inuring and confirmation feel painful if they won’t behave as wanted so that social contact can be minimized. On the
process. Starting from this view, inuring and (obey the terrorist) or on the contrary just contrary, if we want to create a society with
confirmation process can be formed through pamper the people so that they are happy to strong cohesiveness, just make a
many instruments of the city such as vehicles, behave as wanted. The first one is done by neighborhood with traditional houses that allow
buildings, roads, interchanges, shopping forcing and the other one is done voluntarily. several families live in one house, so that it can
malls, office layouts, furniture settings, For example, if we want to make people not maximize social contacts.
information & communication technology, and crossing the roads promiscuously just give an
even television programs. electrics shock by giving the road median a Strategy of pampering is much more human
current. Or spread out the police dressing in than threatening the people. By giving
A city is groups of people living in a large built disguise in the crowds where they can fine the presents, bonus, and lucky dips to the society,
environment. Of this perspective, city can be violator very high as done in Singapore, so that they can be very consumptive as wanted,
seen as laboratory, which its condition can be people will feel there is cruel police among especially if the atmosphere of the mall and its
manipulated depends and urban people are the them and always spied on them. On the shops can spoil them comfortably, completed
object of experiment. Some will protest with contrary, if we want to pamper the people so with air conditioning and swaying music. But it
this understanding simply because they do not that they want to cross the road in the wanted can also happened vice versa, where physical
want to be treated as an object of experiment spot voluntarily, we have to make a crossing- environment determined by behavior patterns
since human being can chose and cannot be line with travelator like found in the airports so of the society. A Real Estate in Cul-de-sac or
ordered easily like a Pavlov’s dog in Classical that pedestrian will feel more comfort if they enclave design with exclusive gateways will be
Conditioning theory. However, Skinner with his cross using travelator. more saleable since it can protect the society
Operant Conditioning theory proved that from the riots, threats, and terrors though in the
animals also can chose, and even more they end it also create disintegration among social
can commit suicide simply because they won’t classes in society. Therefore instead of
be forced. Of this reason, the term of object of behavior determined by physical environment,
experiment has changed into subject of the physical design accommodates behavior.
experiment since experimentee is assumed
having awareness towards its behavior. Spreading fear and creating threatening
Nevertheless, both Classical Conditioning and atmosphere will easily force people to create
Operant Conditioning are having the same goal certain behavior. This strategy used effectively
that is to force the experimentee to do what the by mobs, starting from streets, traditional
experimenter want. The easiest way is to give markets, terminals, political parties, and to
the experimentee a feeling of pain, physically government level. Hoodlums in the streets can
and/or mentally so that the experimentee will threat people by saying will not protect the
listen and obey. Skinner used electric shock for merchants from troubles if there is no security
pigeons and rats to force them choosing a money paid to them (though they are the ones
certain knob without current among other who make the troubles!). Police shadows the
knobs with current. But there was also vendors in the streets who won’t give money to
behaviorist like Tolman and Hull who use them. A member of the senate will be
Fig. 14 Walking thru Travelator excommunicated and recalled if he won’t obey
reward, instead of punishment, to the rats if
in the Kuala Lumpur his party’s interest. Formerly, public officers in
they perform well in order to obey what is
International Airport Indonesia would be fired if they didn’t choose
wanted, so that they will repeat the wanted
behavior voluntarily which eventually the the ruling party in election. Electric company
However, the threatening atmosphere is not will stop to distribute electricity if the price
behavior become habits.
merely has to accompany with punishment. won’t be raised by the city council, water
Thorndike used physical barriers so that certain

14 spatium
supply will be cut if consumers delay the create many social problems. In short, city
monthly payment, and so on and so on. planners must try to make urban people enjoy
to live in the city, just like an experimenter try
CITY PLANNERS: THE to make their rats enjoy their labyrinth.
EXPERIMENTER
Seeing the city as a great figure of laboratory,
For scholars like us, interpretation of the city city planners will find that involving urban
and its people implies movement, the journey people implies to the activities happened and
to the centers of the labyrinth. People that are could be manipulated in a labyrinth. The space
able to go through the labyrinth and come back of architecture is a labyrinth built by each and
are the ones who has understood and every building made. The architect who wants
deciphered it. For city planners the to get to know his profession gets on his way
interpretation of a city is also a creative act for towards “the promised land”, deep into the
they create it, reproduce it and decode it. This labyrinth of the city. In the same way they
could be the thread that keeps us getting lost constructed a significant micro-universe, the
inside the construction, mental or real, of architect creates labyrinths of meaning in
space. which each element is declaration of its own
secret. For each one of us the labyrinth could
present itself in different figures, it could
represent something subjective or concrete.
But above all the labyrinth is a space and open
to manipulations. Get experiment!

References
Barthes, Roland (1976). The Pleasure of the
Text. France: Jonathan Cape Publisher.
Fig. 15 Pampering the rat to enjoy the labyrinth Cook, M. (1970). Experiments on orientation and
proxemics. Human Relation, 23, 61 – 76.
Source: www.sinnesphysiologie.de
Cullen, Gordon (1962). Townscape, London:
Architectural Press.
City planners and government officials should King, John & Curiel, Jonathan (2007). Soaring
apply reward approach instead of punishment Plans for Transbay Terminal, San Francisco
to treat and to manage their citizen. They have Chronicle, August 7, 2007.
to make a lovable living atmosphere so that Koolhas, Rem; Mau, Bruce & Werlemann, Hans
they will love their labyrinth and do not want to (1997). S, M, L, XL 2nd Eds. New York:
move to other labyrinth in other city. They have Monacelli Press.
to improve their citizen’s welfare and well Louthan, Howard (Translator) & Sterk, Andrea
being. Try to create comfortable transportation (Translator) (1997). John Comenius: The
modes so that people can experience the city Labyrinth of the World and the Paradise of the
Heart. Paulist Press.
labyrinth cheerfully. Makes the city cleaner,
exciteful and pleasantful to live in complete Lynch, Kevin (1960). The Image of the City.
Cambridge, MA: M. I.T. Press.
with beautiful green landscape, anticipates
anual flooding by building proper waterflow Van Berkel, Ben & Boss, Caroline (1994).
Delinquent Visionaries. 2nd Eds. Rotterdam:
system, provides sustainable waste disposal 010 Publishers.
facilities and so on. For non physical strategy,
creates more jobs so that informal sector can
be reduced and the city will be cleaner since
the illegal booths & vendors will dissapear in
the streets, limits personal vehicles so that the
traffics will be smoother and the labyrinth is
more comfort to go through, controls urban
population since we know density is strong
correalated with aggresion behavior which
stimulate chaos in the city and eventually

spatium 15
 UDC 711.4:32 (497.11) 352.075 (497.11)

POLITICAL CIRCUMSTANCES AS A RISK FACTOR IN

URBAN DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY

Vladan Đokić, Zoran Nikezić

This paper is primarily based on the observation of conditions and effects of functioning of Belgrade, the Capital of Serbia, in
the period of its multiparty constellation. Although there were no significant intentions of political instrumentalisation of this
segment of city functioning that would sacrifice social usefulness and efficiency of development to political marketing in the
domain of urban planning, carrying out plans, and construction, , it is appropriate to point to these tendencies and needed to
face the problem in order to operate according to the processes of free political competition and not opposing them.

INTRODUCTION such adjustments or reconstruction of local recharge mutual relations, so to direct reader’s
administration system and authority and attention to some possibilities of its solutions.
Political competition and rivalry have still not competence, may be expected. It is a review of
become a part of expected, established, problems that need to be solved so that POLITICAL CIRCUMSTANCES OF
defined constellation (system) at the level of organization at the local level, crucial for urban MANAGING THE CITY
local authority or administration. development of big cities, would become DEVELOPMENT
democratic, socially justified and economically
Present competitive relations of influence in
effective, therefore politically adequate. Management, as well as directing of the urban
the process of governing urban development of
development of the city through local authority
the city, that can be determined as irrational It is convenient to start with supposition that executing (at level of local community and the
according to the efficiency and efficacy of urban planning is the most important item of city), is public business visible and liable to
governance, should be understood as directing the urban development of each local citizens estimation, also it is "window" through
necessary and desirable part of the process of community. The exact definition of urban which some political groups, formal and
development directing. Therefore, system of planning took from the Encyclopedia Britannica informal coalitions are showing their attitudes,
governance and administration should be is: "Urban planning is mostly performed values and programs to public. Each and every
adjusted to the circumstance in order to through authorities functioning and it requires political group, either it has pretension to
achieve maximum effect, instead of searching application of specific observation techniques, perform alone or together with some other,
for a way to avoid competition, disguise it, analyzes, presuming and assuming. According same orientated group, is demonstrating their
muffle or exclude it. to this, urban planning can be described as values, establishing relations with other
In the case that system is not adjusted to social movement, as an authority function, as political groups and citizens, so it gets or loses
political competition as a necessary part of technical discipline. Each aspect poses own its legitimacy by local authority executing.
conceptions, history and theories. Together,
process of directing and governing urban
those are connected in one big effort of Public interest in local authority work is a result
development of the city, the rivalry becomes
modern society to shape and improve of, on one hand, knowledge that daily or
unwanted since it endangers efficiency of the
environment that surrounds humans more and "small" politics is an indicator of potential "big"
city functioning, and, naturally, efforts are
more, implicating to the city". politics standing beside, so it is possible to
developed to defeat competition or, even
estimate protagonists through local authority
worse, prevent it. It is considered that the aspect of planning performances at global political scene. On the
based on authority functioning is the weakest other hand, public attention is provided by
This work treats some of the problems of
part in our system; and too often the main nature of the problem that is local authority
governance, primarily of urban development of
the city in the present conditions, but also reason of non-adequacy of plan realization, and subjected to, considering extremely significant
expected political competition, which under of directing urban development of the city. This consequences of local authority decisions on
work, for the mentioned reasons, aspires to every day life of citizens, on many town
certain circumstances may evolve to political
point out problems in domain of politics and institutions and its economy. Not only
confrontation. It points to possible fields where

16 spatium
regarding communal service prices, quality independent surrounding, through medias or confrontation contents in usual political battle
and contents, the imperfection of authentic by clear lobbing on directing the processes of between parties and political groups), city
landowners relations in regards to decisions political rivalry and confrontations, i.e. on local performances that are taken as indicators of
made by city government or local community, authority decisions. political attitudes and program performances,
which can immediately become economical political strengths outlook, offering itself as key
profit or damage. In other words, it can lead to POLITICAL RIVALRY AND in resolving of more covering problems at level
the gaining of owners rights over building, land CONFRONTATION of all together community.
exploitation right (actually land owning), public
land uses right, taking over the construction The expression rivalry understands b) Considering that, the mentioned local
business, communal equipment and competition, a game with forward defined authorities are just the part of bigger political
maintenance, therefore exploitation of the most rules, a fight that is respectable to rules, above businesses running by parties, therefore the
important city resources (land, mechanization all the one that does not permit that fight city functioning takes place under direct
and income rights). endangers premises that form the system influence of political programs and it is the
(long-term interests of city development, game of political interests of those who are
a) The fact is that on the level of local meaning many goals with wordlessly or involved in local authorities and those who
community problems (constructing, plans explicitly shaped concordance). Rivalry in confront it. It is not needed to emphasize to
realizations, so as to consequences related to politics, economy or even art, has positive which point it is possible that the results of
ownerships, economy and profit domain), the connotation and attribute to making the these interests is away from the real ones of
problems and interests which are far away from developing processes dynamic. local authority. It is enough simply to remind
local are distinguishing, more exactly the on clash between city need for long-term
problems that are connecting every day life The expression confrontation is identified with defined and financially supported strategy of
with "big" politics interests are being resolved. conflict that causes a blockage, deactivating, development, and political structures interests
and also disables action and does not generate necessarily adapted to the rhythm of local and
Local authority (either in domain of parliament alternative possibilities, but it has to be solved other elections, or rhythm of annual budget.
jurisdiction or executives) is realized through at the level on which it has been caused. This kind of interest conflict has to be resolved
activities on daily basis highly enclosing Short-date and occasional confrontations are by establishing administratively legal and
constructing and ownership problems and included components of rivalry status, although economical systems that will for sure grant
rights shaped that way, meaning urban plans longer confrontations may cause major departs continuity of urban development and for that
realizations and other conditions essential for a from essentials, undeniable common interest reason rectify political rivalry influence that, on
city development. Regarded to mentioned and completely impede some important this occasion, presents a relation of previous,
transparency, obviousness of daily activities components of urban development, or even in actual and the following political
and functional result of local authorities, local case of solution shortage, it makes inadequate establishment.
authority operating becomes the basis of their effects in city space. Principally, confrontation
political programs materialization and straight has positive connotation only if it occurs in c) Political rivalry induced from the outside
effects screening. current process, but negative if it is permanent projects, projects itself on city operating, in
distinctive of any relation or system condition. order to appear convincingly (considering that
b) Political opposition to local authorities the whole thing is occurring under the eye of
(either parliamentary or informal) is illustrated a) Local authority (beyond City Government) public). It may cause artificial attitudes
in public through the same ground of every day mostly controls the reveal of urban plans polarization, i.e. it may lead to political
city functioning, criticizing the moves of local (Master Plan comes into effect when the confrontation in basic approaches about the
authorities and, in some cases, pointing out the Ministry of Constructions confirms decision of mode how to manage the city, what plans are
other solutions usable in special occasions. In City Government, though the rest of plans to be made, or more often, how to realize them.
this manner, opposition is following primarily come to effect by decision of City authorities), One group denies everything proposed or done
its high interest participating between restricted while their realizations is under the jurisdiction by the other, as pointing out to the polarization
possibilities as on establishing fundamental of administrative authorities and organizations of own main political structures through
strategies and politics, as well as on activities (such as: Secretariat of Urbanism, City intended but false polarization of actual
of public confrontation to executive authority Planning, Headquarter of Land Business, problems of local significance. It may come to
decisions and its institutions. Secretariat for Property and Constructing endanger relatively rational city functioning in
business etc). All these proceedings comply meaning of construction only because of those
c) At final point, more important role of third with republic law, i.e. they are in compliance
sector should be expected, as free activities. In these cases, easily can happen
with ahead-defined system with inbuilt (and it has been often bearing in mind that
conglomerate of citizen’s associations, non- jurisdiction of local authorities. Thus, political
profitable nongovernmental organizations, confrontations and political marketing existed
structure of local authorities has, as the even before multiparty system founding), that
diverse groups of specified interests and more polygon of its own work (as well as the
significant influence, proportional to decisions are made for the cause of small and

spatium 17
temporary issues, instead of extensive and rationality of managing and developing that the jurisdictions cleaning up is the exact
predetermined. This certainly presents the systems of the city. way toward larger and more distinctive
nonsense worth of fighting against, to each one responsibility of any authority, as well as
responsible for public interest or public Law, at one side, and responsibility at the toward correlating efficiency with pluralism and
welfare. other, mutually related in authority execution at democratic procedure principals.
level of local authority are uncoordinated
d) Local situation becomes, in particular vertically – from local authority, over city It is comprehensible that even before there
circumstances, an instrument or weapon of government, to republic. Local authority were (unrecognized) political confrontations
political marketing, as well as it is required, the implies a certain least level of legal, financial and that they have caused frequent system
instrument of tensing the differentials or calling and technological autonomy coordinated with blockade meaningful exclusions between
the attention to compatibilities – independently responsibilities of providing developing existent field state and the one documented.
of real issue state considering local interests, framework for local authorities, providing Disclosing of confrontations and its resolving
in order that those obviously become ground of conditions of usual every day life to city and require interventions in managing system,
political rivalries competition and a political citizens, as well as conditions of ordinary urban particularly in jurisdictions redefining in order
fight device. Decisions, attitudes, priorities – development. Currently, nevertheless, huge to provide "clear accounts" conditions.
all these can be responses to questions piece of logical functionally justified local
regarding local authority jurisdiction. However, authority obligations is out of reach to its Changing of jurisdiction in the meaning of
these responses are always segmental and not formational authorizations. Local authority, the centralization in relation to local community,
referred to posed questions only, but to line up one that brings out a plan, has very limited city government and republic has taken place
of other inexpressible matters. It is normal that possibilities for its implementation in domain in the period when the opposition took over
each decision has to be treated as publicly of urban planning, so the overhaul plans local authorities on the level of individual
expressible manifest, as gesture of larger considered to previous plans or existed state in community, and later even the Belgrade city
import than it is presented within local the field became an important segment of local government. It has found an obvious political
framework, but with constantly forming authority activities. aspect, even if it does not comply with true
boundaries of this double implication so that interests of some system levels operating. At
damage would not be larger than benefit. In this way the situation is not compliant with one side, nowadays there is centralization of
general world trend that forces reinforcement of city jurisdictions that no doubt may be
SOME TROUBLE ISSUES IN local authorities, precisely emphasized in reduced, in the way that one part can be
DIRECTING THE DEVELOPMENT IN many documents and studies. For example, transferred to the level of local community
according to Habitat Conference II, it should be (probably not in domain of making and
POLITICAL RIVALRY CONDITIONS that local authorities are highly independent in bringing the plans, but surely in large part of
Centralization and decentralization of authority particular administrative and financial issues the domain of their realization). On the other
in relation to local community, city government taking into consideration their right to lead side, there are a number of city management
and republic are main problems whose astray of own taxes. Alongside, local authorities mechanisms, such as immobility ownerships,
solutions would improve the effects of urban may turn into landowners that would provide taxes and fees, services and renounced rights
development in conditions of political rivalry. It them to own a significant instrument of active prices, issuing of regulations, decisions
should be expected that existing rivalry would land politics running, enabling them a very realization through communal police and
outgrow to more frequent and more significant strong influence on process of directing the similar matters, that are mostly sited on the
confrontation that would be included in inhabitation development. republic rank, and which in fact disable the
democratic transformations during transition to local authority functioning and executing, in the
Mismatching of jurisdictions, close to us, is full sense of the meaning.
strategically different system of urban highlighted through expected political rivalry
development. that exists among singular parties and This kind of displacement detected in
Various political groups and parties hold coalitions, who are actually executing authority jurisdictions correlation drastically reduces
different authority levels (local communities, duties on different levels (from local, over city, technological and managing system entirety. It
city government and republic). Besides all to republic). In cases when authority is is worth to declare that this entirety has existed
favorable terms on needs for rivalry regarding performing by the same political party or earlier and it has not depended on official
programs and ideas, which certainly exists, the coalitional parties, there are less troubles in jurisdiction separation, although the single
way of non alternative development, it may also usual operating, although this type of system is political scene has been connecting all
be noticed a line of serious imperfections of an directly bound to prove existing of our needs decision levels. Today, when such political
formal system, i.e. of an redistribution of for real politics, and not for simply operative discipline and singularity are exceeded,
responsibilities and authorizations which synchronization. Without denying the call for dislocated strictly defined jurisdictions that
substantially diminish the efficiency and making contacts, or often a common problem were more disturbed for the period of political
solution and compromises, it would still be pluralism ascertaining (saving city government

18 spatium
by centralization of city functions during the used to support the offers for local, national, investments and effects caused by current
opposition overcoming in certain regional or international investing. system.
communities) are provoking the real
disturbances for operating, functioning and Especially significance in city functioning However neither of those is rational support for
developing of the city. should be dedicate to public, as well to long-term periods. It is needed to transform
openness for the most important events, formal systems, to coordinate responsibilities,
Cities in some European countries were the businesses and problems, and to all the acts jurisdictions and possibilities of local authority
symbol of independent political entities with that city government are performing to insure and adjust them to new circumstances of
high autonomy level centuries ago. City city functioning. Decisive assignment in public managing the city in the conditions of political
government supremely expresses fundamental promotion of city outlook is in the hands of rivalry, and then not only to permit city
characteristics of national regime. If political Medias who are seen as actual power sources, development, but to encourage it.
democracy exists on national level, like today more or less independent from formal
in the most of west European countries and government executives. This is the reason why We are standing at the opinion that the most
Japan, cities are enjoying high degree of local the development of independent medias and considerable step to improve the conditions of
autonomy and democratic managing systems. public opinion in general, so the entire city functioning from the position of managing
Yet in case of authoritative regime, central communication with citizens are constituent in branch of directing the urban development
government usually reduces or even part of the problem of directing the urban would be decentralization of jurisdictions and
completely crushes local authority and development in the conditions of political their mutual synchronization. Certainly, this
democratic initiatives. This is how countries rivalry and confrontation, therefore it is would not matter only to urban development,
with all the power and responsibilities recommended to explore this topic separately but to entire system of local authority, thus
concentrated on certain persons or groups in framework of corresponding disciplines. from the bottom to the top on the system
mostly at city government rank are organization in the wholeness.
demonstrating the same attitude as in central Diversities in political aims and programs,
even more in political interests of differently Although importance lay in horizontal
government. distribution of responsibilities and
ranked authorities, in conditions of no
This standpoint meets the terms of the newest jurisdiction system, but mixed and authorizations in relation of local authority
world programs of sustainable development, technologically unsynchronized jurisdictions, executives and their parliaments, even in the
such as for example AGENDA 21, which is are in possibility to endanger validity of any matter of professional autonomy management
expecting from local authority to present decision made on the level of local authority, and their possibility of impoliticness, it is
decisional factor in the realization process of still to completely disable their carrying out moved to the backside at present.
the nearly all goals of urban development. and cause long-standing and damaging What comes as very interesting issue is how to
According to this document local authority is confrontations. We consider needless to organize functioning of local authority and its
supposed to set, manage and sustain diminish or cover up those diversities, but to interior organs in one new constellation of
economical and social infrastructure, as well as build new coordinated system of jurisdictions authorizations. This problematic issue has to
environmental infrastructure and some of the on the principles of decentralization and logical be resolved correspondingly to changes
future planning processes, also it is supposed horizontal correlation of functions at the levels proposed in the lines of their straight
to compose local laws regarded to environment of community, city and republic. consequence (i.e. as reason of their
and regulative as well as to assist in reconstruction).
application and use of national environment CONCLUSION
law. Each local authority should be able to There are obvious tendencies that local
At one side, basic troubles that are preventing
create dialogue with its residents, local authority executives are becoming more
existing system inadequacy to be misused, are
organizations and private corporations and to powerful on the damage of their parliaments,
in common sense and ethical aspect of all
adopt local Agenda 21. By using consultations, as also tendencies that the role of city manager
actors at the scene of local politics and local
local authority may learn lots from the citizens, as politically autonomic professional in direct
authority, as well as in an active part of
local city associations, business and private executing authority is becoming more
independent medias (if there are some), who
organizations, as well as to get information that important, so we are facing one of the issues
are following and indirectly controlling
will help to produce best development that require special attention and treatment,
behavior of different groups and all events in
strategies. This sort of consultations would somewhere out of this work.
daily city life.
increase consciousness about problems hold
The main principle is to incline towards
to sustainable development. In order to achieve At the other side, basic initiative strength that
horizontal connection of jurisdictions
aims of Agenda 21 programs, law and makes city functioning in spite of, and not
respecting whole autonomy principles at the
regulative of local authority, should be applied gratitude to its own structure is in large
lowest authority level (already accepted
and modified following the principles of local persistency of the same actors and in huge
principles that are making efficiency and
programs. Furthermore, strategies should be effort putted so to reduce negative relation of

spatium 19
rationality in managing increasing, and more References
direct democratic deciding referred to
relevancies of local authority, not damaging to AGENDA 21: Programme of Action for
Sustainable Development, RIO DECLARATION
extensive community.
on Environment and Development, Statement
It can be that some communities that are of FOREST PRINCIPLES, United Nations
Department of Public Information, New York,
capable to renew their local framework, are 1993.
being crushed by local framework of the
Borislav Stojkov, urednik, Urbanizam Evrope,
country. In order to prevent this, it is evropska urbanistička povelja. Osnovni aspekti
recommended that the authority is odž`ivog razvoja ljudskih naselja HABITAT II
decentralized. Decentralization of authority by (Ujedinjene nacije). Uloga države u prostornom
the principle of territorial distribution is making i urbanističkom planiranju (OECD), Udruženje
that citizens can become active members of urbanista Srbije, Urbanistički zavod, Beograd,
1996.
society political life. The existence of local
authority presents one of the most important Le Corbusier, Atinska povelja, Beograd, 1965.
suppositions in order to turn big city into Snežana Djordjević, Politička zajednica velikog
democratic community. Choosing the type of grada, Institut za političke studije, Beograd,
1993.
local authority directly influence to further
institutional types of local authorities in a big Nenad Dimitrijević, Izvršna vlast, Enciklopedija
političke kulture, Savremena administracija,
city, as well as on the type of relations and
Beograd, 1993.
connections created in such community.
Jakob Brunovski: Uspon čoveka, Otokar
Therefore, city and local community have to Keršovani, Rijeka, 1986.
have their own complete and effective local Miodrag Janić, Održivi razvoj ljudskih naselja
authority, i.e. true authority for the issues zemalja u tranziciji, Direkcija za gradjevinsko
zemljište i izgradnju Beograda, Beograd, 1997.
regarded to local community development, and
John Kenneth Galbraith, Antologija moći,
already inbuilt in the largest part of European
Stvarnost, Zagreb, 1983.
democracy. It is about decentralization of the
Encyclopedia Britannica, 1994-1998.
city referring to the local community and
decentralization of Republic referring to the city
government. This kind of decentralization
should be carried out in the domain of law
(regulative), economy (ownerships, income –
expense) and system functioning technologies
that make city functioning dependent of
(energy, traffic, police …). All this mentioned
would enable development from the bottom,
what is marked as rational and democratic.

Finally, it should be underlined that democracy

and strength increasing of local authority, by
reducing the level of deciding to the lowest
from the viewpoint of managing rationality are
not simply the civilization establishment of the
developed world that by established
procedures are confirming the values of
individual and community belonging to. It is
about very rational systems that are reducing
resistances in realizations of democratically
made decisions, mostly hiring community
efforts (voluntary and with precise interest) to
achieve common goals.

20 spatium
 UDC 711.21.16
711.21:502.131.1
711.5

DEVELOPMENT OF NEW ECONOMIC POLES IN

METROPOLITAN AREAS: BELGRADE EXAMPLE

Slavka Zeković, Nenad Spasić, Tamara Maričić

INTRODUCTION services and various business activities, urban evident in modern economic thought. In a way,
development etc. In the present stage of the utopian vision of society and economic
New European paradigms of sustainable transition and development, it is necessary to growth in a soc.-realistic planning system in
economic activity development (based on the begin with the adaptation of development, the development of post-communist areas has
Lisabon agenda) have had a profound effect on spatial and economic policy in accordance been opposed to political pluralism and
the creation of new phases and devolopment with the rules and demands for joiming the EU. market-oriented economy. Hodgson
policies in Serbia, such as spatial-planning The present process of transition and G.M.(1999), finds that an evolving economy
and urban policy. The economic and social development took place until the end of 2006, and the development of economy occurs inside
development policy founded on new without a ratified strategy of development, i.e. the context of long-term perspectives, high
knowledge, innovation and entrepreneurship until the adoption of „Serbia’s Strategy of uncertainty, with an accent on resources,
(the development of small and medium-sized Industrial Development by 2012“. entreprise potentials and institutional evolution
entreprises, spin-off companies etc., as Unfortunately, this strategy does not deal with arrangements. Hodgson G. M. (2000), also,
„regional catalysts“ of development), the questions about the effects of development points out that the utopian paradigm of the
environmental protection and principles of processes and the process of globalisation on central/planning system is replaced by another
sustainibility, represents the new paradigm of the creation of new economic poles/spatial – a paradigm of market individualism, and that
spatial development. Harmonisation of clusters within urban/metrpoliten areas in these two should be replaced by „market
strategic aims, policies and instruments is an Serbia. Therefore, this work is trying to cognitivism“ and by „a learning economy“. If
essential factor for the competitiveness of demonstrate the need for the research of new we consider the idea that defining a vision is a
industry and individual regions. economic poles in urban areas, the need for pre-condition of general progress in spatial
For an effective planning of sustainable mechanisms of agglomerating activities in organization, the same can be considered as a
spatial/economic clusters, the typology and target point and an essential place in the
industrial development and spatial organization
parameters of new economic poles, and the concept of future development. Two key global
in urban areas in Serbia in the following period,
harmonisation of sustainable spatial and urban tendencies have influenced the socio-
it is necessary to incorporate European
strategic frameworks, approaches and spatial development in Serbia, based on the example economic and spatial changes – the
planning practises. In the process of economic of the Belgrade metropoliten area. globalization of economy and the
transformation of postcommunist economic
and social transition in Serbia, coordination to PARADIGM OF SUSTAINIBILITY AND systems and state into a market economy,
the conditions of EU competitiveness, the
development of small and medium-sized VISION OF TERRITORIAL AND political pluralism and the strenghtening of
entreprises in the industrial sector, services URBAN DEVELOPMENT institutional frameworks. The concept of
sustainable development, as a challenge in
and other business activities, as well as urban
The latest discussions concerning potential harmonizing economic, social, political,
policy, is a complex economic and spatial
spatial development are not possible without environmental and spatial dimensions could
planning challenge. Under the pressure of
taking into consideration the visions of socio- serve as a suitable frame for“depreciation of
global processes in economic development,
economic development. However, in economic influences“ of globalization processes and
the transition of the socio-economic system
theory the ideas of certain schools about the socio-economic transitions on all levels of
into a market-oriented economy in Serbia,
vision of economic development have always planning. Due to the influences of the latter
among other things, has influenced the
been divided between free market and/or state processes, spatial organization of cities and
creation of new economic poles (spatial-
regulation. Apart from this difference in settlements, regardless of big regional
economic clusters) in urban areas, changes in
opinions, according to Heilbroner R., Milberg differences, is characterised by a ’Planetary“
spatial organization of cities, the apearance of
W. (1997), a certain crisis of visionry is sindrom of standardizing lifestyles and
new locational-spatial forms of industries,

spatium 21
organization of work for people , together with a planning an industrial balance in a defined in peripheral regions of EU are trying to create
characteristic homogenization of urban area, in accepting local conditions, locally and implement the strategy of regional
structures and processes (the so-called „coloured“structure systems and the development in the context of regional
European monotopy, -Jensen O.B., Richardson particularities of a local/regional area. The decision-making, by way of EU institutions and
T., 2004). development should be suitable for the actual national governments, in respect of the
conditions of area, i.e. it should depending on globalisation process. At the same time, a
From the viewpoint of the proclaimed new stimulating and limiting circumstances, but „new regionalism“ is evident, together with
competitiveness policy of European area, a also on an institutional frame as well. However, two main models in European integration –
dominant role of economy is noticeable, one the connection beween these elements is neofunctionalism and liberal
that is based on knowledge, innovation and determined by the political and social power in intergovernmentalism. Amin A., and Massey D.
entrepreurship, or the so-called „learning interaction with a market-oriented economy, (2003) point out to the radical decentralization
economy“, in accordance with the the the strong influence of the process of and relocation of national political institutions
principles of sustainable development. In globlisation, and the creation of new economic and global economies into less developed
accordance with the changes in knowledge , poles in the city suburbs. regions. Apart from this general European trend
innovations, indications of new potentials and of curtailing regional differences, establishing
ideas, a question can be raised about different According to Harvey, J. (1996), the main new „economic poles of development“ in
options concerning future spatial development. dialectic insights useful for linking the metropolitan peripheries is also significant in
Essentially, it concerns the choice between discourse of general development with that of planning spatial development. According to
various uncertain futures of spatial spatial development are founded on: Burdach J.(2006), it is a matter of a new
development and the „certain“ future of discourse in peripheral growth (metropolitan).
planning. a) endevours to „map the area“ as a
precondition for structuring any kind of Simultaneously, a trend of faster
According to Jakšić M.(2004), the challenge of knowledge; industrial/economic growth of the EU
the 21st century is not in establishng a fixed peripheral region can be observed with the
and final utopia, but in creating an ev-topia. In b) mapping the area, which implies a certain integration of new member-states. In other
other words, instead of u-topia( a Greek word kind of power, as a crucial mode and tool in words, a presence of a new discourse of
meaning an „imaginary/non-existing“ place) – the political battle and decision-making; double peripheral growth is evident – a growth
the creation of an ev-topia( a place that of peripheral metropolitan areas and a growth
c) on social relations that need spatial frames;
evolves, develops), meaning a system of of EU peripheral regions. New economic poles
stimulating and applying knowledge and d) on practical experiences of spatial change, in metropolitan areas are a result of a high
adjusting skills to the conditions, uncertainties in which all knowledge is included; participation of the public sector (especially in
and aims of the surroundings. As the providing heavy infrastructure, support in
e) institutions that have been made territorial, curtailing spatial unbalance, etc), but also in
mechanisms of perception and acquiring
mainly for controlling sustainable attracting foreign and local investments. State
knowledge have a social character, social
development, surveillance of territory, issue of intervention, schema of regional planning and
relations are based on territory, so is the
authority over land, resources, etc. local actors have a significant role in their
development of economy based on knowledge
togeter with mechanisms of spatial planning development as well. State intervention in the
f) on innovation (of thought, desires and
policies. public sector has an entrepreneurial character,
imagination) as a fruitful source for reshaping a
which can be noticed in various forms of public
territory and activities, in accordance with
Starting from the complexity of spatial and private partnerships. According to the EU
different discourses, social relations, power
development and the aspirations for a certain Competitiveness Program 2007-2013, in the
relations, institutional structure and practice.
unification of spatial-planning policies and target year (2013) for competitivenesss
standards within the European area (on a Principles of sustainable development should growth, economic growth and employment, a
national and supranational level), parallely with be added to these (CEMAT, 2000). budget of 16,3 billion euros/per year or 33% of
the mentioned system of ev-topia, according to EU budget is predicted. The initiated process
Jensen O.B., Richardson T. (2004), on territory TREND OF EXPANDING ACTIVITIES of relocation, expansion and transfer of know-
exists an even more pronounced phenomenon AND NEW ECONOMIC POLES IN how, and direct foreign investment into Eastern
of European mono-topia (in the sense of Europe has influenced the dynamic of growth
CITY AREAS
unification of places, spatial structures, of GDP in this part of Europe, and of the entire
processes of expanding new economic poles in Questions concerning the mode of organization EU. With the expansion of EU, it is supposed
city periphal areas etc). In order to overcome and management of development on a regional that the average GDP per capita for the 15
the reverse effects of spatial mono-topia, level and level of metropolitan areas are being member-states in EU will be around 10% less,
changes are necessary in the understanding of raised throughout the EU. Mathias J. (2003), especially because of the growth rate dynamic
universally effective ways and mechanisms of points out the manner in which political actors of GDP of new member-states (according to

22 s p a t i u m
Kovačević R., 2004, in the period 2000-2004 According to Burdack, J.(2006), the concept of usually lead to the reduction of transportation
growth rate of GDP of these countries was classic spatial models of cities (standardized and communication costs, to the reduction of
3,2%, while the rate of BDP of the 15 member- „rings“ and sectors) is being more and more employment costs when hiring local work
states was 1,8%). transformed into polycentric forms, created by force, the reduction of costs for using local
grouping or networking different kinds of resources, special services and infrastructure,
New economic polarities in locations for different purposes. A tendency of as well as the advantages of the proximity of
urban/metropolitan peripheries the breaking up of urban structures into the local market. In this formation of branching
different series of specialized and fragmented activities, an absence of special gains is
In some large cities of Europe, and Serbia as
localities, by way of clusters of activities evident because of the presence of other
well, (ex. Belgrade, Novi Sad), new economic
disperesed inside a populated structure. In that actors. The key factor of agglomeration are the
poles – new economic, commercial, industrial,
way, more and more an image of a „functional real estate costs. Burdach, J. (2006), calls
entrepreneurial zones that have been created
archipelago“ is created in an urban (periphery) these clusters some sort of „open
by planning or spontaneously in the suburbia
fabric, unlike earlier approaches. (for example, membership“, in which usually are
(along motorways, main roads) have a priority
in earlier GUP in Belgrade in 1970’s, the concentrated business facilities and offices, in
in the development and spatial organization
concept of an „archipelago in a sea of green“ which there is mixed use of land, with
planning of the area. The reasons for such a
was promoted). The cummulative effects of residential functions, and with main corridors
trend are manifold – low price of land,
developing new poles lead to a new concept of are linked to the central parts of the city or
available sites, proximity of residential areas,
growth of urban/metropolitan periphery as well. region.
favourable conditions on site etc. The
Initial nucleuses of this development are often
expansion of work/factory zones in big cities is The other type of spatial clusters, like the
shopping centres, business-commercial
contradictory to the idea of a sustainable industrial complex, is based on well-known
centres et sl., which is a consequence of the
compact city, above all, because of an increase input-output links among the entrepises in the
transition of an industrial into a post-industrial
in transportation, greater energy consumption, zone, which mainly have a commercial
society, i.e. the transfer of agglomerative
greater costs of infrastructure, negative effects character. The locational behaviour of
advantages of cities onto regional/peripheral
on the environment, ruin of agricultural land entreprises in the complex is directed towards
surroundings. Based on the experiences of
and similar. In this way, the tendency of the reduction of costs in the transactions
European cities, new economic poles have
deurbanization has transformed into between companies (intercompany
5.000-10.000 workers.
suburbanization, because the density of cooperation). These industrial spatial clusters
population in peripheral metropoliten areas has Mechanisms of agglomerating in new are more stable than a simple and incoherent
rapidly grown, as well as the number of flats, economic poles grouping of entreprises. In the industrial spatial
the growth of economic activity, costs of cluster there often is one dominant entreprise
infrastructure, ecology etc. In other words, new In studies and explainations of the that „determines“ the principle conditionsfor
centres of production and consumption development of functions/activities of spatial locating the other companies around itself, by
influence the transformation of suburbia (as cluster in a defined territorial entity way of a kind of hierarchy of relations. These
mainly residential, socially homogenous zones, ,Agglomerating mechanisms play an important zones are often far away territorially from other
with lower density in an urban periphery) into role. For example, new industrial zones and built locations, but are always connected by
post-suburbia (which expresses the production complexes show various motorways and main roads with their
transformational process in multi-functional mechanisms of spatial/economic clusters on surroundings. Examples of this form of
locations). Many different concepts have been town and regional levels. According to Burdack industrial clusters can be seen in many big
concerned with this phenomenon of the J. (2006), three types of mechanisms stand out towns in Serbia – ex. the zone location in the
transformation of suburbia into post-suburbia, and they lead to different spatial clusters of area of motorways and Belgrade airport, in
describing it as a „new centrality“ outside of activities: Pecinci, Šimanovci, Indjija, Novi Sad etc.
the central place, i.e. the creation of a new
centre outside the downtown city area. The 1) spatial branching based on incoherent Examples of spatial clusters based on social
term „new economic pole“ implies various agglomeration; networks are local zones/areas, which are
kinds of new dynamic centres with a functional favourized by directing social capital,
2) spatial branching as an industrial complex
specialization in the metropolitan periphery. knowledge, networking. These functions of
(coherent agglomeration) and
The main spatial forms of new economic poles branching, based on social organization of
in peripheral urban areas (suburbia) are 3) spatial branching based on social institutions, are often linked to the „Californian
industrial parks, technological parks, industrial networking (coherent agglomeration). school“ of regional economy, whose followers
complexes, shopping malls, business- are Scott A. Storper, Saxenian (Scott A, 1988).
First type of spatial clusters is based on the Research of locational factors of agglomerating
commercial centres, logistics centres,
grouping of functions because of the factor of high-tech industry are very extensive, and
business centres etc.
proximity (to the centre). These clusters demonstrate the differences in attitudes of

spatium 23
theoreticians of planning (Markusen A., Hall P., In European cities, new economic polarities are economic content in the metropolitan area.
1986., Scott, Storper, 1987., Scott A.J., 1997). a result of locational dynamics and According to Serbia’s Strategy for Joining the
reject Markusen’s theory of unique high-tech reevaluation of the existing spatial organization EU, (2005) a development of industrial parks is
industry locational factors, while stressing the under the effect of activity of multinational predicted, which would later grow into clusters,
factors of highly-skilled personnel and the companies and the development of structure with the provision of necessary heavy
economy of agglomeration/clustering. on knowledge-based economy ( with strictly infrastructure, possibility of fast construction of
Saxenian, A. (1993) supports the views that global relations). According to Dovenyi Z., business and industrial facilities, fiscal
agglomeration of high technology stimulates Kovacs Z. (2006), the post-communist incentives and qualified labour. The National
synergetic factors, and has many spatial and deveopment of eastern-European cities shows Investment Plan of RS predicts the
infrastructural attributes. Examples of this kind a hybrid layout with relics of spatial structures construction of 49 industrial zones in towns of
of concentration of activities into clusters are of the socialist era, a phenomenon of structure Serbia. According to data of Serbian
high-tech zones (ex. technology parks, transformation and new suburban/posturban investment climate assessment (2004), only in
industrial parks, high tech corridors, business spatial layout of clusters. The majority of totally the area of Belgrade, in a „new wave“ of
incubators et sl.). developed new economic poles have a clear construction 20.000 ha of urban land
sectoral orientation. New economic poles are (farmland) has been found to be under
With the evolution of knowledge and awareness comprehended as a great area of concentration construction in the peripheral area. A housing
of the greater roles territory and environment of economic activity, comprised of many deficit in Belgrade, numerous refugees and
play, as limitating factors in planning industrial „spots“, points, branching, and have a specific dislocated persons, have caused a significant
development, there have been some spatial configuration. They are initial nucleuses residential pressure onto the suburbs, and
„contradicting“ attitudes in the treatment of of new employment growth in city peripheries, uncultivated farmland of Belgrade
locational and environmental aspects of and the first early signal of a polycentric agglomeration (ex. Zemun corridor, belt of
investment moves. According to traditional structure of a territory. Spatial economy of motorways to Surčin, Batajnica, Novi Sad,
economic theories, industrial development is periphery urban area is not homogenous. Avala direction, Borča, Ovča, Pančevo direction
primarily determined by capital investment and Although, until recently, traditional city etc.) as well as the birth of new small
employment rate, without the role of technical peripheries were identified as a mixture of entreprises, and the concentration of economic
progress and location. However, neoclassic industrial spaces, family homes, traffic activity in the mentioned spaces. Metropolitan
theory of proportional factors ( which includes corridors and greenery, today they have a more periphery outside the borders of the city of
technical progress), indicates the special distinct sensitivity to market signals and Belgrade is becoming more attractive for
importance of locational economies as a result initiatives in relation to the central city zones. settlements (ex. The zones along the motorway
of expansion of industrial space, and the role of In this space, drawn by the growth of Belgrade-Novi Sad, Belgrade-Zagreb,
agglomeration economies – urban economies population with a higher education, especially Belgrade-Niš, Ibar direction, Avala direction,
in the planning of industrial development. by way of a new infrastructure for research- Zrenjanin direction etc.) due to easy access to
development institutions, many new high-tech the corridors, nature etc. In addition, a
Typology of new economic poles in
activities of production take place services. concentration of economic activity is evident
urban/metropolitan peripheries
There activities of transportation services are along the motorway from Belgrade to Batajnica,
In the typology of new economic growth poles developed, logistics, production and wholesale Novi Sad, airport “Nikola Tesla”, Dobanovci,
in the urban/metropolitan periphery, the (warehouses, storehouses etc.) shopping malls Zemun, Pančevo road etc. A great
agglomerative mechanisms of functionally- and various services. concentration of economic activity has occured
related clusters of companies (functional outside the Belgrade agglomeration , on the
EFFECTS OF NEW TRENDS OF motorway zones _ ex. large industrial zones in
clusters) and „unrelated“ clusters are very
important, as well as functional specialization DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC Šimanovci, Pećinci, Krnješevcima etc. At
of poles. On the other hand, there is a generally ACTIVITES ON SPATIAL motorway exits (corridor X) big shopping
accepted classification of new economic poles centres have been built like „Metro“, „Tempo“,
ORGANIZATION OF BELGRADE
into „dynamic“ and „stagnant“. The first are „Idea“, „Rodić“, „Mercur“, „Mercator“,
related to, for example, shopping malls, airport
METROPOLITAN AREA „Veropulos“, etc. Municipalities that have
zones of development, technology parks, zones better traffic and communication links with
The process of post-suburbanization is a
of business-commercial activities in an urban their surroundings, and with the central zone of
consequence of activity of commercial powers
periphery, and the other („stagnant“) are Belgrade, and have an efficient entrepreneurial
and it takes place in all metropolitan
usually relics of the soc.-realistic era (classic local authority and administration, are
peripheries, including Belgrade. Significant
industrial, work zones, military complexes et advantaged in attracting new content. In the
foreign investments and the development of
sl.). Belgrade agglomeration, those are
86.000 entreprises (of which around 1/3 are in
municipalities Pećinci, Surčin, Stara Pazova,
Belgrade), illustrate a more significant role of
Indjija and others.
market mechanisms of allocated new

24 s p a t i u m
At the start of transition we can equally find The formation of new economic poles as a conversion of these zones is evident, fuelled on
both the existing functional territories/areas result of a general tendency for an international one side by the process of privatization of state
and areas of economic growth with new shift of production and services from the city entreprises in these zones, and on the other
functional specializations. A significant part of centre to the periphery. In other words, the side, by the pressure of direct foreign
urban spaces is occupied by industrial and market mechanisms and factors of international investment. The process of transformation of
transportational functions and facilities, often proportions, activate the pressure of direct these „ossified“ industrial localities is often
they are very negative. Recently, with foreign investments into metropolitan/urban complicated, slow, expensive and uncertain,
privatisation, the process of reactivating peripheries, above all, because of the that is why the activities of construction and
abandoned industrial locations (brownfields) in agglomeration economies, reduction of various development of new zones/ecomonic polarities
eastern-european cities, including Belgrade is costs, acceptable and favourable locational (greenfield investments) in an urban matrix are
gradually being opened. In cities with a market economies in periphery city zones etc. This much more important and large-scale.
economy, the industry holds 4-10% (Paris process has negative repercussions both in
5.2%, London 4,7%) of the entire developed spatial-environmental, and in the institutional The process of globalization and the activity of
space (Bertaud A., 2006), while industrial domain as well. Based on theoretical opinions, the „invisible hand“ on the market, among
locations in eastern-european cities occupy experiences from many areas, it seems that the other things, is the product of profound spatial,
15,1-43,8% (Prag 13,4%, Varšava 15,1%, process has a devastating effect on the regional structural, urban and socio-economic changes
Sofija 27,1%, Ljubljana 27,4%, Moscow and local institutions, as well as on the local on all levels. On the territory of Serbia, due to
31,6%, St. Petersburg 43,8%. In Belgrade , it is investors, by imposing on them the rules of the activity of transitional changes these
approximately 18%. However, the general behaviour, standards, movements and direction processes have been significantly boosted.
opinion is that due to the price of construction, of capital. Inside an urban-spatial context, it However, they flow spontaneously, randomly
parking problems et sl., the new dominant can be directly observed in the profound and often without adequate planning and
trend is construction in new industrial facilities, changes (quite often in the caving in as well) of management or institutional control. In the
on free locations in the urban periphery the existing spatial organization of a city, city period between 1990-2000, due to the many
(greenfields). zonings, propositions, rules and regulation political economic and social happenings in
standards for using the building land et sl. So, Serbia, „grey“ economy was especially
Clustery deconcentration of business activity direct foreign investment is the pivot of the promoted, with an explosion of illegal
leads to a new relation and movement from the development of new economic poles in urban construction and an uncontrolled expansion of
centre of city to the outskirts. The effects of areas (banking, shopping malls, high-tech and cities.
development and concentration of industrial business activities, industrial parks, logistics
activity and living in the suburbia (post- The aim of urban planning policy and the
centres and transportation etc). This process concept of branching-clustery deconcentration
suburbia), without control of the over- has a foothold in the theoretical concept of
construction phenomenon or urban lots, activities is to prevent the negative
liberal economy, especially the so-called consequences of the doom scenario and
environmental effects and pollution et sl., have Smith’s „invisible hands“ of the market. In
an ever-growing, partly explosive character. entropy of urban territories (conversion of the
other words, the processes of illegal „boom“ development scenario into the so-
Post-socialistic „boom“ of the metropolitan constuction and expansion of cities are only a
periphery is not imminent to only eastern- called „doom scenario“), based on the
consequence of bad legal solutions in the field priciples of sustainable development.
european and Balkan countries, but to of planning and building of spaces, poverty of
developed metropolitan areas of Western Considering the fact that the development of
citizens, social and other problems, but they new economic polarities in urban peripheries
Europe too. The development is shifting from are directly fuelled and/or initiated by market
the central compact city nucleus to the inner mainly is not linked to regional and national
mechanisms. The process of suburbanization politics, the concept of polycentric urban
and outer city peripheries. One of the principle is „artificially“ initiated by economic and social
reasons for the socio-economic and spatial structure could alleviate the negative effects of
policies as well, but also by inadequate the mentioned tendencies. The development of
transformation of urban areas is the proces of mesures of urban policy and policy of urban
tertialization, i.e. the development of services. potential implications of new polarities onto the
land (ex. untransformed system of managing regional environmnet and development, the
The main instigator of these processes are the building land, undeveloped instruments of
usually foreign investments into the services manner of coexistence of growth and
taxing building land and real estate, tax rates, stagnation areas and/or depression, the
sector (most often it is the banking sector, the fee for land development and usage, local
insurance, shopping malls, sales and exhibit disappearance of traditional industrial
taxes, subventions, concessions, etc.). production, expansion of services, explosive
halls, hotels, storehouses and trade etc). The
role of city authorities , municipalities and In accordance with economic restructuring growth of suburbia, is the subject of planning
local investors in this proces is relatively (tendency towards tertialization) in a spatial policy of metropoliten area.
small, usually they have a service function in urban/metropolitan structure, a stagnation and
providing suitable conditions on locations. „disappearance“ of classic industrial zones,
complexes, entreprises is evident. A functional

spatium 25
Possible development of new economic processes, it is predicted that the centre of planning policies, means of planning and
poles in metropolitan area of Belgrade socio-economic trends in the following solutions implementation);
decade in the belgrade metropolitan will
The current developing tendencies in the move to te periphery. In accordance with c) environmental protection, because of the
Belgrade metropolitan reflect the growing such expectations, and the functional borders falling behind in the implementation of the
socio-economic differences through a special in the metropolitan area can be significantly principles of sustainability on levels of different
„functional archipelago“. In accordance with expanded. spatial entities and corporative level.
the experiences of the European metropolitan
peripheries, the possible scenarios for the CONCLUSIVE REMARKS
future expansion of new economic polarities in The development of economic activities within
the metropolitan area of Belgrade: the new economic poles-spatial-economic
clusters in urban areas can be assessed as a
- an actual existence of area growth, mainly
along important traffic corridors nearby the consequence of the process of globalization.
city centre, will continue in the future as well. New economic poles could be some kind of
Today this process is visible along the conglomerate of old spatial structures and the
development of new locational-spatial and
motorways Belgrade-NoviSad, Belgrade-
development models in the urban fabric, under
Zagreb, next to the airports „Nikola Tesla“
(the so –called „aerovill“ – Herfert G. 2006.) the influence of market and the globalization
the Ibar major road et sl.; process of economic activity and investment.
In this process are evident: the existence of
- the development of new industrial structures
growth area, mainly along important traffic
(modern production complexes – industrial
corridors nearby the heart of the city;
parks, technology parks entrepreneurial
development of new spatial/locational forms of
zones, complexes) mainly by government
modern economic complexes (industrial park,
aid, the arrival of multinational companies,
technology park, high-tech corridors,
the support of EU et sl. Apart from
complexes), mainly with government aid,
technological complexes, the new polarities
foreign investment of multinational companies,
are the shopping malls, distribution-
et sl.; the effect of large changes onto spatial
transportation centres, business centres and
organizations of metropolitan areas; possible
others.
destructive activity onto the institutional
- the prediction that the residential zone of framework of the local community, but also
suburbanization will expand in the future onto turning the local institutions towards
the green zones and will demonstrate the „entrepreneurial management“; over-
adverse side of suburbanization; construction of building locations; the effect on
-the process of reurbanization in the Belgrade the price fluctuation of real estate in certain
agglomeration is present sporadically, by way parts of metropolitan spaces; population
of rehabilitation of the existing industrial zones; mobility from the centre to the peiphery ( in
residential and work functions); endangering
- the development of new industrial/business
the quality of environment and others.
spatial forms of the new economic poles of
development in the rural area, with the It is estimated that the absence of
possible development of a big theme park. harmonization of European development
The construction of Waterland on the policies, industries, spatial development,
periphery of New Belgrade, the planned environment in future territorial development of
construction of Aqualand nearby Dobanovci, economic activity in cities and regions of
along the motorway Belgrade-Zagreb, like Serbia could have consequences in :
specific economic poles. Some European
cities within the new poles of development a) the further process of restructuring and the
have waterland parks and other zones of growth of competitiveness of local economy
recreation and entretainment – „funurbia“, and teritories, within the new phase;
„tropical islands“ etc.
b) the practice of planning spatial development
- and apart from the problems and of economic activity, especially of industry and
impossibilities of an accurate prognosis for services (in the approach, methods, spatial
directing the dynamics and developing

26 s p a t i u m
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spatium 27
 UDC 728 (681)
711.435 (681)

AN EVALUATION OF THE SELF-HELP HOUSING

SCHEME IN BOTSWANA, CASE OF GABORONE CITY
Horatio Ikgopoleng, Branko Cavrić

Botswana like other developing countries faces a problem of acute shortage of housing, particularly for low-income urban
families. The current housing problems are the outcomes of the economic, demographic and social changes which the country
has experienced since independence in 1966. In particular the urbanisation process which surfaced in the early 1980’s. The
government has sought to cope with the problem of low-income urban housing by establishing a Self-Help Housing (SHHA)
programme in the main urban centres.
The evaluation findings reveal that, on the whole, the impact of the SHHA approach on the improvement of low-income urban
housing has been unsuccessful. The major problems of the scheme are lack of serviced land and inadequate finances for plot
development. This has been exarcebated by the high urban development standards which are out of the reach of low-income
urban families. The evaluation study also reveals that, there are some indications of non low-income urban households living
in SHHA areas. The available evidence reveals that the number of those people in SHHA areas is not as big as has been
speculated by most people in the country. However this paper calls for more investigation in this issue and a need for more
tight measures to control this illicit practice.
The major conclusions are that housing policies in Botswana are not supportive of the general housing conditions in low-
income urban areas. Therefore there is a need for urban planners and policy makers of Botswana to take more positive action
towards the improvement of low-income urban areas. This would require pragmatic policies geared towards the improvement
of those areas.
Keywords: Botswana, Low-income housing, self help housing

INTRODUCTION 2002). The earth’s natural resources can no mushrooming of slums and squatter
longer support this current rate of population settlements.
During the last three decades, most developing growth, and the built environment continues to
countries have experienced fast urbanisation. It deteriorate as a result of increased demand for Despite the scale of rapid urbanisation,
has been a world-wide phenomenon since the housing and social services. Urbanisation in generally people moving into urban areas seek
early 1950’s (Choguill 1993, Tipple 1991, Sub-Saharan countries has not been to improve their standards of living. People
Gugler 1992). The literature by most housing accompanied by concomitant economic migrate to cities mainly to seek for job
advocates spelt out that urbanisation is the root prosperity as it was in developed nations. For opportunities, they perceived that urban areas
cause of housing problems in urban areas of example countries like Botswana urbanised offer better prospects for higher incomes. They
developing countries. from a very poor base. often live in squatter settlements where decent
housing, and infrastructure and social services
The current speed of urbanisation is probably In the end the urbanisation process produces are remarkably missing.
not excessive, but the numbers involved are cities. In turn, “cities are synonymous with
enormous. The United Nations projects that by growth ... they are subject to dramatic crisis SELF-HELP HOUSING: CONCEPT
2025 over 4 billion people (86%) of the global especially in developing countries. Poverty, AND RATIONALE
population will be living in urban areas of environmental decline, lack of ... services,
developing countries and there will be 486 deterioration of existing services, ... (lack of) The ideas of Turner (1976) and Mangin (1967)
mega-cities in the developing world with at access to land and shelter” (UNCHS/World have been very influential in self-help housing.
least one million population (Choguill, 1996). Bank, 1995), all of which aspects contribute They brought about a shift in policy to one
Over the next 25 years most of the newcomers significantly to the development of serious where the poor should be left to solve their
will be absorbed in towns and cities (Jaycox, housing problems such as poverty and own housing problems through self-help

28 s p a t i u m
initiatives. It was also influenced by the World is free i.e. they have no time for leisure. Some towns are located near a rubbish damping area,
Bank and other lending institutions by giving argued that it is a method of exploitation on which have serious environmental problems to
financial and technical assistance to low- low income people in the sense that it forces the local people.
income people. the poor to provide for themselves while the
middle and high income groups are provided The second issue concerns plot tenure, the
This concept underwent a marked transition for by the government (Choguill 1994, Pugh, urban poor often build houses on illegal land
between the 1960’s and 1970’s, it can be 1996). Some felt it displaces other people (with no legal title) which faces a threat of
traced as far back as the humans’ earliest from their jobs, for example artisans and eviction or their houses being demolished. The
activities in production of their own housing. It builders end up losing their jobs in the low-income need to have faith in land tenure
is a rural phenomenon where people build construction industry. Burgess (1977) argued system because it can improve the chances of
houses for themselves in villages. Abrams that it does not bring about equality in society, the poor to increase their access to credit and
(1969) dated the concept as far back as the era it widens the gap between the rich and poor. start contributing to cost recovery of housing
of cave dwellers. services. Mauclasan(1985) argues that the
Despite the arguments against self help, it has security of land will allow the low income to
Self help is a term that has been used to become central to housing policies of most invest in their own houses.
describe the participation of low income developing countries. It comprises over fifty
households in the production of their own per cent of the housing stock in most The land prices are a major factor in
housing. The main difference between self- developing countries (Pugh, 1996). In the mid- determining the use of land for housing. Land
help and conventional housing is that houses 1970’s The World Bank promoted the use of prices falls steeply as distance from city centre
can be occupied before they are fully aided self-help in low income housing. It did increases. At peripheral locations, land price
developed. Self help housing has the not associate self-help with shelter only, it may be low enough for a poor family to
advantage that it is flexible, therefore the poor widened it to community-based organisations. purchase or rent. However it may have negative
can develop their houses over time. The urban implications for other financial costs like
poor can develop their houses gradually The new policies of housing that were transport to employment centres.
because it will result in lower labour costs as proposed by the World Bank and UNCHS
compared to conventional housing, because (Global strategy for shelter to the year 2000) in Service facilities in Self Help Housing
they would invest their own labour in the the late 1980’s, focused more on human Projects
construction process. It has also been settlements and their contribution to economic
Rapid growth of urban population in
recognised as having the potential for social growth and linking it to governments, markets
developing countries has led to a
and community development (Pugh, 1996). and non-governmental organisations.
corresponding increase in demand for basic
Turner (1976) and Mangin (1967) advocated THEORETICAL BASIS OF SELF-HELP urban services. Service facilities are
that instead of eradicating the slum and remarkably missing in low-income
HOUSING
squatter areas they should be improved. They settlements, if available they are often in poor
found this out from their studies in Peru which Land in Self-Help Housing Projects condition, and hence require considerable
demonstrated that over time spontaneous rehabilitation. Many urban dwellings lack piped
housing tended to improve. They described Land issue is the most critical input in self- water, electricity and methods of sewage and
how the development of shacks to standard help housing. It has many uses other than garbage disposal pose major hazard to public
houses described how neighbourhoods shelter, it is essential for access to health (Gwebu, 2002). They also lack basic
developed incrementally and gradually. employment, credit, infrastructure and service education and health which they can use to
facilities. Therefore the availability of land is a improve their income earning potential, this
They viewed conventional housing critical factor determining the ability of the traps them in a cycle of poverty from which it
programmes as ineffective in providing poor to construct their own housing. is difficult to break (Rondenelli, 1988).
housing for the majority of the urban
population. The poor under favourable The urban poor often face difficulties in The other factor is the cost of providing those
conditions can build houses of their dreams, obtaining proper land suitable for housing. services. A vast majority of the low-income
through self-help they can express their They often live on the outskirts (city fringes) of urban dwellers do not have the capacity to pay
housing needs. They realised that the the major cities, on land with no security of for services and because of lack of funds,
aspirations of the poor were not different from tenure or land that lacks planning permission existing facilities are in most cases not
the middle income, both groups hope to from urban authorities because it is located properly maintained. In addition to that the
improve their homes over time. beyond the urban perimeter. These areas are problem has been exarcebated by the
subject to flooding, steep hillsides, swampy concentration of the poor in large cities, they
However there are some theorists with Marxist areas etc. For example Bangkok in Thailand is have outstripped the available services in
ideas, who criticised self help on the ground located in a flood plain, Dar es Salaam and major cities.
that, it is based on the idea that the poor’s time Manila in Phillipines (Choguill, 1994). These

spatium 29
Finance in Self Help Housing Projects There has been a growing concern over the materials will continue to increase because the
provision of affordable building materials for current housing policies of most developing
The urban authorities of developing countries low-income housing, They are considered to countries do not support the use of local
have small, costly and unpredictable financial be one of the main constraints on self-help building materials. Building standards require
arrangements for low income housing. Poor housing. Although little research has been the use of modern building materials like
families do not have access to formal credit for done on this, the available evidence has shown corrugated iron, roof tiles, cement etc. The use
house construction (Fruet, 2003). In most that, an acute shortage of building materials of these modern materials has serious
developing countries, housing is often prevents the urban poor to provide adequate technological problems for the urban poor;
accorded a low priority when allocating scarce shelter for themselves (Choguill, 1994) they need highly skilled personnel to use them.
resources, which have instead been channelled Inappropriate building standards/regulations
to sectors like agriculture and defence Among developing countries the material that have negative effects on housing and
ministries (Gugler, 1992). The urban is used for housing is increasingly being infrastructure, they have led to a low quality of
authorities have exacerbated the problem, by imported. The imported materials have high building materials and construction techniques
introducing excessively high building transport costs in distribution and marketing; used in informal low cost settlements (Turner
standards which are only reached by higher this makes the price for them too high by the 1976). Building standards are largely
incomes households. time they reach the urban poor. The price of

On the other hand the non financial institutions

place other constraints on housing finance: The
absence of a title deed is one of the main
obstacles to normal housing finance, mainly
due to poor land administration. The urban
poor cannot get mortgage loans because they
have no proper security to pledge. This makes
it difficult for them to have access to credit.

Most developing countries have upgraded their

existing housing stock through slum
improvement programmes. Funds were
obtained from World Bank on a cost-recovery
basis. Such programmes have succeeded in
some countries and failed in others. Most
governments tended to promote unrealistically
high standards of housing and this led to
default in rental payments.

The United Nations Global Shelter Strategy

calls for support of informal sector credit
system. Accessibility to land has been cited as
being crucial in enhancing access to credit.
Policy makers should be encouraged to
restructure their public expenditure so that
poverty alleviation programs for example
housing should get the lion’s share in their
overall budgets.

Building Materials in Self-Help Projects

Building materials are an important component

in the house construction process, their
contribution to the low-income housing can
Fig. 1 Gaborone City – National and regional Setting
not be under-estimated. They are used both in
construction and maintenance processes of Source: Compiled from Botswana National Atlas (DSM) 2001, and Gaborone City
Development Plan (DTRP), 1997
housing.

30 s p a t i u m
incompatible income levels and conflict with emphasise self reliance(one of Botswana’s four to develop over time using materials from
real local situations (Mabogunje, Hardoy and national principles) and the spirit of self-help. government.
Misra, 1978). In developing countries few
standards are based on local experience as Under this programme which is administered One of the major problems causing shortages
most of them are inherited from colonial by the Urban Councils, the plots were allocated of urban housing was identified as shortage of
powers; these are out of reach of many low- virtually free of charge, building material loan serviced land. The Accelerated Land Servicing
income people. They are also not relevant to provided at a subsidised interest rate. Programme(ALSP) was introduced with the
local culture and therefore conflict with local Occupiers had to pay a service levy (charge for intention being to implement an accelerated
norms and values. provision of services). However these services construction programme for the provision of
were of very poor quality and the houses were sufficient serviced residential, commercial and
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY AREA of very poor quality due to lack of building industrial land in urban areas. Through its
standards. pricing policy for serviced land under the
Gaborone is the capital city of Botswana. It is (ALSP), Government aims to achieve full cost
one of the fastest growing city in Sub-Saharan The programme was further reviewed, the new recovery. This is intended to be achieved
Africa with an estimated population of urban development standards have been through cross-subsidy, where industrial,
200,000. (see Fig. 1) Gaborone like other introduced, this has meant that low-income commercial and developers will pay “market
cities in Africa have grown as a result of urban urban areas are serviced to higher standards. prices”, first time residential plots in high and
rural migration. This rapid growth has created This has brought changes to plot sizes, cost of middle income groups will pay low income
social, economic and environmental problems plots, tenure system, financial arrangements, (SHHA) will pay affordable prices.
in most of the low income areas (Gwebu, construction and maintenance of urban
2002). services. The Accelerated Land Servicing Programme
also coincided with the introduction of the
Gaborone was chosen out of a total of eight PROVISION OF SERVICED LAND Allocation of State-Land Policy in 1990, whose
major towns of Botswana, mainly because of aims were to speed up the process of State-
the following reasons: The empirical studies of Turner and Mangin
Land allocation and ensure that land was
has been highly influential to Botswana’s
• It has the worst problems of housing and housing policy. The government has adopted allocated to Botswana equitably.
increasing number of squatter settlements as the policy of upgrading and provision of site
compared to other towns. and service schemes under the SHHA
• It is experiencing rapid population growth in programme and it also calls for cost recovery
the country . mechanisms. The site and service schemes
• It possesses many of the typical properties of involves the servicing of land and its
a primate city. subsequent allocation to low-income families
BRIF OVERVIEW OF SELF-HOUSING Table 1: A summary of the new urban development standards in SHHA areas
PROGRAMME Old SHHA Standards New SHHA Standards
1. Income Criteria P800-P7000 per annum P1800-P12,000 per annum
The Self Help Housing Programme was first 2. Plot Price Allocated free. Holder pays a Affordable prices
introduced in 1978. The programme was portion of development costs in
established to provide an effective means of service levy
allowing access to affordable housing for low- 3. Tenure COR FPSG
income households. With the assistance of 4. Registration Government is registered owner of Owner is registers in Deeds Registry, in
international bodies such as the International land. Holder is registered with the terms of a 99 year lease.
Town Council
Bank for Reconstruction and Development
5. Building Maximum P1 200 at 9% per annum Maximum P3 600 at 10 % per annum
(World Bank) and United States Agency for materials loan paid within 15 years paid in 15 years
International Development (USAID) (Kalabamu, 6.Infrastructure Pit latrines, Stand-pipes and no Waterborne sewerage water reticulation
2002). Appropriate strategies were examined electricity to plots. Electricity easily connectable.
and the programme was accepted as a viable 7. Recurrent costs Plot holders pay service levy Owner pays rates
strategy for urban development 8. Mortgage No registered mortgage possible Owner may register a mortgage against a
but rights in COR could not be plot
Given that the Batswana (people of Botswana) ceded as security for a loan.
have always built adequate housing for 9. Building materials Cement and Corrugated iron No change
themselves in rural areas, self-help was seen
as the most cost-effective way of providing Source: Annual Report SHHA 2005
housing for urban dwellers, particularly the
poor. The SHHA programme sought to

spatium 31
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE institutions for mortgage. The title is used as about shortage of serviced land in low-income
STUDY security in financial institutions. areas. This has affected the whole allocation
process to an extent that the waiting lists have
The previous form of tenure in SHHA areas was began to grow in most urban centres.
Broad Aim the Certificate of Rights (COR). The COR was
The main broad aim of this research is to an easy method of providing secure tenure, The Accelerated Land Servicing programme
determine whether the primary objective of the which did not involve the expense of legal fees (ALSP) and the State-Land allocation
SHHA programme has been met in providing or cadastral surveys. The main problem with committees have been introduced in low-
an affordable low-cost housing in Botswana. this form of tenure was that it was not accepted income areas to address the problems
as collateral by financial institutions, in case mentioned above. ALSP is a major
The objective stated above arises from the the owner of the plot wanted to secure funds development initiative aimed at provision of
concern about the deteriorating living for development of the plot. Recognising the serviced land to SHHA areas. State-Land
conditions of the low-income households in problems associated with this form of tenure, it allocation committees have been set to speed
urban centres of Botswana, particularly in has been changed to a Fixed Period State Grant up the plot allocation process. This objective
Gaborone. The evidence comes from an (FPSG), This appears to provide a simple, will establish as to whether these two initiatives
increase in number of squatter settlements, improved form of title deed that would have brought any changes in the plot allocation
signs of poverty among the low-income areas probably be accepted as collateral by financial process. This will be determined by evaluating
and overcrowding in living units. The other institutions. This objective will examine the the waiting period for SHHA plots, from the
concern arises as to why there is a strong present plot tenure system and establish as to time the application was submitted to the time
belief that some of the SHHA plots are whether SHHA residents have security of the plot was allocated.
occupied by middle and higher income groups tenure. It will also identify the main obstacles
The availability and maintenance of
at the expense of low-income households. that inhibit the acquisition of titles under this
services
new form of tenure.
Based on those broad aims, the study met the Botswana has experienced rapid population
following objectives as set out below. Plot transfer system growth in urban centres, this has been caused
SHHA residents can, if they wish transfer by migration. For people arriving in towns from
Objectives ownership of their plots to other people. The rural areas, it is common to stay with friends or
(a) To examine the sources of finance of transfer of FPSG plots is a private transaction relatives or rent a room. This has tended to be
finance for plot acquisition and development between buyer and seller and does not require concentrated particularly in SHHA areas where
Council’s approval as it was the case with the lower standard rental accommodation exists for
The SHHA programme is administered by the COR. low-income people. This objective seek to find
Urban Councils in the country. The Urban out whether the existing service facilities have
Council’s expenditure is met by Central The development convenant of the SHHA plot catered for that rapid population growth in
Government deficit grants. Presently the states that a plot can only be transferred/sold if SHHA areas and determine whether the
Central Government has reduced this the previous owner ha owned for a period not services are maintained to an adequate
expenditure to Urban Councils, which means less than ten years. If it sold before ten years standard. The plot-holders will be asked to
that the SHHA programme is getting less elapses the “buyer” pays a penalty of Ten give their views on the maintenance of service
finances from the Central Government. On the Thousand Pula. facilities in their areas.
other hand the shortage of finances for SHHA There is a growing concern about the abuse of
programme has been exacerbated by poor cost RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
the present plot transfer system. This abuse is
recovery resulting from defaults in payment of in the form of “fronting”. This is a system There are fifteen officially registered SHHA
the building materials loans (Gwebu, 2002). In whereby an eligible applicant obtains a plot for areas in Gaborone. Ten out of a total of fifteen
light of those problems, this objective seeks to a relative or any other person who is not survey areas were selected for the survey. The
establish the principal source of finance eligible for the plot under the SHHA survey areas were chosen according to sizes.
available to low-income households for the programme. This objective will examine the They were ranked according to their population
development of SHHA plots. extent of that problem by identifying and and then the first ten survey areas were chosen
(b) To examine the existing SHHA plot tenure assessing the various methods that has been for this study, so as to get a big representative
system, and to determine the extent to which used for plot transfer. sample. The areas of investigation were
this system inhibits or enhances the Bontleng, Old-Naledi, New-Naledi, Gaborone
Plot allocation system
development of adequate and affordable West, Ginja, Broadhurst, Tsholofelo,
Availability of land is one of the factors which Ledumang, Maruapula and White-City. The
housing on SHHA plots. Plot tenure plays a
enhance the development of housing in low- locations of these areas were easily definable
major role in the housing development. It is
income areas. There has been some concern
one of the requirements needed by financial

32 s p a t i u m
by bordering streets with the help of a detailed Table 2: The number of respondents from each survey area
map of Gaborone City. Name of Area Number of households Number of households to Adjusted Sample
be interviewed
Housing and household information was Bontleng 5769 9 8
obtained through the administration of formal Old-Naledi 20652 32 36
interviews. In order to ensure an even coverage Ledumang 3008 5 6
the proportional allocation technique was used New-Naledi 1623 2 3
to select the number of households. This is a Gaborone-West 16202 24 26
special form of stratified sampling where the Tsholofelo 4160 6 6
sample size is chosen to be proportional to the Ginja 1849 3 4
Maruapula 4045 6 5
stratum size. The technique was such that the
Broadhurst 1557 2 3
number of households to be interviewed from
White-City 7751 12 12
each area depended on the size of that TOTAL 66613 100 109
particular survey area. Within each plot, the Source: Field survey, 2006.
plot owner was targeted or his spouse.
Given that the majority of respondents were not finances for house development from their own
Documentary information was obtained from formally employed and majority (64%) earning resources.
Gaborone City Council, University Library, Help less than 500 Pula, it implies that the majority
Housing Authority Offices, planning journals, of them have not benefited from the building Now given that we already know the income
Botswana’s government reports, development levels of plot holders from Figure 2, it is
plans, seminar papers, newspapers and from materials loan offered by the government under important to establish whether income has an
interviews with officers of Botswana the SHHA programme. The criterion that is effect on finances of plot development. Table 3
government, parastatals and private sector. used for giving out these loans requires one to below summarises the monthly income status
These sources provided the necessary be formally employed. They will also face a of households and sources of finance for plot
background details about the study. similar problem in financial institutions whose development. It shows that 86% of plot holders
criterion for housing loans requires one to be who earn less than 500 Pula, still secure
Apart from secondary information, key formally employed. finances from their own resources.
informants such as representatives from SHHA,
Councillors, community based organizations, Having established information on socio- (b) The plot tenure system
Department of Town Planning, Department of economic background of respondents, the
analysis now focuses on the research The aim of this variable is to examine the
Lands, Other knowledgeable informants were
objectives. SHHA plot tenure system. The summary of plot
chosen from various parastatals and private
tenure system shows that only 12% of the plot-
sector, these included officers holding key
Figure 2: The respondent’s monthly income holders had titles for their plots and 33% are in
positions with special expertise to the housing
(*Pula) the process of getting titles. Under the FPSG
sector. These included Botswana Power
plot tenure, the plot-holders are required to pay
Corporation, Water Utilities Corporation, >1500 costs for title registration. It is therefore
Commercial banks, Botswana Housing 1001-1500
3%
16% important to find out if the cost for title
Corporation, Time Projects and various
registration have an effect on the present plot
consultants in housing and construction
tenure system. This was investigated by
industries. 500-1000
17% establishing whether there is a relationship
FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
<500
between plot tenure and the income status of a
64%
household. There is a slight differences of plot
Employment status tenure according to different income groups. It
shows that 38 % of the respondents who earn
An analysis of the employment status revealed Source: Field survey, 2005 500 Pula had titles for their plots while 30 % of
that 55% of the respondents had informal (a) Sources of finance for plot acquisition and those who earn more than 1000 Pula had titles.
employment and the remaining percentage is house development in SHHA areas. A chi-square test was further done to find out
distributed equally among those who are more about the relationship between income
employed by the government and by the The sources of finance were investigated
status of a household and plot tenure. It
private sector. It was discovered in the field according to employment status of
suggests that income status has a significant
that most of the respondents who were not respondents. The employment status of
relationship with the type of plot tenureship.
formally employed, were engaged in a variety households by source of finance. It shows that
This finding reveals that those households with
of activities such as selling vegetables, on average the majority of plot holders secure
more income are in a better position to acquire
brewing traditional beer, hair dressing, etc. titles for their plots as compared to those with

spatium 33
less income. In conclusion it can be argued relationship between income status of a and waterborne sewerage, but in most cases
that few plot-holders have acquired titles for household and method of transfer, it was they reported that they could only afford a very
their plots under the present FPSG plot tenure shown that the two are statistically significant. small monthly payment for the cost of such
system. The conclusion that can be drawn from this services.
findings is that there is no evidence of plots
(c) Method of plot transfer being transferred unlawfully given that most of < 1 year 1-3 years
The method of plot transfer was investigated the plots were transferred through the legal 1% 12%
3-5 years
through the various methods of plot acquisition method. 11%

in the study area. It was revealed that 68% of d) Allocation of plots

the plots which were acquired through the
SHHA programme were transferred to the The general approach to plot allocation is on a
present owners without titles and 84% of the “first-come first-serve basis”. Figure 3 > 5 years
76%

Table 3: Respondent’s source of finance by type of employment

Source of finance Type of employment Figure 3: Applicant’s waiting period for plots.
Source: Field-survey, 2005
government informal private
government 1 1 0 A further analysis was done to investigate the
BBS 6 22 9 respondent’s views on maintenance of services
banks 8 21 19 facilities. Most respondents expressed
Small loans from friends 6 27 22 dissatisfaction with maintenance service
and gifts facilities in their areas, roads (77 %) were
own resources 80 28 51 ranked the highest of all services that were
No. of cases 17 67 69 poorly maintained, it was followed by public
Source: Field survey, 2005
phones (69 %) and waste management (64 %)
respectively. From the information gathered
plots which were purchased were transferred to summarises the status of plot allocation in during interviews, most respondents preferred
the owners through the legal method. A legal SHHA areas. It reveals that plot allocation is their streets to be lit, phones to be located in
method of transfer involves a lawyer who is a typically very slow, 76% of applicants waited central areas to avoid being vandalised and
mediator between two people involved in a plot more than five years before being allocated increase of rubbish bins because at the time of
transfer, the people involved had to pay some plots. The allocation process may be slow the survey two households shared one rubbish
legal fees. while finance for development may not be bin.
available which further exacerbate the problem.
As it is shown above that some plots have been The ALSP programme has not made any Figure 4: Electricity and telephone connection to
transferred through the legal method, it is significant impact in provision plots for low- dwellings
essential to establish whether there is a income aspirant home seeksrs.
relationship between income status of a Electricity and Telephone connection to
dwellings
household and method of plot transfer. A (e) Service facilities
further analysis revealed that the majority of the
100
Nearly all respondents obtained water from 80
percentage

plots were still transferred to the present communal standpipes and relied on pit latrines
60
40
owners through the legal method. A chi-square for on-site sanitation. Figure 4 below, shows 20
Electricity (%)
Telephone (%)
test was done to find out more about the
0
that 91% of respondents did not have
Connect

Disconn

connect
Never
ected

ed
ed

electricity connected to their dwellings. It

Table 4: Means of plot acquisition and system of plot connection status

transfer is important to note that 44% of the

respondents had private phones
Transfer Plot acquisition disconnected from their dwellings. This Source: Field-survey, 2005

Purchase Inheritance SHHA

implies that it might be cheaper for low- CONCLUSION
% % %
income to connect private phones to
their dwellings but very expensive to The conclusions of the whole study will be
Lease 0 0 11
maintain them. During the field survey, made through comparison of the project
Legal means 84 44 18
most respondents reported that they objectives and the end results. The broad aim
Title 12 0 3
No title 4 56 68 would like to upgrade services including of this study has been largely achieved in a
No. of cases 25 10 37 electricity, individual water connection number of ways. Sufficient evidence has shown
Source: Field-survey,2005 that the SHHA programme has not pursued its

34 s p a t i u m
objective of providing an affordable housing to permit lending to COR-holders. The been identified in some developing countries
low-income households. The first issue commercial banks and building society should which can offer useful lessons for Botswana.
concerns finance for plot development. Lack of also adapt to the nation’s needs by lending to Some useful experiences of other countries
finance seems to be the main constraint which lower income. have been identified by Choguill (1994) in his
prevents house development in SHHA areas. It analysis of the 47 self-help projects. He
has also shown that the available source of Land shortage is one of the main obstacles of identified factors that promote successful
finance; the building materials have been house development. In order to reduce the construction of low-income housing. These
unable to provide adequate funding to a existing shortages of low-income housing, are, existence of effective community
reasonable and affordable standard. The allocation of SHHA plots should be resumed at organisation in self-help housing programmes
second issue concerns the acute shortage of an earliest possible date. All traditional villages and the need to empower householders;
land which delays the plot allocation process adjacent to major centres should be brought particularly women with construction skills
and consequently frustrating aspirant home within the planning areas of the major towns so through training so as to implement the
owners. as to get more land for low-income housing. policies of self help housing effectively.

The second broad aim has also been achieved, There is a need for development of a coherent
this concerns the issue of SHHA plots being housing policy framework. Since a national
“hijacked” by non low-income households. housing policy was last prepared in 1982,
The results show that this problem is not big as there have been significant changes in housing
it has been speculated. The study reveals that provision and overall trends of urbanisation.
there are some suspicions of this illicit practice These have created uncertainties, conflicts and
happening in SHHA areas. loopholes in policy, which have represented
growing problems of low-income urban
The major conclusions are that housing housing. A new policy needs to be developed
policies in Botswana are not supportive of the as a tool for addressing of low-income urban
general housing and living conditions in low- housing problems, it will also require an
income urban areas. extensive consultation with the general public.
This should clearly pronounce urban and
A critical analysis of the SHHA programme has housing policy and target it to the most needy
shown that attention will need to be given to people, to prevent worsening of living
the following main points in the preparation of conditions in existing low income urban areas.
future low-income urban housing programme
in Botswana: There is a need for more flexible building
standards and design. The use of local building
There is a need for finance assistance to low- materials should be incorporated in revised
income households in Botswana, this will building standards in order to reduce
require an innovative approach that will not construction costs and promote appropriate
only satisfy demand but also involve more building construction technology as a tool for
private sector participation and cost effective cost recovery and affordability. The technology
use of resources. The government could involved should be simple, it should
assume the costs of plots so that people are incorporate the use local materials that could
faced with housing construction costs or could be understood by local people. There is need
provide one loan for costs of plot and house for increasing scope for developing the
development rather than providing one loan for indigenous construction industry and other
building materials. An emphasis should not be services related to housing. There is need for
placed on income from employment; this urgent research and production of suitable
discriminates against those with irregular or local building materials such as clay, bricks,
informal sources of income. In view of the mud plastering, suitable sand, grass thatch,
affordability problems, there is need to ensure clay tiles, poles etc., and a need to reinforce
fair and equitable allocation and clear targeting the traditional building technologies.
of subsidies to lower income households.
While it was beyond the scope of this research
The previous form of tenure used by SHHA, the to prepare a detailed assessment of
COR is a good form of tenure that satisfies the comparative experiences of self-help housing
objectives of the programme. The government with other developing countries. Some
should pursuade BBS to modify its policies to particular aspects of self-help housing have

spatium 35
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36 s p a t i u m
 UDC 72.012.6:692

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION POSSIBILITIES FOR

PHOTOVOLTAIC INTEGRATION IN ENVELOPES OF
NEW EXISTING BUILDINGS
Aleksandra Krstić

Sun is the renewable energy source whose usage exerts influence on architectural design. Facade concepts of energy efficient
buildings are developed producing new facade structures and components. Photovoltaic systems, as elements of active solar
systems are discussed in the paper and particular attention is paid to building integrated systems, as they influence building
appearance. Classification and analyzes of PV systems - materials, supporting systems, coatings and design principles are
presented in the paper. The purpose of this paper is discussion on design and construction possibilities for PV integration in
envelopes of new and existing buildings. Possibilities for structural variability of envelopes with PV integrated systems are
described in the paper.
Keywords: PV integration in architecture, building integrated PV, building appearance, design possibilities, design principles,
structural variability.

INTRODUCTION energy while the second convert it into electric possibilities to improve their quality of life by
energy. investing in environmentally friendly
The public become aware of the effects of renewables, combined with economically
climate change and environmental pollution. Photovoltaic systems are discussed in the sound projects, there is no limit for citizens’
Buildings, as consumers of around 40% of paper. They can be used in design of new enthusiasm and involvement (Cristiansen,
global energy production, mostly generated buildings or refurbishment of existing buildings 2006). Major problem is that PV is still more
from conventional energy sources, significantly in order to improve the energy performances. expensive than it need be. The low-cost mass
contribute to environmental pollution. But it requires proper thermal performances production of PV can be justified through
Implementation of Renewable Energy Sources achieved by building construction and simply regulating that new buildings are solar
and Rational Use of Energy in building design detailing. In the developed world, with the powered PV (Mallon, 1999). It can also provide
can reduce energy use in buildings, existing power grid infrastructure, PV in a transition of the related industry which could
consumption of pollutant energy sources and buildings is regarded as major application area be made open to different building designs and
thereby reduce CO2 emissions. Sun is for photovoltaics (Nordmann, 2005). In order performances and competitive for conventional
renewable energy source whose usage exerts to encourage the use of PV in buildings, a well building claddings. Listed actions require to be
influence on architectural design and building created plan of organizing and promoting PV carried out by experts among which PV
concepts. Main role take south facing exterior installations has to be carried out. Government dedicated architects play an important role.
screens. Concepts of energy efficient buildings that regulates energy and building, by national
are developed producing new facade structures indicative targets and legislation can The influence of PV systems on appearances of
and components. Passive, active and hybrid encourage the use of PV in buildings. The buildings and settlements is significant. The
solar systems can be separated. In the case of government stimulates building integrated PV application of photovoltaic components to
active solar conceptions building components systems development by supporting research building envelopes is a challenge to architects.
are classified according to their function, such and demonstration programs.. Programs Production of PV systems is new provocation
as: solar collectors and photovoltaic systems. generated for the public support enable and orientation for building industry. Design
The first transform solar energy into thermal citizens to be informed about PV power and PV and construction possibilities for PV integration
in buildings. Once people are informed of in envelopes of new and existing buildings are

spatium 37
discussed in the paper. Design of energy While standoff PV systems have poor scope of
efficient houses with PV systems requires functions (in addition to electricity production
proper information on photovoltaic systems by can be used as shading devices), building
the architects and students of architecture. The integrated systems are characterized by
paper presents initiation and contribution to functional complexity. As external layer of
that process. Classification and analyzes of PV building envelope, they provide thermal,
systems - materials, supporting systems, acoustic and humidity insulation, wind
coatings and design principles are presented in protection, in some cases fire and security
the paper. The purpose of this paper is also to protection, protection from sunrays and
describe possibilities for structural variability of produce electric energy. Application of
envelopes with building integrated PV Fig. 1b. Facade "standoff" PV system building integrated PV modules removes the
modules. need for conventional cladding materials and is
reflected in investment costs. For example,
RELEVANT ASPECTS IN DESIGN Thomas Nordmann comments that, compared
PROCESS with an ordinary roof mounted installation
(standoff systems), which is placed on top of a
Basic information about material, structure, conventional roof, part of the basic concept of
function and design possibilities of PV systems a true BIPV installation is to share the cost of
is sufficient for the design process, and major the building envelope because the installation
facts are briefly mentioned in this section. Fig. 2a. Roof "building-integrated" PV system has a double function (Nordmann, 2005). His
From architectural aspect, different opinion is that the main potential of double
performances of photovoltaic systems can be function in the area of balance of system (BOS)
required regarding: Location possibilities, is in the area of module costs and installation
Function possibilities, Dimensions and form, costs, where it should be 30% of the total
Color and appearance of modules, Light system cost.
permeability, Construction possibilities. Various
possibilities for fulfillment of listed Factors that affect PV output and can be
performances result in variability of building Fig. 2b.Facade "building-integrated" PV system influenced by designers are: tilt, azimuth,
envelopes with PV systems. Function possibilities for PV systems are shadowing, temperature.

Application of PV devices to a building various. The main function is production of System efficiency is influenced by orientation
envelope enables zero land consumption. electricity. Photovoltaic system concept is and inclination of PV modules. A favorable
Regarding location on building, roof and facade based on the direct conversion of sunlight to orientation is south. Deviation to southeast and
"standoff" and "building-integrated" PV systems electricity. Batteries store energy for use when southwest up to 30° is suitable. PV modules
are available (Fig. 1a, b and 2a, b). They the sun is not shining. The basic element of a can be placed in horizontal position, vertical
strongly influence building appearance in a photovoltaic power system is the solar cell position or inclined. Choice of inclination is
different way. In the first case they are made of a semiconductor material, usually influenced by latitude value and orientation.
independent devices applied on roof or facade silicon. It is photosensitive and produces Maximum available irradiation is received by a
structure. In the second case, building- electrical current in the presence of photons, or south-facing unobstructed PV panels oriented
integrated PV systems are building energy from light. The efficiency of mono- at a tilt equivalent to the local latitude, while
components which can substitute usual roof or crystalline silicon is the highest (14-18%), of east and west-facing PV panels perform
facade cover materials. Development of polycrystalline somewhat less (12-15%), and relatively well at steep angles or vertical
technologies, materials, support systems and amorphous modules have the worst efficiency orientation and still yield 60% of optimally
coatings is continuous, giving freedom for (4,5-6%). The same features stands for inclined south oriented PV systems; It points
architectural design. durability. Photovoltaic cells generate out that a range of orientations and tilts give
commercially valuable electricity operating in 95% of the maximum output; A role of thumb is
parallel with the existing electricity network. that 1m2 of monocrystalline PV array
Exchange of electricity to and from the network reasonably positioned and in an efficient
is possible. Individual solar cells are combined
system will give about 100kWh/y (Sich, Erge,
to create PV modules that produce a specific
1996). For Belgrade, PV power production
amount of power. Many interconnected PV
estimate is shown in the Fig. 3.
modules (the number varies, depending on the
Fig. 1a. Roof "standoff" PV system demanded amount of power) are called an
array.

38 s p a t i u m
 Talking about dimensions some problems can
be noticed. The suppliers in the PV industry
produce their modules in individual, non
standard sizes. It means that architect is forced
to design its application in favor of a certain
product before the call for tender. But it is
contrary to approach accepted by building
industry that elements being specified by size
become part of the tendering process. For the
building industry we need "open" PV systems,
the production of not just standardized
modules but modules that will fit in with other
Fig. 3. PV power production estimate, location industries that use – or could use – PV
Belgrade modules (Nordmann, 2005).
It is not recommended to apply PV systems on
Color and appearance of PV modules depend
periodically shaded surfaces of building
on material of solar cells. There are two basic
envelope because it results in negative effect Figure 4a. Large size PV modules types of PV modules commercially available
on system efficiency and can cause damages,
today: those made from crystalline silicon
as glass cracks. In order to obtain system
(mono- and multi- or polycrystalline) and
efficiency the overheat of PV modules has to
those made from amorphous silicon (a-Si).
be prevented. It appeared that building
The first type is the dominant commercial
integrated modules can reach 20-40°C above
product. Mono-crystalline modules are
ambient in conditions of high radiation; For
recognizable by their black mono-crystalline
each 1°C increase in cell temperature above cells. Polycrystalline modules can be
25°C, the power output decrease by about 04- recognized by blue, glittering polycrystalline
05% (Sich, Erge, 1996). Ventilation, normally cells. They could be opaque and
natural ventilation, needs to be provided to semitransparent. Amorphous modules can be
Fig. 4b. Convex
remove heat from the modules. A role of thumb opaque and semitransparent. Amorphous
shape of PV
is to provide an air gap of minimum 100mm. modules module opaque is recognizable by its brown
Variations in dimensions and forms of PV non-transparent look, while semitransparent by
modules are dependent on glass its brown-transparent look. Using double-layer
characteristics and require further antireflection coatings a broad range of colors
development. Solar cells are embedded with of PV modules can be obtained - gold, steel
special clear cast resin between two glass blue, dark blue, pink, green (Spiegel, Bucher,
panels, air-tight and protected against Willeke, 1996), allowing architects’ flexibility
corrosion. Extremely great changes occur in for integration of PV cells into building facade
glass industry where the introduction of and providing a good match to the
modern solutions, i.e. special types of glass environment.
enables the design of large glazed surfaces Various light permeability and interesting light
with integrated PV modules, providing pleasant effects inside a building can be produced
indoor atmosphere as well as building through the use of amorphous, light permeable
appearance (Fig. 4a). With regard to form, flat solar cells or the variation of the arrangements
modules are mostly in use, but twisted, mostly and distances between the cells (Fig. 5a, b). A
concave and convex shapes (Fig. 4b), are also typical crystalline cell is 100x100mm.
available and very frequently present in
contemporary architecture.

spatium 39
 They are mostly in use for new roof or facade
construction while less in case of building
refurbishment.

Building integrated modules can be treated as

an envelope (Fig. 7a) or as a finishing layer of
the envelope structure (Fig. 7b). They provide
thermal, acoustic, wind and humidity
insulation, sometimes fire and security
protection, and produce electric energy and in
Fig. 6a. Different locations of "standoff" PV
some cases thermal energy also (Fig. 7c). Due
modules and support systems
to functional complexity facades with
integrated PV modules can be treated as
a)
multifunctional structures.

Product development is proceeding in

following areas: Facade integrated systems,
Multifunctional PV facades, Shading devices
with PV and Roof integrated systems.

PV Integrated Facades

Facade integrated systems include integral

vertical and sloped glazing modules and
b) arrays. Also, modules integrated to awnings
Fig. 6b. Influence of "standoff" roof modules on can be considered.
Fig. 5. Light permeability produced through the
building appearance
variation of the arrangements and distances
Photovoltaic facade is type of glazed facades.
between the PV cells; a) facade permeability, "Building-integrated" PV components replace
PV modules can be integrated into the most of
b) roof permeability conventional building materials and labor,
the contemporary suspended facade systems
Regarding construction possibilities different reducing the installed cost of the PV system.
solutions are present in case of "standoff" and
"building integrated" systems.

"Standoff" mounting modules and arrays can be

applied on new roof or facade construction or
refurbished existing building envelope. A key
element is standoff bracket, attached directly to
the module frame or to rails or channels which
support a matrix of modules. Various support
systems are available, for vertical, sloped and
flat surfaces, as shown in Fig. 6a. The space
between the module or array and facade or roof
a) b) c)
material is ventilated by convection. Cooling
the modules and arrays enhances their
efficiency. If modules are mounted onto flat
roofs building appearance is not affected.
Modules applied to facade and pitched roof
influence building appearance and visual effect Fig. 7. Different structures of facades with integrated PV modules
depends on type and design of module and
a) PV modules as a building envelope,
support structure (Fig. 6b).
b) PV modules as a finishing layer of the envelope structure,
c) Structure that produces electric and thermal energy.

40 s p a t i u m
(Fig. 7 a, b). Suspended facades (curtain Fig. 10. Large mono-crystalline and multi-
walls) are light structures which are leaned crystalline encapsulated PV modules as well as
against the building structure and suspends in semi-transparent amorphous-silicon thin film
front of it. solar cells, which can control the light entering
the building, are presently considered as
Glazing layer consists of two kinds of structural excellent models. Assemblage of
components - sections and glass sheets as multifunctional modules (M-modules) by
shown in the Fig. 8 (Krstic, 1998). If they are using curtain wall technologies is acceptable
treated as individual components that are and usage of frame structures is favorable (Fig.
assembled in site the glazing is made by 8).
simple prefabricated components and needs
scaffold for its erection. When the structure is
formed as a frame with glass plates filling,
glass partitions - panels (complex
prefabricated components) they can be joined
directly and indirectly. Wooden, metal and
plastic sections can be used. Metal and plastic
sections are light and have smaller measures
than wooden sections. Metal sections, Fig.9.
customary in use have to be constructed of two Assemblage
parts solving the heat bridge problem and process of
preventing condensation. By diversity of large size
dimensions, shapes, colors and materials PV modules
(wood, plastic or metal) of sections and frames Fig 10. Multifunctional Photovoltaic Facades
it is possible to make different facade designs.
Shading Devices with PV
They can also be hidden by glass, making a Multifunctional Photovoltaic Facades
new appearance. Shading devices, with integrated PV cells,
Development of multifunctional solar facades

Fig. 8. Suspended facade assemblage possibilities

Glass sheets are PV modules. The appearance that produce electrical and thermal energy and convert solar energy into electric power and at
of modules depends on the material they are provide protection against inclement weather, the same tame prevent admittance of sun rays
made from, crystalline silicon, mono- and light and noise is actual and interested in and overheating of a room in summer, or allow
polycrystalline, or amorphous silicon, "opaque" industrial production. Solar module consists of passing sun rays into room in winter. PV
or "semitransparent". PV modules can be three layers. The external glazed layer where PV modules, as shading devices, are placed in
produced in sizes that provide large areas to be modules are encapsulated and internal layer, front of the glazed surfaces in such a way to
covered without a horizontal glass separation as an insulating partition are separated with the provide sufficient lighting of the room,
(Fig. 4a, 9). layer intended for air flow. The thermal energy operable windows and ventilation of facade
– hot air supplied in the middle layer can be structure. As facade external layer, usually
used for building heating using a system based movable, PV shading elements can perform as
on a ventilated PV wall principle, as shown in

spatium 41
weather protection and combine, convertion of envelope. In the first case, if warmed air is
sunlight into electricity and useful warmed air. distributed into the internal space, roof
Solar cells are integrated into safety glass. Fig 12. Facade structure can be treated as solar collector that
shading devices produces electric and thermal energy.
with PV cells
Roofing tile elements, with integrated
photovoltaic modules resemble and replace a
normal roof tiles, providing weather protection.
They can be mounted directly on the battens
and overlap each other at the top and bottom
(Fig. 14a). The frame of the solar roof tile is
made of high quality acrylic glass, colored to
Roof Integrated Systems provide protection against ultra-violet radiation.
The photovoltaic cells in mono-crystalline
Roof integrated PV systems can appear as:
silicon are enclosed between a reinforced
integral roof modules and roofing tiles and
fiber-glass layer and the external glass
shingles (Krstic, 2006). Integral roof PV
covering. Because of weather protection, top
modules appear as glazed structure, while
and bottom headers are needed. The complete
roofing PV tiles and shingles appear as roofer.
construction covers area equivalent to 5 normal
Both can cover whole roof surface or can partly
tiles. The problems of condensation and
substitute roofer.
overheat can be avoided by improving the
Integral roof modules are usually combined to internal air circulation under PV roof tiles. The
create arrays as shown in the Fig. 13. This roof assembly can be simplified to such an extent
system concept is similar to facade integrated that it can be mounted by regular craftsman.

Fig. 11. Roof shading devices with PV cells

Shading is provided by semi-transparency of

modules or cells arrangement. The most
effective are horizontal overhangs for south
orientation while for east and west orientations
are suitable vertically placed shading
elements. Shading devices with integrated PV
modules influence a building, roof and facade Figure 14a. A type of roofing PV tiles
appearance (Fig. 11, 12). In the case of
movable shading elements building envelope
becomes a changeable structure adaptable to system in sense of modules structure and
day and season changes - "alive" structure. techniques of mounting. With appropriate
Movable PV shading elements applied on mounting and sealing techniques, the array
glazed roof proved as excellent protection serves the roof's weatherproofing function. The
against sun rays. Further they enable creation mounting system consists of frameworks of
of vivid effects by sunlight, daylight and shade extrusions which provide support for the
to the interior. modules, a watertight seal and air channels
which discharge heat buildup through a ridge
vent. Air gap is placed between external glazed
PV layer and internal solid, light or massive,
roof construction. Such structure with opaque
Fig. 13. Integral roof modules
modules is customary solution in case of solid,
non-transparent, roof. For transparent roof, the PV shingles, as well as bituminous shingle roof
usage of "semitransparent" PV modules cladding, need roof boarding to be constructed
mounted like suspended wall structure is with ventilated air gap underneath (Fig. 14b).
customary solution. In the first case PV
modules represent a finishing layer of the
envelope, while in the second they are a roof

42 s p a t i u m
 efficiency is strongly influenced by orientation References
and inclination of PV modules. A favorable
Cristiansen, E., 2006., Copenhagen’s solar co-
orientation is south. Deviation to southeast and
op, Denmark promotes a new model of PV
southwest up to 30° is suitable. PV modules financing, Renewable Energy World, Vol. 9, No
can be placed in horizontal position, vertical 1, pp. 99-100.
position or inclined. Choice of inclination is Krstic, A., 1998., Measures and techniques for
influenced by latitude value. The best solar bioclimatic rehabilitation of existing buildings
yield is usually obtained on surfaces oriented aimed to produce energy rational and efficient
to the equator and tilted by the degree buildings, Proceedings of 2° International
corresponding to the local latitude. It is not Conference for Teachers of Architecture,
Universita’ degli studi fi Firence, Florence, pp.
Fig 14b. Roofing PV shingles recommended to apply PV systems on
2.05.
periodically shaded surfaces of a building
Roofing PV tiles and shingles have more Krstic, A., 2006., Multifunkcionalne krovne
envelope because it produces negative effects
acceptable price than integral roof modules. strukture energetski efikasnih zgrada
on system efficiency and can cause damages, (Multifunctional roof structures of the energy
Their shapes and dimensions fit into standard
as glass cracks. Various possibilities for design efficient buildings), Arhitektura i urbanizam,
roofers.
of PV integrated roof and facades are available 18/19, IAUS, Beograd, pp. 34-47.
CONCLUSION giving freedom for architectural design. Mallon, K., 1999., PV – Breaking the solar
"impasse", Renewable Energy World, Vol. 2,
Building integrated PV modules, that convert No. 6, pp. 95-96.
sunlight into electric power, contribute to less Nordmann, T., 2005., Built-in future, Renewable
consumption of conventional fuels that are Energy World, Review issue 2005-2006, Vol.
environment polluters. The electricity produced 8, No. 4, pp. 236-247.
by every square meter of PV can effectively Roaf, S., Fuentes, M., Thomas, S., 2003.,
displace emissions of more than two tones of Ecohouse 2: A Design Guide, Architectural
Press, pp. 195-197.
CO2 to the atmosphere over its lifetime; wider
use of PV power in buildings can help to
reduce such environmental impacts of Sich, F. and Erge, T. [Eds.], 1996,
buildings that are responsible for generating Photovoltaics in Buildings, James&James,
London, pp. 28.
over 50per cent of all emissions of greenhouse
gases globally (Roaf, Fuentes, Thomas, 2003). Spiegel, M., E. Bucher, E., Willeke, G., 1996.,
Colored Antireflection Coatings for High
Dissemination of PV integration in building has Efficiency PV Modules, 4th European
to be supported by government, building Conference on Solar Energy in Architecture
and Urban Planning, H.S.Stephens&Associates,
industry and experts among whom PV
Berlin, pp. 623-628.
dedicated architects play an important role.

In order to encourage the use of PV in

buildings, design and construction possibilities
for PV integration in envelopes of new and
existing buildings are discussed in the paper.
Presented classifications and analyzes of PV
systems - materials, supporting systems,
coatings and design principles, as well as
possibilities for design and structural variability
of envelopes with building integrated PV
modules, point out that application of
photovoltaic components to building envelopes
is a challenge to architects. Production of PV
systems is a new provocation and orientation
for building industry.

Designers have a key influence on the

following factors that affect PV output: tilt,
azimuth, shadowing, temperature. System

spatium 43
 UDC 519.816:004.42]:338.48

THE ANALYTIC HIERARCHY PROCESS

AS A SUPPORT FOR DECISION MAKING

Milanka Filipović

The first part of this text deals with a convention site selection as one of the most lucrative areas in the tourism industry. The
second part gives a further description of a method for decision making – the analytic hierarchy process. The basic
characteristics: hierarchy constructions and pairwise comparison on the given level of the hierarchy are allured. The third part
offers an example of application. This example is solved using the Super – Decision software, which is developed as a
computer support for the analytic hierarchy process. This indicates that the AHP approach is a useful tool to help support a
decision of convention site selection.
Keywords: analytical hierarchy process (AHP), attributes, convention, site selection

INTRODUCTION The convention sector is one of the fastest little has been learned about the relative
growing and most profitable areas of the importance of each one. This makes it difficult
Tourism is one of the largest and fastest tourism industry. Solving the most salient for destination managers to know where and
growing industries in the world, today. It is an determinants in selecting or organizing a how they should invest resources to enhance a
increasingly important source of income, destination for conventions and monitoring destination’s competitiveness.
employment and wealth in many countries. following up on their success is an important
However, its rapid expansion also has a research topic. Priority factors and attributes affecting the
detrimental and environmental (and socio- convention site decision making can be viewed
cultural) impact in many regions. The convention industry is globally recognized as a complex multi-criteria decision-making
for its valuable economic contribution to tourist (MCDM) problem. The convention site
Tourism can be considered as one of the most destinations and its significant growth selection for every convention in particular is
remarkable socio-economic phenomena of the potential. The attractiveness of convention also multi-criteria decision making based on
twentieth century. From an activity “enjoyed by tourism has spurred destinations to proactively assemblage of those attributes. The analytic
only a small group of relatively well-off pursue the meetings and conventions market. hierarchy process (AHP) as a new approach to
people” during the first half of the last century, the MCDM methods is offered as a possibility
it gradually became a mass phenomenon The convention site selection was considered tool for the convention site selection to be
defined as “the activities of persons traveling by several authors. They denoted that the understood as a decision-making process. This
to and staying in places outside their usual conventions may be hosted almost anywhere in could further assist decision makers in
environment for not more than one consecutive the world. This fact is a result of an intensive allocating limited resources for strategic
year for vacation, business and other purposes competition among potential host destination investment such as marketing, positioning, and
not related to the exercise of an activity sites. So, it is of great importance to those so on. The AHP is a pairwise comparison
remunerated from within the place visited” competing to understand the crucial factors procedure designed to capture relative
during the post-World War II period, affecting the convention site selection process. judgments in a manner that ensures
particularly from the 1970s onwards (UN The past studies related to the convention site consistency. This article presents a decision-
2001a, World Tourism Organization (WTO) selection mainly focus on identifying important making model based on the AHP for the
2000). The consequence of this phenomenon attributes for the desirable location in the convention site selection. By using the
now reaches an increasingly large number of process of selecting convention destinations. proposed model, it is not only possible to
people throughout the world and can be Professional judgment and factor analysis are provide a general understanding of decision
considered as a vital dimension of global the main methods used, but although these factors, but also to determine the relative value
integration. studies have helped to identify many factors,

44 s p a t i u m
significance of critical attributes affecting site these studies helped in identifying many between the importance of site selection
selection. factors, but little has been learned about the factors and the structure of association.
relative importance of each one [4]. This
Preview of the past studies on convention site makes it difficult for destination managers to The conceptual model of convention site
selection is given in Section 2. Section 3 know where and how they should invest selection proposed in [7] consists of eight
presents the AHP method in details. Section 4 resources to enhance a destination’s primary factors along with several dimensions,
describes the development of the AHP model, competitiveness. resulting in the identification of 36 attributes
then reports and discusses the estimation that govern the choice of a convention site. The
results from the proposed AHP model. Finally, Prioritizing factors and attributes affecting eight factors are:
Section 5 provides some concluding remarks. convention site decision making can be viewed
as a complex multi-criteria decision-making 4. accessibility (including cost, time,
CONVENTION SITE SELECTION (MCDM) problem. The analytical hierarchy frequency, convenience, and barrier
process (AHP), a widespread MCDM method, attributes),
Introduction could facilitate understanding of the decision- 5. local support (including local chapter,
making process and thus assist determining convention and visitors’ bureau/convention
As stated in the introduction, tourism is a vital
the relevant characteristics, such as center, and subsidies attributes),
dimension of global integration today.
Consequently, it is a way of developing the membership characteristics, executive 6. extra conference opportunity (including
local environment, with all the welfare and characteristics, past experience, association entertainment, shopping, sightseeing,
complex problems which immerge. The policies, environmental conditions, and recreation, and professional opportunities
convention industry is globally recognized for convention objectives. Previous studies have attributes),
its valuable economic contribution to tourism contributed to identify many of this topic’s 7. accommodation facilities (including
destinations and its significant growth potential selection factors ([2], [4], [6], [7], [10], [13], capacity, cost, service, security, and
[9], [18]. The attractiveness of convention [15], [17], [19], [21]). In [7] it is found that availability attributes),
tourism has spurred destinations to proactively most information on site selection from the
8. meeting facilities (including capacity,
pursue the meetings and conventions market. past studies was based on anecdotal and
layout, cost, ambiance, security,
Conventions may be hosted almost anywhere experiential evidence and industry experience.
availability, and experience attributes),
in the world, resulting in keen competition So, although identification of important site
selection factors are central in most 9. information (including reputation and
among potential host destination sites.
publications little is known about the relative marketing attributes),
Because of the growing competition, it is of
great importance to those competing for importance of each factor [4]. 10. site environment (including climate,
business to understand the crucial factors setting, and infrastructure attributes), and
Convention site selection models 11. other criteria (such as risks, profitability,
affecting the convention site selection process.
Comparing alternatives for every particular The convention site selection process is association promotion, and novelty
convention can then be considered. potentially very complex because of many attributes).
variables that influence the decision [6]. In [11] the convention site selection criteria are
Convention site selection was considered by
classified into two primary categories: the
authors like Crouch and Louviere [8], Clark and Based on their comprehensive review of the convention destination site’s environment
Mc Cleary [6], Kim and Kim [15], Chacko and site selection literature, the 5-step - addressing a city’s capacity to host an
Fenich [4] and many others. conceptual model of the site selection process international convention, and the meeting
is proposed in [7] and it is identified by several facilities.
Crouch and Louviere denoted in [8] that the
categories of site selection factors, together
conventions may be hosted almost anywhere in
with various antecedent conditions and In [15] a summary review of the major criteria
the world. This fact is a result of an intensive
competing sites influences. The five steps are: for convention site selection is provided
competition among potential host destination
concluding that meeting room facilities,
sites. Because of the growing intensity of convention preplanning, service quality, restaurants, transportation, and
competition, it is of great importance to those
site selection analysis and recommendations, attractiveness of the destination are the major
competing for business to understand the
site selection decision, attributes. Because the AHP and the choice
crucial factors affecting the convention site
model tap the nature of decision making in
selection process. Past studies related to convention held, and
different ways, it is reasonable to expect results
convention site selection mainly focus on post convention evaluation. from the two methods to be useful, to
identifying important attributes for the desirable
The factors affecting the site selection decision complement and not to contradict each other.
location in selecting convention destinations.
can be broadly divided into site-specific and
Professional judgment and factor analysis are
association factors and there is a relationship
the main methods used [6], [15]. Analysis of

spatium 45
ANALYTIC HIERARCHY PROCESS The basic characteristic In addition, it is important that all essential
elements relevant to the problem are covered
As stated in the introduction, mathematician within the hierarchy structure. In its most
Introduction
Tomas Saaty [22] developed, during 1980s, a typical form, a hierarchy is very often
Establishing criteria for decision-making is a completely new approach to solving decision - structured from the top (objectives from the
difficult and responsible task. In the past a making problems, and named it Analytic managerial standpoint) through the
single criterion optimization has usually been Hierarchy Process (AHP). It is considered that intermediate level (criteria and sub-criteria that
debated, that single criterion being – the AHP method is mathematically well subsequent levels depend on), and on to the
economic. Today we almost always deal with expounded. As a method for multiple criteria lowest level (which is usually a list of
multi-criteria optimisation i.e. the decision decision – making, AHP is closely related to alternatives). AHP uses information from the
making with respect to more than one criterion. the way an individual intuitively solves complex literature and empirical experiences to define a
For solving those problems various problems by decomposing them to more general structure, and implements pairwise
mathematical methods were developed [20]. simple ones. comparison information from decision makers
In those methods the decision - maker has to to model decision making.
Applying the AHP procedure involves three
define the structure preference for making a
basic steps: Once a hierarchy has been developed, it can be
choice. The definition of the structure of
preference is a separate problem within the 1. decomposition, or the hierarchy moved to data collection, thus having the
multiple criteria optimisation. construction; pairwise comparisons needed to determine the
relative importance of the elements in each
Psychology shows that the human brain's 2. comparative judgments, or defining and
level. The decision makers begin the
reaction is one - dimensional, i.e. that the brain executing data collection to obtain pairwise
prioritization procedure to determine the
is capable of comparing elements only two by comparison data on elements of the
relative importance of the elements in each
two; that is why it is so difficult to subjectively hierarchical structure; and
level.
rank lots of objects simultaneously. The 3. synthesis of priorities, or constructing an
problem is becoming even worse if there is overall priority rating. The criteria and sub-criteria are not equally
more than one criterion. It is believed that Decomposition into a hierarchy is based on important to the decision at each level of the
humans generally are not capable of making a previous studies and empirical experiences. hierarchy, and each alternative rate differently
choice from a set that is infinite. Note that AHP demands that the problem be in each criterion. AHP can provide an analytical
structured by the participants in the decision- process that is able to combine and
As a completely new approach to solving consolidate the evaluations of the alternatives
decision making problems, mathematician making process, although it is not essential
that all participants in the planning process and criteria by either an individual or a group
Saaty T (1980) developed a new method which involved in the decision-making task.
he named the Analytic Hierarchy Process agree on every component of the problem [23].
(AHP).

The AHP approach is one of the more

extensively used MCDM methods. The AHP GOAL
has been applied to a wide variety of decisions
and the human judgment process [16]. The
approach is used to construct an evaluation
model and has criterion weights. It integrates
CRITERIA
cC
different measures into a single overall score
for ranking decision alternatives. Applying it
usually results in simplifying a multiple
criterion problem by decomposing it into a
multilevel hierarchical structure. Obtaining
solutions in the AHP is not a statistical
procedure, because it can help either a single
decision maker or a decision group to solve an
MCDM problem. Description of the basic
Saaty's method is given in detail bellow,
together with some of its extensions and the
appropriate references. Figure 1. Abstract Representation of a decision Hierarchy

46 s p a t i u m
It is noted that two elements being compared at Table 1: Conventional and fuzzy scales
a given time greatly reduce the conceptual
complexity of an analysis. This simplification
involves assumptions that are considered ⎧ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ⎫
S = ⎨ , , , , , , , ,1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ⎬
reasonable. Given a pairwise comparison, the ⎩ 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 ⎭
analysis involves three tasks:
Conventional scales Definition Fuzzy scale
4. developing a comparison matrix at each
1 = (1 − δ ,1,1 + δ )
1 Equally preferred ~
level of the hierarchy starting from the
3 = (3 − δ ,3,3 + δ )
3 Weakly preferred ~
second level and working down,
5 = (5 − δ ,5,5 + δ )
5. computing the relative weights for each 5 Strongly preferred ~
element of the hierarchy, and
7 = (7 − δ ,7,7 + δ )
7 Very strongly preferred ~
6. evaluating the consistency ratio to check
9 = (9 − δ ,9,9 + δ )
9 Absolutely preferred ~
the consistency of the judgment.
2,4,6,8 Intermediate values ~~~~
AHP handles the problem of multiple criteria 2, 4, 6 , 8
decision - making as a hierarchy of elements
that are important for reaching a decision. The
goal is on the top of that hierarchy, the criteria
in table 1. A final aggregation of local weights De-fuzzyfication is performed using the
are on the level below it, and the alternatives
is preformed to rank and choose alternative. methods of centroid, different types of
are at the bottom (figure 1).
geometric comparisons of triangular fuzzy
For solving in additional problems caused by numbers, or various methods of integration
Since the psychological experiments (Miller,
qualitative elements that are difficult to include combined with α – scalarisation and using λ –
1956.) indicated that an individual cannot
into normative methods, versions of the AHP index of optimism of the decision-maker [15].
simultaneously compare more than seven
are developed in interval [1] and fuzzy
elements (plus or minus 2 elements), Saaty
environments ([3], [12], [24]). The Eigenvector method and the consistency
defined a scale of pairwise comparisons with
„fuzzyfication” of the basic Saaty's method is
values ranging 1 to 9, with step 1. Saaty's scale
performed using triangular fuzzy numbers (as Under the semantic preference from the
is considered to be a standard for AHP
they are more simple than trapezoidal) and second column of the table 1 the appropriate
(although there are other scales - linear,
fuzzy arithmetic. A very good preview of numerical values from the first column could
potential, exponential etc). The hierarchy does
techniques in AHP in fuzzy triangular case can be written in square matrix of
not need to be complete, any given middle-
level element is not necessarily a criterion for
be seeing in [24] for example, and in [14] a ( )
comparison A = aij ∈ R
n×n
, whose
fuzzy case application is offered.
all the elements below it. elements are taking one of possible 17 values
The complete process is fuzzyficated: from the in the table 1. If we denote the priority vector
Each level can represent a different aspect of
Saaty's scale (see columns 1 and 3 in table 1) as w = (w1 w3 ... wn ) , than
T
the problem. The decision-maker can add or w2
and pairwise comparisons to all the operations
leave out some levels and elements in order to the next formula holds:
with matrixes. Various fuzzy versions of AHP
clear out the priorities or to concentrate on the
differ in methods of fuzzyfication of the scales Note that if the element Ei preferred to the
specific segment of the problem. The general
and the method of de-fuzzyfication of the
criteria can appear at higher levels of the element E j totally aij times in total, it can
results.
hierarchy and the more specific ones can be
unfolded deeper down.
⎡ w1 w1 w1 ⎤
⎡ 1 a12 . . . a1n ⎤ ⎢ w . . . ⎥
This method elicits preferences through w2 wn
pairwise comparisons in which the decision ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢ 1 . . . a2 n ⎥ ⎢ w2 w2
. . .
w2 ⎥
maker considers the relative importance of two ⎢ a12 ⎥ ⎢ w1 ⎥
w2 wn
factors at a time with respect to a common ⎢ . . . . . ⎥
= ⎢⎢ . ⎥
.
A=⎢ . . . . . (1)
higher-level criterion evaluating relative . . . . . . ⎥ ⎥
weights. For each comparison the decision ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ . . . . . . ⎥
⎢ . . . . . . ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
maker indicates the intensity of preference of ⎢ 1 ⎥
1 ⎢ . . . . . . ⎥
one factor over another as a point estimate on ⎢a . . . 1⎥ ⎢ wn wn wn ⎥
⎣ 1n a2 n ⎦ . . .
an appropriate scale. Pairwise comparisons (on
⎣⎢ w 1 w2 wn ⎦⎥
the same hierarchy level) are semantic or
numeric in nature as defined by Saaty's scale

spatium 47
 be expected that the element E j will be for consistent approximation is expressed elements as shown in the Error! Reference
by λmax ≥ n . Saaty suggests the following as source not found.. It is necessary to input
1 names for every level particularly, and there is
preferred to the element Ei times in a measure of inconsistency:
aij possibility to describe each of them. When the
1 λmax − n clusters are connected by a line it means the
total. Since a ji = and aii = 1 holds for CI = (5)
nodes in them are connected. The pairwise
a ij n −1
comparisons are being done after that. Several
all i, j ∈ {1,2,..., n} , matrix А is positive and CI is called the consistency index. Saaty methods of prioritizing are offered. The
the elements from its „upper triangular sub- compares this value with random index, checking consistency as a tool is offered, too.
matrix“ are reciprocal to those from its „lower denoted with RI (see table2) an average CI of a
large number of randomly generated reciprocal A few types of models are offered, and they
triangular sub-matrix“. The following equation
matrix of the same order. The calculated vector could be appropriate for usage in those forms,
could be constructed:
w is accepted if the ratio CI : RI is les than or could be a little modified. New models can
be created easily. The set of the offered models
Aw = nw (2) or equal to 0.1, otherwise the preferences are
consist of application examples in car industry,
considered not to be consistent enough to
The solution of this equation is the right education, fishery resource allocation, water
serve as a basis for decision- making.
eigenvector of the matrix A, consists of positive reservoirs, national missile defense etc. The

Table 2: Random index (RI) for matrices of order (n) 1 to 15

N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
RI 0 0 0.58 0.9 1.12 1.24 1.32 1.41 1.45 1.49 1.51 1.48 1.56 1.57 1.59

elements of the matrix A and it is unique, Software support new idea to applying this software is appeared
disregarding possible multiplicative constants. as a result. For the application purposes, it
It could be made as the additive normalization Several computer programs are developed as a would be interesting to consider the case of
in a way to unification the eigenvector. If all the support for analytic hierarchy process. One of convention site selection as follows.
elements of the matrix A are known, the them, the Super-Decision, is developed in
evaluation system can be established and the 2003 by William J. Adams from Embry Riddle CASE APPLICATION
solution is the normalized version of any Aeronautic University, Daytona Beach from
column of matrix A. Florida and Rosanne W. Saaty from Creative Development the evaluation hierarchy
Decisions Foundation from Pittsburgh. The convention site selection evaluated by five
In practice, the matrix A is very often
inconsistent, in fact almost always; in this case A hierarchical decision model has a goal, factors divided into seventeen attributes
the solution of the following equation: criteria that are evaluated for their importance applied in Taiwan is chosen as аn application
to the goal and alternatives that are evaluated case in our environment for this paper. The
A ⋅ w = λmax ⋅ w (3) for the level of preferences in respect to the case aims to evaluate how academic
each criterion professors and directors of tourist agencies
is vector prioritize the elements affecting convention site
A hierarchical decision model has a goal, selection. A simple four-level hierarchical
k
criteria that are evaluated for their importance structure is constructed first, and the fourth
, e = (1 1 ... 1) (4)
Ae
w = lim
T
k →∞ T k
e Ae to the goal, and alternatives that are evaluated level consists of destinations for convention. Of
for their importance with respect to the each course, initial determination of the number of
criterion. The goal, the criteria and the levels and variables is a research problem and
⎛ wi ⎞
The matrix W = ⎜ ⎟, i, j = 1,2,..., n is alternatives are all elements in the decision it can be various in every particular case.
⎜w ⎟ problem, or nodes in the model. A Super-
⎝ j ⎠ Based on reviewing the literature on convention
the consistent approximation of the matrix A. It Decisions model consists of clusters of site selection and opinions of a smaller group
means that the expert evaluations are given elements (or nodes), rather than elements (or of academic professors and tourist agency’s
with a small account error. The appropriate nodes) arranged in levels. The simplest directors a proposed hierarchy is constructed
eigenvalue λmax is not n , furthermore it hierarchical model has a goal cluster as shown in the figure 2 (basic levels without
containing the goal element, a criteria cluster alternatives).
holds that λmax ≥ n (equality stands in case containing the criteria elements and an
of consistency). Deviation of expert evaluation alternatives cluster containing the alternative

48 s p a t i u m
 Convention Site Selection
Attributes
Goal

F11 Space

F12 Choice of Meeting and Housing Properties

(F1) Meeting and Accommodation
Facilities
F13 Suitability of Convention Facilities

F14 Quality of Food and Break

F21 Expense of Transportation

F22 Expense of Hotel

(F2) Costs

F23 Expense of Food

Factors
F24 Commodity Prices

F31 City Image

(F3) Site Environment F32 Site Accessibility

F33 Suitability and Standard of Local Infrastructure

F41 Government Support

(F4) Local Support F42 Quality of Industry Personnel

F43 Efficiency of Industry Personnel

F51 Climate

(F5) Extra-conference Opportunities

F52Outside Entertainment

F53 Sightseeing and Cultural Attractions

Figure 2. The hierarchy of convention site selection

spatium 49
The highest level of the hierarchy is the overall then translated into the corresponding number local infrastructure (0.04931%), government
goal: to construct an evaluation structure for in the relative importance scale in the table 3. support (0.182667%), and sightseeing and
convention site selection with weights
corresponding to criteria. Under the overall
goal, the second level represents the criteria
(i.e., factors) affecting convention site
selection, including meeting and
accommodation facilities, costs, site
environment, local support, and extra
conference opportunities. Various sets of sub-
criteria (i.e., attributes) associated with each
factor in the second level are linked to the third
level. The meeting and accommodation
facilities factor consists of four attributes
(space, variety of meeting and accommodation
properties, suitability of convention facilities,
and quality of food and beverage). The costs
factor is subdivided into four attributes
(transport expense, accommodation expense,
food and beverage expense, and commodity
prices). The site environment factor is made of
three attributes (city image, site accessibility, Figure 3: Model of hierarchy for conventional site selection created in Super – Decision Software
and suitability and quality of local
infrastructure). The local support factor Table 3: Nine-point intensity of relative importance scale
includes three attributes (government support,
quality of convention personnel, and efficiency
Intensity of Definition Explanation
of convention personnel). Finally, the extra- Relative
conference opportunities factor includes three Importance
attributes (climate, entertainment 1 Equal importance Two activities contribute equally to objective
opportunities, and sightseeing and cultural 1.
attractions). 3 Moderate importance of one Experience and judgment slightly favor one
over another activity over another.
Finally, on the bottom of this hierarchy some 5 Essential or strong importance Experience and judgment strongly favor one
destinations are offered, and it can be seen in activity over another.
figure 3. 7 Demonstrated importance An activity is strongly favored, and its
dominance is demonstrated in practice.
Prioritization procedure 9 Extreme importance The evidence favoring one activity over
another is of the highest possible order of
Once the hierarchy structure of the convention affirmation.
site selection has been constructed, the 2, 4, 6, 8 Intermediate values between When a compromise is needed
the two adjacent judgments
prioritization procedure begins to determine
the relative importance of the elements on each
level. A questionnaire survey was designed for After doing all pairwise comparisons on the cultural attractions (0.313266%) show the
academic professors and directors of tourist level 2, the pairwise comparison matrix is highest importance with respect to each factor
agencies in order to collect the data of pairwise constructed. Similarly, the pairwise in the order of meeting and accommodation
comparisons. The respondents are asked to comparison procedure is then applied to all facilities, costs, site environment, local
make judgments about the relative importance factors with respect to the second level. At the support, and extra conference opportunities,
of the element with respect to the overall goal end four destinations are offered: Zlatibor, respectively. The derived weights for every
of selecting the convention site. For example, Beograd, Jagodina and Kragujevac. The dates factor in respect to the goal are: meeting and
when asked, “With respect to meeting and put in the Super-Decision give the result which accommodation facilities (0.142%), costs
accommodation facilities with costs, which is is shown in the figure 4. (0.038%), site environment (0.072%), local
more important?” the verbal judgment from support (0.267%), and extra conference
It is evaluated that the attributes of suitability of opportunities (0.481%).
equal importance to extreme importance was convention facilities (0.079616%), commodity
prices (0.023021%), suitability and quality of

50 s p a t i u m
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Kapoor V., Tak S.S (2005): Fuzzy Application Neto F. (2003): “A New Approach to and Restaurant Administration Quarterly,
to the Analytic Hierarchy Process for Sustainable Tourism Development: Moving No.28, pp 67-76
Robot Selecton, Fuzzy Optimization and Beyond Environmental Protection”, Saaty T. L. (1980): The Analytic Hierachy
Decision Making, 4, pp 209-234 Natural Resources Forum, No. 27, pp Process: Planning, Priority, Setting,
Kim, W. G., H. C. Kim (2003). “The Analysis 212-222 Resource Allocation, Mc Graw - -Hill, New
of Seoul as an International Convention Oppermann, M. (1996). “Convention York
Destination.” Journal of Convention and Destination Images: Analysis of Satty, T. L., and K. P. Kearns (1985).
Exhibition Management, No. 5, pp 69-87 Association Meeting Planners’ Analytical Planning: The Organization of
Lee, W. B., H. Lau, Z. Liu, S. Tam (2001): A Perceptions.” Tourism Management, Systems. Oxford: Pergamon
fuzzy analytical hierarchy process No.17 , pp 175-182 Triantaphyllou E., Lin C.T.(1996)
approach in modular product design. Opricović S. (1998): „Višekriterijumska :Development and Evaluation of Five Fuzzy
Expert System, No.18 (1): 32-42 optimizacija sistema u graditeljstvu“, Multiattribute Decision-Making Methods
Mc Cleary,K.M. (1978) “The Corporate Građevinski fakultet, Beograd ,International Journal of Approximate
Meetings Market: Components of Success Reasoning; 14:pp 281-310

APPENDIX

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54 s p a t i u m
spatium 55
56 s p a t i u m
spatium 57
58 s p a t i u m
spatium 59
 UDC 728.1
728.22

REHABILITATION PROJECT OF AN APARTMENT

BUILDING IN BELGRADE, SERBIA

Milica Jovanović-Popović, Dušan Ignjatović, Nataša Ćuković-Ignjatović,

Ana Radivojević
As a part of a scientific project conducted at the Faculty of Architecture University of Belgrade a detailed survey of building
fund has been made and a typical 1950’s building was chosen as a demonstration project for the energy conscious renovation
and retrofit procedure.
Rehabilitation has been done in three main phases:
• Detailed analysis and inspection of present state based on available project documentation, on site inspection,
thermography, as well as interviews with tenants. In this phase strategies for reconstructions were analyzed and evaluated
• First phase of rehabilitation mainly concerned improvement of performance of envelope (façade, windows) with addition of
an attic level.
• Second phase maximizes performance of building using various architectural and technical methods.
Addition of new volumes (glazed loggias, and partly double skin façades), heat recuperating units, and hot water collectors
with redefinition of heating system was the main objectives.
For both phases techno-economical analyses were made optimizing possible thermal performance gains and used technology
in accordance with economic potential and pay-back period. Also a detailed procedure algorithm was developed in order to
give guidelines for future projects of this type.
Keywords: rehabilitation, energy optimisation

INTRODUCTION for some sort of guidelines that would make both tenants and experts. For this reason an
better use of these interventions, and extension of existing structure was chosen as a
Extensions, refurbishments and conversions of encourage search for modernized and generator of the rehabilitation project providing
unused parts of apartment buildings became environmentally friendlier design and research sufficient value for the whole process.
very popular way of gaining new apartment works began in many disciplines related to
units during the 1990’s. The investors were architecture and urban planning. In the preliminary period it was decided that
individuals already living in the existing the gained space is to be donated to the
building, or private entrepreneurs who would The project of energy based rehabilitation of an University of Belgrade to accommodate young
(in return for allowance to intervene on the apartment building in Belgrade has been specializing professionals for a limited time
dwelling) compensate the owners by organized by Velux (Denmark) and Faculty of period.
performing major works on their building, Architecture University of Belgrade and
such as repairs and refurbishments on the sponsored by BIF (Building Improvement CHOOSING THE MODEL BUILDING
façade, halls and staircases, installing Foundation - Denmark). Ministry of Education The first phase of the research that preceded
elevators etc. The extent of these interventions and Sports as well as Ministry of Science and
the pilot project was focused on detailed
and the quality of works varied a lot, since it Capital investments also participated as
analysis of Belgrade’s building stock in order
was up to the two parties involved (owners and supporting bodies. to identify building types and single out the
investors) to make an agreement and neither one that would be the most suitable for energy
Project was based on the premises of creating
party was professional on the subject. rehabilitation. The major building types
an applicable model for further interventions.
Regulations were inconsistent and unclear, seemed to have corresponded to the certain
This model had to be based on real economic
leaving plenty of opportunities for phases of housing development in Belgrade –
grounds and incorporate direct participation of
manipulations and malpractice. The need arose

60 s p a t i u m
the construction prior to the World War II Their very limited architectural value provides MODEL BUILDING – PRELIMINARY
(buildings dated before 1941), the post-war space for architectural research for INVESTIGATION
construction (1946-1970), the directed improvements in building appearance and
housing strategy (1966-1980), etc [1]. identity The first project activities were dedicated to the
detailed examination of the existing state of the
Some 15% of present building stock was The model building was chosen as typical building in order to investigate possible
constructed before World War II and it could representative of this particular building type. limitations for planned activities. At this stage,
not be considered as representative mainly In order to meet the needs of all the preliminary investigations were carried out
because of rather modest number of participants in the project, we looked for a regarding:
apartments and great variety of building types. building in a traditional city block, located in
Also, many of these buildings are important the greater central area of Belgrade, preferably - technical data, involving technical
part of architectural and cultural heritage and with the disposition that would enable investigation, measurements and a
their refurbishment demands specific and more introducing some passive and/or active solar questionnaire for each individual flat
complex approach. systems and optimal use of solar gains. - legal issues, and
On the other hand, by the late 1960’s, first Finally, the building in 112-120 Cvijiceva - feasibility study
building regulations regarding thermal street built in 1957. was chosen to be the The collected data were structured into the
insulation were introduced, and most buildings subject of the pilot project (Figures 1 and 2). It Technical report that covered all engineering
constructed during the period of directed was built within a traditional city block, it has aspects:
housing strategy were designed according to all the characteristics of designated building
• General description that presented the
these regulations; by the late 1980’s Yugoslav type, with street façade facing north and court
designed and the existing state of the
standards in the area of building physics were façade facing south with courtyard wide
building in general, characteristics of its
based on German DIN standards at the time enough to provide good solar exposure. The
envelope, materials and equipment that were
and were compulsory part of building design. building was in rather poor condition, and
used
needed some refurbishment and repairs that
The buildings constructed during the 1950’s • Geotechnical conditions that covered
the owners could not carry out themselves.
and 1960 have presented the most interesting geologic and hydrogeologic soil features,
material for this research due to the particular as well as seismic characteristics of the
set of characteristics: ground
• Structure condition where the designed and
They have no thermal insulation, so even the existing state of building's structure were
modest interventions could result in noticeable presented, and possible restrictions
improvement regarding the reconstruction were explored
• Waterworks and sewage installation networks
During this period some 30% of Belgrade’s
• Electrical installations
building fund was constructed, mainly
• Mechanical installations in the sense of the
repeating the same model with minor
option for possible district heating
variations. This means that the same guidelines
connection and new heating installations for
could be applied on a large number of
Figure 1: Building in Cvijiceva 112-120: all apartments was elaborated
buildings, and a good model could provoke
street (North) façade – existing state • Survey which covered all apartment owners,
and initiate numerous interventions
identifying the changes made by tenants
Long life span of primary construction during the exploitation and their approval or
(although built with rather limited resources, disapproval regarding each particular
they are made of solid, traditional materials, potential intervention proposed as part of the
mainly brickwork and concrete) supports the pilot-project
idea of rehabilitation instead of demolition • Appendix which included complete set of
technical drawings, schemes, illustrations
The apartments are equipped with chimney and photos that accompanied sections 1-7
installation, heated individually, using Later during the research, when thermal
electricity mainly, with no gas or district camera was acquired, thermal images showed
heating connection, so tenants could feel the patterns of heat losses and identified the
Figure 2: Building in Cvijiceva 112-120:
benefits from rehabilitation instantly, both most critical parts of the building regarding its
financially and in terms of thermal comfort court (South) façade - existing state
energy performance. Figures 3 and 4 show that
the most evident losses occur in the areas

spatium 61
where concrete slabs intersect with the façade the first phase. The design was approved by all An approval from the city authorities for
and on the windows. Some variations are participating parties. connection to the district heating system was
visible on the South façade (Figure 4) where obtained and new substation planned (within
tenants have used their loggias as extension of the building). Main distributing pipes were
living space, having them enclosed in their planned in staircases and tenants were obliged
own way. to provide radiators and local branching. An
automated valves and individual measuring
system for each flat were also planned. The
effects of individual measuring system do not
show on direct calculations but it can be
expected that tenants are encouraged to reduce
their consumption if they pay accordingly to
the energy used, and not per m2 of their flat as
it the case in Belgrade district heating system.
Figure 5: North façade – the first phase of
reconstruction
First phase of rehabilitation was mainly
focused towards reaching the desired energy
standard and level of comfort as well as
improving the overall state of building. For the
Figure 3: North façade – thermographic image Base case and for the Reconstructed case the
dynamic building model (DOE 2.2) has been
established. The theoretical estimations of
energy consumption showed that the annual
amount of energy used for heating could be
reduced up to 63% (Figure 7).

Second Phase

The second phase concentrated on additional

methods for energy optimization and
Figure 6: South façade – first phase of improvement of total building performance.
reconstruction
In this phase new structure was added on the
Figure 4: South façade – thermographic image New attic was designed to have minimal south façade (Figure 8). This structure serves
impact on existing structure combined with both as a thermal buffer zone and an extension
REHABILITATION simple construction method. Several of existing flats. Constructed from steel frames
architectural and technological solutions were and glass covering it is connected directly onto
First Phase considered and evaluated [2]. All new the primary structure of the building serving as
structures and installations systems were a sunspace to which every flat can be
Based on the detailed technical report designed to be an extension of existing ones. extended. Sufficient internal shading in the
first phase concentrated on vertical Roof structure was designed as ventilated form of Venetian blinds and lateral openings
extension and envelope improvement construction with 25cm thermal insulation. were designed to prevent overheating in
Shaped in the form of Mansard roof, it provided summer period.
[3]. Interventions were planned in three
adequate use of roof windows insuring
major fields: sufficient light and ventilation.
• construction of new attic.
Façade of the building was to be fully
• reconstruction of the envelope (changing or renovated and insulated using Rockwool façade
servicing the windows, adding thermal system (with additional 10cm insulation).
insulation on the façade and along the Depending on their state, windows and balcony
staircases) doors were either renovated or changed using
• connecting the building on distant heating PVC windows (5 chambers PVC profiles, low
system network emission glass) equipped with external blinds.
Figures 5 and 6 present the perspective views Internal staircases were insulated with 5cm
of the North and South facades as designed for insulation.

62 s p a t i u m
 Figure 7: Annual energy load
for heating

It was estimated that the first phase would cost fiscal authorities such as wavers or reductions
€762.550, out of which some 40% is in taxing thermal insulation, automated valves
designated for the reconstruction of existing etc., and the overall costs could be
building without an extension. significantly reduced.

Pie-chart on Figure 10
presents the structure of
the costs for more
elaborated refurbishment,
City Tax as designed for the phase
Figure 8: Reconstructed court façade – phase Other 11%
Extension 2. With total costs of
2. Technical
45% €1.003.450 it is by
8%
A system of hot water collectors was also Installatio 31.6% more expensive
planned, but serving only to newly constructed ns than the proposal for
flats as an individual system. Since more 12% phase 1, with glazed
complex system providing hot water for the addition costing more
whole building required extensive works and Façade than the primary façade
lack of legislation it was not concerned in the 24% refurbishment. Since the
project. habitable surface of the
existing flats is increased,
A ventilation system with heat exchange units the costs for the City tax
located in each flat was also designed using Figure 9: Structure of the costs for the first phase increase (the tax is paid
abandoned chimney pipes (no longer in per m2 of new habitable
operation due to the central heating system Pie-chart shown on Figure 9 presents the surface achieved).
installation) as installation ducts. structure of the costs for the first phase of
This structure of costs implies that for
reconstruction. Total costs for the extension are
In addition to this phase introducing active improvements designed in phase 2, more
estimated on €334.791, façade works together
solar systems such as photovoltaic cells and participation from the owners is needed and it
with necessary repairs and replacements of
various measures for reducing complete could be expected only if such intervention
windows €183.260, installations (with the
environmental footprint of the building were would immediately reflect on the increase of
substation and all necessary equipment for
taken into consideration. market value of their apartments that would
district heating) €98.485, other technical costs
cover the initial investment. At the moment, it
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS (surveillance, design and insurance) for
is not the case and interventions on this scale
€63.014 and City tax would be €83.000. City
For both phases of rehabilitation project, a could not be expected to occur in near future
authorities were not willing to wave this tax,
preliminary cost calculation was created, unless strongly supported by local authorities
although it could reduce the total costs for
providing sufficient data for decision-making or donations.
13%. Also, general VAT (18%) is included in
process. this cost calculation. With some support from

spatium 63
IMPLEMENTATION City Tax
Other 12% Extension
The primary goal of the pilot-project was to Technical 32%
optimize the energy performance of the 8%
selected building, using the methods and Installatio
resources that could serve as a model scheme ns
for future interventions, preferably carried out 10%
by the tenants/owners with some
encouragement and support from the Glazed Façade
municipality level. Figure 11 shows the Extension 18%
20%
algorithm with phases and corresponding
actions that should enable the complete
realization with monitoring and evaluation
providing data on real benefits of intervention.
This algorithm was elaborated having in mind Figure 10: Structure of the costs with the second phase included
not only the participants in the particular pilot-
project, but the real actors that would be
involved in a similar process elsewhere in
Belgrade metropolitan area [4].

The absolute preconditions for the

interventions are solid legal grounds, where
complete accordance with planning limitations
is required in order to make any intervention
legally possible. Preparations phase covers
analysis of limitations deriving from local
characteristics of particular site, building type
and ownership status. In search for modalities
of intervention, alternative models can be
proposed with energy simulations and techno-
economical analysis that could help clarify the
most suitable intervention type. For the chosen
intervention, financing scheme is elaborated
and at that point contracting can begin.
Realization covers all standard phases, from
preliminary design up to the construction and
should be followed by adequate maintenance
and involve monitoring and evaluation that
would provide feedback data if possible.

Theoretical research and surveys described in

previous chapters covered the phases prior to
the actual realization – contracting and
construction. Since the results of the survey
showed that the apartment owners were willing
to support the intervention, and BIF and VELUX
were willing to cover the costs presented in
techno-economic analysis, the design was
further elaborated up to the stage of main
design documentation.

Major set-back for the pilot-project came when

several apartment owners asked for extension
of the original contract, implying that the
participants should cover all potential repairs Figure 11: Algorithm for energy optimisation

64 s p a t i u m
for any damages occurring after the interventions are at the moment random and
intervention, regardless of their cause. The partial but with more coordination on the
donators were not able to take that kind of municipality level, the whole city blocks could
liability, the beneficiaries redrew their be upgraded to meet the contemporary
accordance, and the final contract was never standards both in comfort and in environmental
signed. Although the relevant legislation did performance.
not demand 100% accordance for such
intervention, the donators required the References
complete accordance throughout the whole Jovanović-Popović, M., ed. (2003.), Analiza
process and the construction was never carried strukture građevinskog fonda - Phase 1 of the
out. scientific project "Energetska optimizacija
zgrada u kontekstu održive arhitekture",
CONCLUSION Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade
Jovanović-Popović, M., ed. (2005.), Mogućnosti
Sustainable use of building fund is very unapređenja karakteristika gradjevinskog fonda
important issue urban areas. Energy efficient - Phase 2 of the scientific project "Energetska
and environmentally friendly refurbishments optimizacija zgrada u kontekstu održive
offer opportunities for optimized use of the arhitekture", Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade
existing building stock. This research has Jovanović-Popović, M., ed.(2005.), Energetska
elaborated the topic, analysing the structure of optimizacija objekta pilot projekta - Phase 3 of
Belgrade’s existing building stock, choosing a the scientific project "Energetska optimizacija
zgrada u kontekstu održive arhitekture",
model-building to conduct a pilot-project of
Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade
energy optimization.
Ignjatovic, D., Cukovic-Ignjatovic, N. (2005.),
The research and theoretical findings have Methodology for Sustainable Refurbishment of
proved that an ordinary multi-storey apartment Housing in Belgrade Region, SB05MED
Conference Proceedings, Athens
building can be refurbished to reduce the
energy consumption using the same building
techniques as in common construction
practice in Belgrade. Even so, some support
and encouragement from local authorities is
still necessary, either in financial (through
programs like “Let’s Fix it Together”, or tax
reductions, donation programs etc) or in
administrative area (to facilitate the procedures
that sometimes last longer than the actual
construction, enable individual measuring for
district heating etc.). For more complex
interventions, higher degree of investment and
active participation of all actors is needed, and
that is very hard to carry out during the
transition years with very limited financial
resources.

Although the pilot-project lacked the final

execution, the findings of the research are very
useful regarding the great number of buildings
very similar to the actual subject of this
particular project. The prices for all energy
consumed in housing rise constantly, and the
energy performance of apartments starts to
reflect on their market prices. Individual owners
now tend to improve their thermal insulation
and use windows with lower U-values when
refurbishing their apartments. These

spatium 65
 UDC 620.9(947.11):711.2

LEGISLATIVE AND POLICY IN ENERGY EFFICIENT

DESIGNING AND RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES –
APPLICATION IN SERBIA

Mila Pucar, Marina Nenković-Riznić

This paper analyses political and legislative frames in the field of energy efficient building and renewable energy sources in
planning and implementation in Serbia. „Development strategy until 2015.“ is reviewed in concise portrait. This strategy maps
a way for the application of energy services of much higher quality than ones offered at a present day. It reviews relevant laws
concerning the subject, as well as institutions, programs and their implementation. Basic principles of energy policy in Serbia
and their achievement are also given by that strategy. Serbia's energy policies are designed to allow new legislative,
structural, organizational, institutional, and economic frames and visions of unification of Serbian energetics into regional and
Pan-European integrations.
One of the key factors is the inclusion of sustainable development and energy efficient design concerned policies. Application
of these, almost completely neglected, energy sources, for which there is high potential in Serbia, would allow preservation of
primary energy sources and local environment. This potential hasn't seen significant research, and therefore, neither the
technical improvement. Apart from that, one of the goals of wider application of renewable energy sources is lowering the
poverty level. This helps avoiding the already used “dirty development” method.
Keywords: energy policy, legislative, renewable energy sources, energy efficient planning, Serbia.

INTRODUCTION plant and animal species, declination of the with the application of the bio-climatic
forest regions, etc. (Kaya, 2006.). planning and design principles with an
Energy crisis that was prominent during the emphasis on renewable energy sources (further
1970's was an after-effect of disturbances on Energy, ecologic and economical crises led to R.E.S.).
the oil market. Fossil fuel reserves (the one that the definition and wider acceptance of the
are in current and presumed future, usage) are unsustainability of traditional resources and the There is a need for strategic, politically-
limited, and according to different predictions, environment's limited capacity on local and legislative frames, institutions, programs and
most of them will be depleted by the middle of global scale. Sustainable development concept instruments for the realization and
this century, when the next energy crisis might could be transposed into all human activities implementation of the sustainable development
occur. (Baumgartner, Zielowski, 2006.). concepts.

Energy crisis, followed by an ecological crisis, Out of the overall energy produced, around ENERGY EFICIENCY AND
both on local and global levels, were primary 50% is used on communal buildings, which RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
factors in the formation of the general attitude makes measures that could potentially lead to
the reduction of these figures very important in (R.E.S.)
that the current methods and levels of both
energy exploitation and means of its the process (Walker, Devine-Wright, 2007).
Energy efficient buildings
consumption are unsustainable. This attitude The reduction of energy consumption in
clearly comes from the range of data communal buildings (in heating, cooling, The European directive (Directive 2002/91/ 1
considering the water and air pollution, illumination, etc.) is possible through the from 4.1.2003) on energy consumption in
chemical changes in the atmosphere, ozone utilization of the energy efficient urban communal buildings, which is an obligation for
holes, soil degradation, extinction of many planning and building design methods and the member countries to implement in their

66 s p a t i u m
national legislatives since January 2006. transport or industry. This trend is growing with particularly in rural areas. The reduction of
ensured that building standards for the whole the amount of consumed energy, because the harmful gases emission will improve quality of
European Union are unified. This, while not growth in life standard leads to a broader the environment.
demanding additional financial burden, allowed application of the air conditioning and heating
a more efficient usage of energy in European systems. It means that present conditions in Serbia is relatively poor in fossil fuels. It is
communal buildings. At the same time, this Serbia are not so promising, especially expected that in the near future the share of
directive ensured an increase in the quality of because of the fact that Serbia has a large RES will be significantly increased in the
life for the population. This, and similar potential in renewable energy sources, and not energy balance of Serbia.
measures, which are targeted at a broader using almost any of it for her basic needs in Serbia with its territory of 88.361 km2 has a
public of energy consumers, represent basic energy. natural suitability for use of renewable energy
component of the European Union’s strategy sources. It is estimated that the biomass has
towards the facilitation of responsibilities Thinking about the future energy consumption,
we must not forget the fact that renewable the greatest energy potential in Serbia.
undertaken by the ratification of the Kyoto Biomass energy sources are distributed at an
protocol (Jager-Waldau, 2007). energy sources such as geothermal energy,
solar energy, and energy of hydro power plants area of 24 000 km2 covered with forests and at
But, it is not always applied in European Union, could substitute a large amount of traditional an area of 48.000 km2 used for agriculture.
mainly because all the countries still are in a energy sources (oil, coal, wood, etc.) which Some 900 locations are identified as
kind of unsustainable condition, using are causing an green house effect. Domestic appropriate for small hydro power plants. At
traditional energy resources, instead of strategies should not base themselves more than hundred locations there are
renewable one. exclusively on the European directives, but they geothermal wells with water temperature
should seek instead a model appropriate to the ranging between 20 and 100°C.
Entire European Union will implement the local environment, political and financial
common methodology for calculation of the It is a large amount of renewable energy
conditions and also local legislative. Serbia sources which could be used instead of
communal energy consumption, which will must adjust European traditional values to our
consider climate differences as variables. traditional once, not only in their original
local contextual conditions. locations, but also they could be installed on a
Member countries will define minimum in
standards for consumption which will be long distance through appropriate
Renewable energy sources (RES) infrastructural equipment. So the large number
applied both, in the design of new buildings,
and in the significant reconstructions of old Renewable energy sources (RES), apart from of cities and villages could be heated from
ones. For the most part, these standards will be other energy sources like fossil fuels or nuclear geothermal resources, or bio gas (originally
based on contemporary or planned European fuel, are being naturally renewed. Renewable received form bio mass or bio waste).
norms. Energy certification system will allow energy sources are apparently inexhaustible, It is possible to expect that in next several
owners, tenants and users to be better but only if the current natural conditions are not years private investors and stake holders will
informed on the consumption of the energy in disrupted. However, RES are limited in invest in hydro power plants, investigative
the building they buy or rent. intensity (Hein, 2005). works for geothermal resources etc. which
Establishing the energy efficiency will All of the aforementioned renewable energy could provide more clean energy to the whole
encompass several different elements, like sources are of interest for Serbia, except the country.
thermal isolation, heating system, cooling, ones related to the energy from the sea.
STRATEGY, LAWS,
natural ventilation as well as passive lighting
and heating using solar energy. Positive factors
Renewable energy sources are clean energy IMPLEMENTATION
sources, and they remarkably contribute to the
could include heating using solar energy,
decrease of air, water and soil pollution. In the Serbian energetics development
electric energy production, distant heating and
last decade, great importance has been given strategy till 2015
co-generation of electric energy and heat.
to the problem of global warming and the
Local climate limitations, because of its high On May 25th 2005. the National assembly of
greenhouse effect, which is the consequence
diversification on the territory of Europe, play the Republic of Serbia ratified the „Energetics
of an increased content of carbon-dioxide in
an important role in the facilitation of the development strategy until 2015“, developed
the upper layers of atmosphere, preventing
energy efficiency in communal buildings. by the Ministry of mining and energy. By
reflection of solar radiation from the surface of
the Earth through the atmosphere. appointing the council members of the Serbian
On the other hand, communal energy
energy efficiency agency, the regulatory
consumption in buildings in Serbia is near
The increased use of RES will contribute to agency has been established. „Energetics
40% of the overall consumption. Lighting,
increasing reliability of energy supply, will help development strategy until 2015“ represents a
heating, cooling and hot water in Serbian
in sustainable development of the energy vision of local energetics development. It
homes, offices and recreational buildings
sector and will increase the standard of living, predicts that in the next ten or more years the
consume more energy than it is used in

spatium 67
aspect of energetics activities will have promoting energy efficiency in carrying out group in process (investors, stake holders,
improved quality, with simultaneous energy activities and energy consumption population, politicians, local government etc.)
development of subjects included in energetics
Energy sector Development strategy in Energy Laws
industry.
law is defining long term development Promotion of energy efficiency and usage of
It proposes new legislative, institutional, objectives of specific energy activities, renewable energy sources can be exhilarate
structural, organizational and economical development priorities, sources and methods through enactment of new laws in the field of
frames and visions on integration of local of providing the required energy quantities and energy, environmental protection etc. In Serbia,
energetics into regional and pan European incentives for increasing energy efficiency these are:
integrations.
Instruments for implementation of - Energy Law ("Official gazette of the RS ", N0.
The elementary premises of mentioned energy policy goals in Serbia 84/2004) determines long term goals for
Strategy are based on the assumed trend of development and stimulating measures for
socio-economic growth of Serbia until year Energy policy realization tools are: increasing energy efficiency
2015 with respect to its current economic
• Legislative instruments – are concerned with - Law on Planning and Construction ("Official
abilities.
the Energetics law, and other, following gazette of the RS ", N0. 47/2003): this law is
A new category, Renewable energy sources, packages of law instruments concerning the not mentioning energy efficient buildings
which includes biomass energy, hydropotential regulations of new functioning - Law on environmental protection ("Official
of small flows (with objects up to 10MW), methodologies. gazette of the RS ", N0. 135/2004)
geothermal energy and wind and solar energy, • Institutional instruments - which define the - Law on integrated environmental pollution
is planned for development and application role and mission of the Energetics agency, prevention and control ("Official gazette of
because of Serbia's natural capabilities for their which includes innovations into technical the RS ", N0. 135/2004)
exploitation in the processes of decentralized work practices, business of energetics - Law on environmental impact assessment
production of heat and electric energy. Through subjects and development of the energy ("Official gazette of the RS ", N0. 135/2004)
these means it is believed that local users sector, and defines a methodology for
- Law on strategic environmental impact
needs could be facilitated in a more qualitative definition of the justified costs of production,
assessment ("Official gazette of the RS ", N0.
and cost-efficient manner. transport and distribution of the electrical
135/2004).
and heat energy and natural gas.
Energy potential of mentioned energy sources • Structural and organizational instruments - - Laws on international investments,
is considerable in Serbia and is over 3 M t.en are concerned with methods of concessions etc.
per year. Around 80% of the potential comes reorganization of current vertically integrated All of these legislative documents are
from the biomass exploitation. EPS and NIS, into divided, productive and functioning on internal level, without
profit units, economically motivated for corresponding to each other. One of the main
Although for the most part of Serbia's territory,
rational functioning and financially capable objectives in Serbian legislative is the
there is a considerably higher number of sunny
to invest into their own development. harmonization of laws and politics in order to
days (over 2000 hours), because of the high
• Economic and financial instruments - are make an implementation of RES and energy
costs of solar receivers and auxiliary
concerned with the rates and price policies efficiency in Serbia easier and more operative.
equipment, intensive usage of these
technologies depends mostly on social and of the energy sector.
Institutions
economic incentives for facilitation, • System instruments - are concerned with
facilitation of the Energetics statistics There are several competent institutions in
implementation and exploitation of the National Serbia in the area of energy efficiency and
program for the renewable energy sources. system and founding of the National fund for
energy efficiency. renewable energy sources: Ministry of Mining
and Energy of the Republic of Serbia; Energy
Serbian energy policy It is important to know that all of these Efficiency Agency of the Republic of Serbia
Energy Law ("Official gazette of the RS", N0. instruments must be included in global (SEEA); Ministry of science, Ministry of
84/2004) in Energy policy section includes strategy of the RES and energy efficiency environmental protection – Directorate for the
measures and activities taken for achieving implementation in Serbia. Without any of these environmental protection; Ministry of Energy
long-term objectives in the energy sector, and instruments, the whole strategy could not be and Mining, Ministry of Finance; Ministry of
particularly: creating conditions for stimulating implemented in Serbian laws and instructions Infrastructures; Ministry of Economy and
the use of renewable energy sources and for usage. Regional development; Republic Development
combined heat and electrical power Bureau; Republic Statistical Office; National
Expected results of these instruments are
generation, and providing conditions for Information Technology and Internet Agency;
overall usage of renewable energy sources in
Recycling agency; Energetics agency; Republic
Serbia and mutual cooperation of all interest
agency for spatial planning; Serbian land

68 s p a t i u m
development agency; Belgrade land donation, through European Agency for If this Strategy would be properly carried into
development public agency; The European Reconstruction. effect, the results in Serbia will be notable in
Agency for Reconstruction, EPS, NIS etc, every household, residential and business
innovation centers, technological parks, etc, Agency also organized a number of educational building.
research institutions qualified for development programs for local self governments,
of energy efficient buildings and settlements, professional experts from industry, then energy Strategic programs of the Agency for
public agencies, public utility companies; local engineers, energy management and business energy efficiency
governments and communities, city managers plans, thus aiding institutional capacity
building in Serbia. • Coordination of national policies with trends
and city architects.
of energy efficiency
Agency for energetics
Main goal is to harmonize working, objectives • Energy efficiency in building design
and strategies of these institutions, because it Energetics agency is the most important newly • Energy efficiency in communal energy
is the only way to implement „Energetics formed institution in the field of energetics. It is • Energy efficiency in industrial environments
development strategy until 2015“. These are planned to maintain licenses issuing for the • Energy efficiency in transport
the basic interest groups in process of facilitation of energy subjects, define the • Renewable energy sources (R.E.S.)
implementation of renewable energy sources in methodology for the calculation of cost • Co-generation of heat and electricity
Serbia. justification, define rate systems for the Program realization of program (A) is, through
regulation of energy systems, and approve “Energy efficiency in Serbia” project, helped
Energy Efficiency Agency of the Republic price policies of energy subjects whose by the “World bank”, with $21 million. This
of Serbia (SEEA)
functioning it regulates. project consists of three components:
Taking into consideration the current state
within energy efficiency issue and renewable By ratifying the „Energetics development (a) Clinical center of Serbia - reconstruction,
energy sources, energy policy objectives, as strategy until 2015“ and foundation of the
Energetics agency, the Ministry of Energy and (b) School, hospital and other buildings of
well as the contemporary practice in European
mining rounded the legislative activities in the public interest - reconstruction for the
countries, Ministry of Energy and Mining of the
application of energy sector reforms. improvement of the energy efficiency, and
Republic of Serbia recognized the need for
national agency. Therefore, according to Energy communities of South-East Europe, (c) Technical help offered to the Agency
Energy Law, adopted on August 1, 2004 and Athens concerning the realization of this project.
with the financial support of the European
Signing the Athens memo in 2002. and 2003.,
Agency for Reconstruction, it has been re- National energy efficiency program
Serbia integrated into the regional energy
established and thus operating for the period of (NEEP)
market of the South East Europe. The meeting
two years as a separate republic organization.
of the European Union ministers was held on Ministry of environmental protection –
Energy Efficiency Agency of the Republic of the December 2004. and the basic principles Directorate for the environmental protection of
Serbia (SEEA) was formed by new Energy Law. of the Energy community contract were the Republic of Serbia unified the research,
Energy Efficiency Agency is formed as a established on that occasion. development and engineering activities and
special republic organization meaning separate potentials of Serbia under the “National energy
legal entity. Serbian Energy Efficiency Agency PROGRAMS AND IMPLEMENTATION efficiency program” (NEEP). The goal of this
executes the tasks envisaged by the Energy IN SERBIA action was to raise the efficiency of the
Law, as an integral part of the overall energy production, distribution and usage of all means
policy, led by the Ministry of Energy and Programs of energy and energy sources.
Mining of the Republic of Serbia.
„Energetics development strategy until 2015.“
Some building energy efficiency
The managing of the agency is carried out by proposes several specific programs: energy
projects and programs
director who is appointed by the Government of efficiency, new and renewable energy sources,
the Republic of Serbia. Internal organization environment protection, scientific, research It is important to mention when the
and job description in the Agency is approved and technological progress, aimed education development of energy efficiency is concerned
by the Government. and expert education in new and existing the “Energy revitalization and comfort
activities in the sector, including the optimization” for 22 schools and kindergartens
Agency's mission is to improve the usage of implementation of contemporary statistics in Belgrade, the project invested by the
renewable energy sources. Agency implements system, and additional energy regulations for Education secretary of the Belgrade city
its mission through sector, multi year programs the energy activities in new conditions, both Assembly.
for energy efficiency improvements and locally and in the region.
promotion of renewable energy sources. All For a number of years, Serbia’s standard
programs are funded by European Union's U.J5.600 had been neglected. Higher project

spatium 69
temperatures are recommended, which would to meet these goals, a joint action of energy
lead to significant increase in efficiency with suppliers, republic and local government and
long distance heating. Summer temperatures end users should be developed and
and humidity are established as parameters maintained.
relevant to summer climate. Data, acquired by
the Republic hydro-meteorological institution, Republic of Serbia has not yet taken any
are based on daily averages. Research should serious actions in the path of preserving its
be continued, based on the hourly values. resources. This is the reason for the Assembly
through it's ministries to research the options
CONCLUSION and set the policies concerning the subject in
that direction.
With the application of principles of energy
efficiency in planning and design, need for Knowledge on possible effects of climate
conventional energy sources, which are not changes on the application of long term
renewable, and represent high pollution development goals and poverty limitation, as
potential, is lowered. Sustainable urban well as the strategic goal of Serbia to
planning, from the aspect of rational energy participate in European integration processes
consumption, is an important task of planers, as an active member in solving the problems of
engineers in energetics and architects. This is mentioned climate changes, were reasons for
why the concept of energy distribution should the creation of the adequate strategy with it’s
be based on the integration of urban planning measures action plan. This facilitates the
and energy consumption planning. support on the creation and realization of the
national policy and measures concerning
One of the key points is the connection climate changes, and compliance to
between policies concerning sustainable obligations from the UN convention on the
development and the ones concerning the climate changes and Kyoto protocol.
exploitation of renewable energy sources.
Application of mainly neglected, renewable Based on all that is said, it is safe to assume
energy sources, for which there is a high that cities of Serbia are ready for the
potential in Serbia, but are not researched and application of program and implementation of
technologically improved, is one of the principles of sustainable planning and rational
solutions which strives towards the energy consumption. With this, it is possible to
preservation of remaining resources and the significantly lower the amount of traditional
environment. Apart from that, one of the energy sources, and their impact on the
broader goals of the renewable energy sources environment. Concerning the fact that the large
is the poverty minimization. The value of R.E.S. part of energy and ecology problems
lies in its ability to adequately respond to all represents an issue with global character,
challenges of the energy sector: energy overcoming this problem is of great
distribution safety, economic growth, importance for the further integration of Serbia
sustainable development and ecological into international community.
plausibility.

Insistence on energy as public good with long

term effects on the environment must have an
appropriate legislative base, as well as
actualization instruments, with adequate
stimulations through tax and other incentives.
All this is to build awareness for the need for
rationalization and usage of the renewable
energy sources. This is why an additional
attention should be paid to education,
legislative and regulation systems.

These systems should constantly adapt to the

technological progress of the public. In order

70 s p a t i u m
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spatium 71
 UDC 711.2:314.8

502.131.1:711.2

STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AS AN

INSTRUMENT FOR ENHACEMENT OF PUBLIC
PARTICIPATION IN PLANNING

Tijana Crnčević

The paper presents an overview of experiences of public participation within planning, summarized in the "ladder of citizen
participation". Further, considering that Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) is seen as an instrument for
operationalizing the sustainable development strategy, the stress is on the place, role and scope of public participation in SEA
within planning.
Special attention is given to the status of SEA regarding public participation in planning in Serbia. One of the conclusions of
the paper is that by introduction of the "Plan for public participation" as a legal obligation, it could be the way for
operationalizing pubic participation and further, enhancement of participation in planning.
Keywords: strategic environmental assessment, public participation, planning

INTRODUCTION Referring to the sustainable development The 10th principle of the Rio Declaration states
strategy, the application of SEA is supported as that "the best way for resolving the questions of
Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) an integral part of the planning process. The the environment is within the participation of
represents multy-disciplinary, systematic and results of the implementation show that SEA is all interested parties...", while the Aarhus
cyclic process which comprehends knowledge effective in the countries where a developed Convention, article 7, among other things,
not only of the process in nature but also in the policy for environmental protection and specially points out the public participation in
society. One of the simplest definitions defines sustainable development already exists. Taking the process of plan and program making within
SEA as "an instrument for evaluating the into consideration that SEA is seen as a the subject of environment, after which "Every
impacts on the environment of the plans, planning instrument for operationalization of party will during the preparation of plans and
programmes and policies" (Glasson et al., the sustainable development strategy, the programs which refer to the environment do all
1994). During the development of the public participation represents an essential necessary preparation for the public
instrument, the definitions have being element of the process. participation in the transparent and objective
adjusting and developing. Reviewing the circumstances, providing information for the
literature, SEA is also defined as "... systematic The main supporting framework for SEA in public...".
process for evaluating the impacts.." (Sadler & respect to public participation is contained in
Verheem, 1996) through to the newest one the Agenda 21 (A21) and Convention on Taking into account the contemporary
which supports SEA as an "...instrument access to information, public participation in inclinations, the Republic of Serbia, according
adaptable to the current process of decision - decision - making and access to justice in to the Law on Strategic Environmental
making and which is more policy oriented and environmental matters done at Aarhus, Assessment (Official gazette – Republic of
related to the concepts..." (Partidario, 2000). It Denmark on 25th of June 1998 - known as Serbia n.135/04) introduced and defined SEA
could be said that this represents, the Aarhus convention - whose regulations aim to as "making the report about the environmental
development of the theoretical base in the establish an effective system for spreading the condition, conducting act of consultation,
world and the EU, which was primarily directed information as well as for the promotion of taking into consideration the report and the
towards taking into consideration the need for transparency within the procedure of decision- result of consultation in the action of making
this instrument up to the contemporary making. decisions and adoption of certain plans and
theoretical papers that consider the programs, as well as providing the information
effectiveness of the application of the SEA. and data about the brought decision.”

72 s p a t i u m
PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AND participation support and
PLANNING Citizen achievement of
8
control communications between all
Considering public participation in the actors of the process. The role
planning process it is possible to separate two Delegated Citizen power of SEA regarding the process of
7
main approaches. After the first one, the power planning is to strengthen the
question is will the professionals represent the public, in the sense to educate,
citizens or, after the second one, will the 6 Partnership to timely inform and also to
activities be conducted steering for provide conditions for active
"strengthen" citizens, what is comprehended 5 Placation participations. Regarding the
from running out different educational conditions, i.e. the system of
programmes (Arnstein, 1969). As an 4 Consultation Tokenism environmental management
illustration of the results and experience from and planning, SEA “moves” the
practice, referring to the level of public 3 Informing level in the ladder of citizen
participation in planning, in "the ladder of participation, providing the
citizen participation" could be distinguished: 2 Therapy conditions for active
from nonparticipation through the tokenism to Nonparticipation participation.
the citizen power (Figure 1). 1 Manipulation
Regarding the presented
At the bottom of the ladder within the level of ladder, SEA supports separated
nonparticipation are (Arnstein, 1969) , forms but, at different stages of
distinguished further forms: manipulation, the process, actually, taking
where citizens have place in certain city into account the stage of the
councils but without concrete participation and process, SEA represents the
Fig. 1 Ladder of citizen participation (Arnstein,
with the aim to emphasize purpose of combination of more than one. That means
1969)
education and therapy, with main intention to that, deepening of the phase, the public role
educate and "transform" citizens. will be less or more participative, from
power and citizen control, as a form of tokenism in the SEA formulation phase (such
First step within the level of tokenism for the progressive and active public participation as the identification of main problems), to the
legitimate public participation, is informing where citizens have the control over the citizen’s power in the later phases of the
what is understood by the process of providing programs or the citizens could be specially process such as monitoring, which, taking into
the information from competent authority delegated to conduct the programs, which account the sustainable development and the
towards citizens, without possibilities for any actually depends from the resources - plan implementation,has an interest to
response and negotiation. The tools which are professional and as well as the material. strengthen the public to be able to take control.
often used are different media, leaflets, posters
and survey techniques. Then consultations After an insight at the ladder, it is possible to SEA AS A TOOL FOR
follow comprehending calls from responsible point out that presented forms are reflection of
ENHANCEMENT PUBLIC
organizations to the hearings, usually using experiences of the different systems of
techniques such as attitude surveys, planning. Introducing new interests in the PARTICIPATION IN PLANNING
neighborhood meetings and public opinions. planning process, meaning environmental The SEA and public participation experience in
Placation, as a form of tokenism, represents protection and sustainable development – practice shows that it is possible and that it has
the level of public participation when citizens which support active public participation - to be active. Specially public participation is
start to realize certain impact, which depends strengthen the conflict. As new conditions and supportive at different strategic levels, where
on the quality of technical support used in standards are established in the process of reactions of the public have to be stimulating
formulating the priorities to the extent where planning and carrying out control, the and encouraging, particularly emphasizing the
the society is organized to stand for it. imperative of the effective implementation is to longing for development of specific methods
obtain active public participation with the aim and techniques for advancing participation at
Next on the ladder, within the citizen power to take part of the responsibility during the plan
level is partnership, where citizens can enter the higher levels (EC,1997).On the other side,
implementation. the concern regarding the possibilities for
into such partnership giving them the
opportunity to negotiate and to exchange So, it could be said that the implementation of public participation in the SEA is stated as well
sustainable development strategy depends also as the assumption that depending on the
opinions with the ones who traditionally have
on the way local population is mobilized. The subject and the number of population that are
the power because they have resources -
professional and material. Then delegated main function of SEA understands active public potentially under impact, this actually would
not be possible, as it is timely demanding and

spatium 73
also requires additional material support (EC, The public participation in SEA gives an Beside that, it is necessary to state that
2000). As a result of these opposite opportunity to get an insight into the citizens’ successfulness of the process of public
experiences, the main message in the process reflections regarding environmental problems participation also depends on how the
of formulating the Directive 2001/42/EC of the and the plan and it has the possibility to environmental justice is considered, what
European Parliament and the Council of 27 influence the rationality of the whole process means the support of applying innovative
June 2001 on the assessment of the effects of and likewise the effectiveness. For active and approaches so that the language, institutional,
certain plans and programs on the environment successful public participation the methods cultural, economic and historical barriers could
(SEA Directive) referring to the public and techniques which are standing within the be exceeded for the effective participation. That
participation is that the document has to be SEA application are also important. The means, beside other, direct coordination with
"just good frame for public participation", so overview of possible methods and techniques the individuals and organizations which are
that every country member is left with the is given in the Table 1. They are set apart under impact, translation of important
opportunity to define the scope of public according to the level of public participation as documents, personal interviews and audio
inclusion (Strategic Environmental Assessment well as the level of participation, and the recordings so that maintenance of all
Workshop report, Semmering, Austria, 1998). choice, beside other, directly depends on the comments and held meetings could be
scope of SEA phase. possible which in turn will promote
Also, regarding the enchacment of public participation as well as obtain help for the
participation within SEA it should be stressed Table 1.Overview of the methods and techniques
regarding the levels of public participation citizens with special need (CEQ, 1996).
The Protocol on Strategic Environmental
(Sadler, 2001)
Assessment adopted at Kiev in 2003. represent
the document which also provides extensive
public participation in the proces of decision- LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2 LEVEL 3 LEVEL 4
making within numerous development sectors. Education and Information Involvement Extended involvement
information feedback and
However, it has to be stated that special impact provision consultation
to the further development of SEA was
accomplished by adopting SEA Directive,
Leaflets / Staffed exhibits / Workshops Community advisory groups / liaison
setting up the methodological and procedural
brochures displays groups
framework for SEA within the European Union Newsletters Staffed telephone Focus groups / Planning for real
(EU). Regarding the public participation, article lines forums
6 of the SEA Directive states the public Unstaffed Internet Open house Citizen juries
obligation to give an opinion of the plan exhibits /
proposal and the SEA report which represents, displays
after article 2 of the SEA Directive "the part of Advertising Public meetings Consensus conference
Local Survey, interviews Visioning
the documentation which is part of plan or newspapers and questionnaires
program and contain regulated information". All National
other and further involvement of the public is newspapers
left to the country member. Television and
radio
The results of the research conducted in Video
Flanders among actors of planning process - Site visits
the representatives of administration, target
groups, local government and the experts for
As it is presented in the Table 1, the level of SEA AND PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
public participation depends on the level of IN SERBIA
environmental assessment - show presence of
necessary technical, material and experts
certain consciousness for the need as well as
support. The application of SEA supports In Serbia, the current planning regulations -
the support of all participants for public
public participation, taking into consideration Law on planning and construction, Official
participation. Most of the stated actors
the distinguish levels, where tendencies gazette Republic of Serbia 47/2003 and
expressed positive, standing at the position that
regarding the planning process are toward supported regulations - are standing for public
it is important that public enters at the
supporting the public participation within the participation within public meetings, actually
beginning as well as at the end of the process,
level involvement and consultation and referring to the ladder of citizen participation -
while the lowest support was given to the
extended involvement so that the possibilities public participation is within the level of
option to include the public during
to obtain the impact to the planning solutions tokenism.
preparations of the SEA report (Devuyst et al.,
could be given to the public through SEA.
2000). Introducing SEA in Serbia established certain
potentials, but at the same time also created

74 s p a t i u m
limitations. Actually, the main potential is legal implementation of sustainable development legal framework does not specially consider
framework for SEA which, by the way it was strategy such as formulation of Local and stimulate public participation, one of the
introduced created following limitations: not Environmental Action Plans and Local Agendas ways could also be to procure the conditions
coordinated legal frame referring to the 21. For these activities, the support of local that existing public meetings within the
planning regulations, the time limit for governmental bodies individual citizens and process of plan making obtain other form and
adjusting was not included and necessary certain support of foreign donators is stated. content, aiming to strengthen public
guidelines and expertise were not procure Giving the support to these programs, participation.
(Crncevic, 2005). strengthens the local community in
environmental protection and sustainable CONCLUSIONS
The legal framework for SEA gives certain development. It can be assumed that these
support to public participation, since it However, it still can be said that the main
activities could also have an important question is whether the public participates? If
supports the existing frame within the planning contribution in the implementation of the SEA
process. The Law on SEA defines public as public is to be mobilized, it has to have the
in respect to the public participation, as well as motive and "to believe" in the project in which
"one or more physical or legal persons, their regarding the development of the information
associations, organizations or groups" (article they are called to take part. So, it could be said
base for the subject environment. that including the public in SEA, they will have
4). According to the article 19 of the Law on
SEA, public participation is obligatory before However, the current practice regarding the the possibility to be educated within the
submitting the SEA Report for the agreement. public participation in SEA shows that, the strategy of sustainable development, then they
Organization in charge of public participation is scope of public involvement is not considered will have the opportunity to develop and stand
a body which brings the plan, that after this and the support for broaden public for certain attitudes and in that way they will
article is defined to "consider SEA report within participation is not given enough in contribute in achieving support to global efforts
the placing of plan to the public opinion and implementation of SEA, but only as stated by regarding the implementation of sustainable
public meetings, if this is not regulated by the law within the planning regulation development strategy.
special law". This regulation is in accordance (Crncevic, 2007). Above all, within the SEA in planning an active
within the one in the Law of planning and
The solution for the current problems and one public participation is understood. The level of
construction and supported regulations.
of the ways for activating public participation public participation is different, from education
However, taking into account main principles
could be by introducing "Plan for public and obtaining the information over to the
of SEA as a planning instrument, public in the consultation and participation, and that is in
SEA process has much more breaded role, participation" within the legal requirements for
SEA. The Plan could be the way for direct condition with the scope of the SEA
actually public participation is an integral part
operationalizing public participation in the phase and subject plan as well as the material
of the process, included from the beginning of
process of SEA in planning. The content of the and professional conditions.
plan making, which current Law on SEA does
not provide. However, Law on SEA gives an Plan comprehends, first defining the public
Introducing SEA in Serbia is a good starting
opportunity to involve public in the way under impact of the plan and referring to the
point for obtaining the conditions for
regulated by "special law", taking into account SEA phases, defining the role, the scope and enhancement of public participation in
this case, the Law of planning and construction the methods and techniques for obtaining planning and the “Plan for public participation”
and supported regulations or the separate law, desired aims. could be a way of operationalizing and
or the act which will regulate public Taking into account that the application of SEA "moving" the public towards more active
participation. in Serbia is at the beginning and that public participation.

However, these regulations are to the certain participation in planning till now has not had an
point within the main conditions established in active part in the process of formulating the
the SEA Directive, considering the paragraph scope, it is important to state that possible
stated during the process of formulating SEA directions are contended by the foreign
Directive that it is better that any frame experiences and guidelines. In this respect,
existsthan not to have one. Aarhus Convention can specially be
distinguished, where article 6 states more
Last years presented distant activity of steering specifically the regulations for public
towards mobilization of public within different participation in the process of decision making.
programs and activities, as well the actions
with the aim for environmental protection and Further, to obtain the conditions for active
public participation - taking into account that

spatium 75
Literature Law on planning and construction, Official gazette
Republic of Serbia 47/2003
Agenda 21: Programme of Action for Suistanable Partidario, M.R., 2000, Elements of an SEA
Development, 1992, United Nations framework - improving the added-value of SEA
Publications, New York u Environmental Impact Assessment Review
Arnstein, S., 1969, A Ladder of Citizen 20, 647-663
Participation in Le Gates, R., Stout, F.,ed., Protocol on Strategic Environmental
2000, The City Reader, Routledge Assessment,
Crncevic, T., 2005, Zakon o strateskoj proceni www.unece.org/env/eia/sea_protocol.htm
uticaja – instrument za implementaciju Sadler, B. & Verheem, R., 1996, 53 Status,
strategije odrzivog razvoja ili jos jedna Challenges and Future Directions; Ministry of
administrativna obaveza in Zbornik radova Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment
naucno strucni skup Planska i normativna
Sadler, S., 2001, A Framework Approach to
zastita prostora i zivotne sredine, Geografski
Strategic Environmental Assessment: Aims,
fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu, Asocijacija
Principles and Elements of Good Practice u
prostornih planera Srbije, Zavod za urbanizam,
Proceedings of International Workshop on
Subotica
Public Participation and Health Aspects in
Crncevic, T., 2007, Strategic Environmental Strategic Environmental Assessment; The
Assessment in urban planning as an instrument Regional Environmental Center for Central and
for conducting uistanable developmenty Eastern Europe
strategy, PhD thesis, University of Belgrade
Strategic Environmental Assessment Workshop
Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ), 1996, report, Semmering, Austria, 1998;
Draft Guidance for Addressing Environmental http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/eia/sea
Justice under the National Environmental -suport.htm
Policy Act, Washington, DC:Executive Office of
the President.
Convention on access to information, public
participation in decision - making and access to
justice in environmental - Aarhus Convention;
http://www.unitar.org/egd/publications/egd/aarhu
s_convention.pdf
Devuyst, D., Van Wijngaarden, T., Hens, L.,
2000, Implementation of SEA in Flanders:
Attitudes of key stakeholders and user-friendly
methodology, Environmental Impact
Assessment Review, 20, p.65-83);
Directive 2001/42/EC of the European
Parliament and the Council of 27 June on the
Assessment of the effects of certain plans and
programmes on the environment
European Commission (EC) 1997, Case Studies
on Strategic Environmental Assessment, Final
report, Volume 1 - Comparative analysis of
case studies findings, conclusions and
recommendations; Office for Official
Publications of the European Communities,
Luxemburg
European Commission, 2000, Strategic
Environmental Assessment in the Transport
Sector: An overview of legislation and practice
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Glasson, J., Therivel, R., Chadwick, A., 1994,
Intruduction to Environmental Impact
Assessment, The natural and Built Environment
Series 1., UCL Press Limited, London
Law on Strategic Environmental Assessment,
Official gazette – Republic of Serbia 135/04

spatium 1
 UDC 711.435 (497.113)

SUBOTICA MUNICIPALITY AS A LEARNING REGION

Marijana Pantić

Some differences in territorial organization between Serbian and EU countries are obvious. The level of centralization and
tradition in systems for implementation of ideas are differently back- grounded. However, these are the most important facts
for the opportunity to realize Learning Region as a concept of the European future.
There is no part of space that should be considered as unchangeable and the way to a better position and Learning Region
concept implementation of each region in Serbia in practice should lead towards few necessary steps and further. The starting
point is awareness of the facts on the creation of Subotica region as it is at present. The healthy future of each region is
provided by looking back in the past and learning from the history. The other important thing is bench marking- learning on the
positive and successful experiences of other regions, and finally, making its own concept of Learning Region adapted to local
surrounding and true need of local people.
Some experiences, suggestions and comparisons will be made in this case study, in relation to one of the Serbian
municipalities nearest t to EU neighboring countries in a territorial way.
Keywords: learning region, soil, life long learing

COMPARISONS BETWEEN means that approach has to vary if expected mentality of the people make another
SUBOTICA MUNICIPALITY AND EU results should become visible at the level of distinction between Serbia and EU countries.
different number of villages. Of course, the Looking back into the recent history, for the
MUNICIPALITIES results will be more obvious and all actions most of EU countries last 15 years were period
When speaking about Learning Region there is will have better support if governance has a of stable development, cooperation and
a need to define a term “Region”. The task to implement ideas at the level of one inclusion of new members at the unique
historical background, all political differences village, for a smaller number of people and a European market. At the other side those 15
and Iron Curtain distances between Balkan smaller area. This is not only a question of years in Serbia were a period of slow
countries and Central Europe made distinctions spatial efficiency but it is also a question of decadency of belief in a better future where
in territorial organizations as well. For example: administrative and political organization of people lost the wish to follow neither ethical
Only one Austrian state Burgenland (area of municipalities. In other words it is a question of nor legal standards.
about 4 km2) has 171 municipality within itself responsibilities local governance can get and
realize in a proper way within municipality. Conclusion is that most of the differences
which is almost the same number of between Subotica Municipality and EU
municipalities as the whole Serbia with 189 The other difference between Subotica and EU Municipalities are cases in which Subotica and
(area of about 88.000 km2). While the Austrian municipalities is the financial standing point Serbia in a whole should follow the best
smallest administrative unit is a municipality for all actions. While in the EU municipalities practices; change its own structure and
which consists of one city, town or village and this local administrative unit has its own approaches but taking necessary care about the
territory that belongs to it, the Serbian budget and the right to decide how to use the ethical situation, specifics of mentality and true
municipality gathers 15, 20 or even 100 budget for implementation of the projects, at needs of local people. Decentralization and
settlements. In the case of Subotica the other side, Subotica Municipality is part of establishment of new levels for governing is a
Municipality number of settlements is 19: one the centralized state system where each project future space that leads towards ethical
town and 18 villages. Difference is obvious and has to be justified by the state headquarter. It is changes.
relevant to an issue of Learning Region hard to get financial support from someone
organization. who has to split it between so many THE STATE OF SOIL
The area of a territorial unit as the basic one is demanding actors. Subotica Municipality is located on the very
important because the level for implementation Going back to the beginning, historical North of Serbia, at the border with Hungary, in
of Learning Region tools is different. That situation, different cultures, tradition and a middle of the Panonian lowlands. These

spatium 77
kinds of terrains are extremely convenient for Subotica Municipality these problems are high Subotica and its tourist role. The existing
agricultural activities especially because the level of ground water and wind erosion. activities of the lake Palić and whole Park
natural geomorphology of the place is enriched Lowland is good for agriculture but at the other cause a lot influences on the soil, water and
by highly fertile soils. side, especially in combination with big environment and a special care within the
European streams Tisa and Danube, it could future Learning Region concept in this
One of the soil types in Subotica Municipality bring a trouble with ground water, just as it is Municipality is needed.
is among the most fertile in Europe and it has the case in this region. Besides jeopardizing
crucial role in wheat, maize, sunflower and agricultural activities, it is also a big problem Some mistakes were made in the planning
other plants production. These soils are for water supply of people in the villages. In procedure: instead of making the plan for the
recognized by very dark brown color, almost combination with industrial production and whole Municipality first, the work on Master
black. The reason for this is richness of humus production on the agricultural land where Plan of Subotica started before. Likewise, the
in the soil. fertilizers are used more and more, water is same year the Spatial Plan started and the
contaminated. Knowing that ground water is Master Plan was officially accepted by
The other kind of soil widely spread in this area Municipality Parliament. With the wrong steps
is salty soil. This is the soil with higher consistent part of the soil it means that soil is
contaminated in the same way. taken this existing tool was used in an
percentage of sand than usual. Origin of the inappropriate way with possible consequences.
sand in the soil is Southeastern part of Wind erosion is a process that was more Instead of global planning and the one with
Vojvodina from where winds brought it during a intensive in the previous periods. Now, there is more detailed parts of the space it was done
long geological period. Sandy soil is a set of measures that could be used in the opposite. Spatial Plan is still in a process of
convenient for grape and fruit growing and course of preventing new consequences on a finalization and if there are going to be some
some parts of Municipality are also well known soil. Again, flat terrains are good for the discrepancies with a Master Plan it will be
as vine and fruit producers, not only as part of majority of activities; other kinds of erosion are recognized in the future or during the pubic
tradition, but for industrial need too. the ones that influence hilly and mountainous review of the plan.
terrains are almost impossible to control such
as the strength of wind which leaves
repercussions on the soil quality. Buffer zones,
plant and trees zones or other kinds of walls
are some of the ways to deal with wind erosion.
The Learning Region has a task to learn, show
and educate locals how to make, use and
maintain it.

EXISTING LIFELONG LEARNING

TOOLS IN SUBOTICA MUNICIPALITY
Fig. 1: Agricultural Landscape
Tools that can be used in Learning Region
Although Subotica Municipality is one of the concept is a possible division to the existing
most developed regions in Serbia, this area is and non existing, but to be developed and
Fig. 2: Functional Area of Subotica Region
primarily agricultural. Agricultural production is finally put in implementation. Tools that
main activity for the most of people that live already exist can be distinguished between The other existing tool for implementing
there and from the close correlation between those already in use and others that are not in Learning Region and making it possible are
soil and agriculture; the conclusion is that service for soil and Learning Region concept. NGOs. Non Governmental Organizations are
contribution of the Learning Region concept established in these area and some of them are
Different varieties of plans and planning:
has to improve awareness on treatment of the consequently devoted to the nature protection.
belong to the first group of existing tools from
agricultural land and soil. Natural potentials of In close cooperation with the governance
urban planning to spatial planning, from the
highly fertile soils and tradition in agricultural responsible for control and plan realization of
plans made for the certain parts of space
production breaded for centuries has to find the the Learning Region, NGOs could bring a
(naturally protected conservation area or so) to
way for realization and Learning Region is one relevant contribution.
the spatial plans of municipality. Subotica
project that can lead activities in a right
Municipality has 4 Naturally Protected All together, the existing and future tools are
course.
Conservation Areas (12% of the territory) under the most certain way in bringing up the
Besides awareness of good things and three levels of protection. One of them is Palić concept of the Learning Region and making
potentials, local people have to be aware of Natural Park which needs planning, mostly results in raising awareness of soil quality,
influences and ways to manage them. In because of its closeness to the town of state, importance and expected treatment. The

78 spatium
desired results could be realized only if the somebody who works in the field doesn’t have suggestions from the partner countries or from
strength of synergy comes to the top: urban a time to read newspapers every day or to do it the experts or even laic opinions in Serbia
planning, spatial planning, NGOs, awareness in details. Radio, local televisions should be a takes appropriate place in the future. Each
on soil among local people, politicians and part and co-operant in the process of suggestion doesn’t have to be implemented
stakeholders. implementing an idea of Learning Region. and taken without consideration of
consequences but can be an inspiration and a
INTRODUCTION WITH NON- push to some new, good ideas which are
EXISTING INSTRUMENTS seriously acceptable.

Non-existing instruments are the ones very

useful in establishing concept of Learning
Region but still not realized or used in Subotica
Municipality.

School education is not typical in this group

because it would be wrong to say that there is
no education, or education where soil and Fig. 4: Steps in the Future
environment in a whole are not implemented or Fig. 3: School in the Nature- Ludaš Lake
mentioned in some way. The thing is that it Comparisons between good and bad examples,
Another necessity is more responsibility and EU countries and Serbian Municipalities are
should be done in a different way, with new
awareness in using the already existing tools. It also the part of the process.
approach and more accents on this kind of
is not enough to know how, but to really act, if
topics. Separate subjects that concern only soil
we expect to prevent consequences of the eight After these basic and global steps more
sustainability, endangered water cycles etc.
main soil degradation processes. Planning concrete and detailed steps are coming, that
could bring more serious echo within students
hierarchy and NGOs are very important but if will be developed according to previous list of
and for the coming generations.
they have all the qualities that could enforce, steps and real needs of local people.
Further there is a possibility for studying these not using just a half of their strength. Some
subjects at the higher level, not only at the processes repeated for years become a habit Literature
specific faculties but at the faculties of social and that is a moment where sharpness and Group of authors (2006): Development Strategy
sciences too. If sociology and philosophy can overview of new relevant details and of Subotica Municipality, Institute of Urban
be studied within the geographical sciences surrounding changes disappear. So, if Planning- Subotica, Faculty of Geography-
than, there is no reason why the environmental awareness has ever existed it should be Belgrade, Subotica-Belgrade
sciences cannot be studied at the Faculties of refreshed. Group of authors (2007): Spatial Plan of
Economics or Law. Subotica Municipality, Institute of Urban
CONCLUSION Planning- Subotica, Faculty of Geography-
The second tool within this group is marketing. Belgrade, Subotica-Belgrade
People usually need a lot of repetitions and For the start, the future steps are exploring W.E.H.Blum (2006): New Concepts for a
visualizations to become aware of something. varieties that could be useful in a process of Sustainable Use of Soil and Land – Bridging
That is the reason for establishing separate Learning Region implementation. Between Science and Politics, University of
Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences
marketing champagnes on soil, water, air First there is the collection of best experiences (BOKU), Vienna
protection and expected behavior of the and practices. There is no need to go from the W.E.H.Blum, J.Buesing, L.Montanarella (2004):
citizens concerning those elements of very beginning. Developed countries have that Research needs in support of the European
environment. Commercials and billboards opportunity to learn from mistakes and thematic strategy for soil protection, Trends in
sponsored by local governance at all places, experiences of the others, not passing trough Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 23, 680-685
from playgrounds to highways. the same situations. The way to improve could
Publicity of each action that is in relation with be shorter.
the environmental protection is a tool for the After collecting the experiences from the
future as well. Public has its place in a process others, Subotica Municipality will get its own
of planning but announcement of the dates experience where process of learning on own
when citizens have a chance to participate has mistakes is inevitable but with positive effects
to be more aggressive. A small part at the that should be used in a future.
bottom of the page in local newspapers usually
is not enough. Other medias have to be Besides searching for the experience in the
included in the process as well because theory and practice collecting direct

spatium 79
 UDC 502.131.1:556.5

THE NIŠAVA RIVER WATER QUALITY AS THE

INDICATOR OF THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
OF THE CITY OF NIŠ

Saša Branković, Slaviša Trajković

The Nišava River has a great importance for the sustainable development of the city of Niš. From the Mediana spring, which is
on the bank of the Nišava, the city of Niš satisfies around 30% of its water demand. The aim of this paper is to, on the basis of
the analysis of several tens of parameters of water quality; determine whether the Nišava River is a limiting factor to the
sustainable development of the city of Niš.
For this purpose the data of Public Utility Company Naissus have been used, as it collects daily samples of the Nišava river
water. The number of conducted analyses, depending on the water quality parameters, varies from 1 to 1,240. The obtained
results, which have been presented in detail in the paper, indicate that a great majority of analyses, of almost all the water
quality parameters, is within predicted range. At the end of the paper, certain measures have been proposed, which should
contribute to the sustainable development of Niš in this field.
Keywords: sustainable development, indicator, Nišava River, City of Niš

INTRODUCTION
The city of Niš, with a population of 250,000 is The spring of this river is located in Bulgaria, supply of the city of Niš is provided by three
by size a third city in Serbia. This city, once a and the length of its course through Serbia is territorially separate water supply systems
strong regional center, has been sharing the 195 km, and it is oriented SE-NW (Potic and which are very interdependent, and those are:
difficulties of the majority of cities in Serbia Trajkovic, 2004). It is a tributary of the • Water supply system ''Mediana'' – spring of
which have a similar structure of industry and Southern Morava River and its confluence is at
ground water repleNišhed with the
population. Trupale village. The surface area of the river
previously treated Nišava water, with a
On the other hand, Niš possesses conditions to basin is 3,974 km2 in total, 3,641 km2
belonging to Serbia. The river basin of the capacity up to 550 l/s.
use the existing resources in the future and to • Water supply system ''Studena'' – karst
achieve a sustainable development on the new Nišava River is a sub-basin of the Southern
Morava, and by this, of the Danube River. natural source and the supply pipeline with
basis and according to the European standards.
In order to realize this, it is necessary to create Significant tributaries of the Nišava are: accompanying structures, with a capacity
a strategy of sustainable development of the Kutinska, Crvena, Koritnicka, Jerma, Visočica i 220-340 l/s.
city with and aim of accomplishing a Temštica rivers. In the Nišava River valley there • Water supply system ''Ljuberađa-Niš'' – a
sustainable and environmentally safe are the following towns and cities: series of karst natural springs (Krupac,
development through the long term reliance on Dimitrovgrad, Pirot, Bela Palanka and Niš. The Mokra, Divljana and Ljuberađa) and the
own renewable resources. The Nišava River water of Nišava river, at the territory of the city
supply pipeline with accompanying
belongs to the most important natural of Niš, is used for drinking water supply, local
structures, with a capacity 800 l/s.
resources of the city of Niš. irrigation on a small surface area, and for
recreational fishing (Gocic et al. 2007). Water

80 spatium
The mentioned systems with their springs, 18 O2 (mg/l) Dissolved Oxygen - Naissus treatment plant 16 COD (mg/l) COD - Naissus treatment plant
supply pipelines, appropriate distribution 16
IHP 14
IHP
network, pump stations and reservoirs 14 Naissus 12 Naissus

represent one water supply system. It supplies

12
10
10
water to around 240,000 people and the Niš 8
8

industry with 37,732,608 m3/year that is 6

6

103,377 m3 day-1. 4 4

2 2

The Mediana spring provides stability of the 0 0

entire system in the periods of reduced yield of

min max average min max average

karst springs, and that is why the water quality 20 BOD (mg/l) BOD - Naissus treatment plant 1000 Solids (mg/l) Total solids - Naissus plant
of the Nišava River is of great importance for 18
IHP
900

the development of the city of Niš. The aim of

IHP
16 800
Naissus Naissus
14 700
this paper is to, on the basis of the analysis of 12 600
several tens of parameters of water quality; 10 500

determine whether the Nišava river is a limiting 8

6
400
300
factor to the sustainable development of the 4 200

city of Niš. 2 100

0 0

THE NIŠAVA RIVER WATER min max average min max average

QUALITY STATUS 800 Solids (mg/l) Suspended solids - Naissus plant 12 pH pH - Naissus treatment plant
700 IHP
IHP 10
The surface water status is evaluated according 600
Naissus
Naissus

to the norms of the Decision of water 500 8

classification (Official Journal of SR Serbia 400 6

5/68) and Code of the hazardous matters in 300

4
water (Official Journal of SR Serbia 31/82). 200

100 2
The Public Utilities Company Naissus, which 0
0
is responsible for water supply of the city of min max average
min max average

Niš, performs the daily water quality status Fig. 1. Comparison of the Naissus and the Institute of Health Protection
checks at the location where water is taken in, parameters (IHP)
in order to protect the water supply spring and
the health of the citizens. The collected water
samples are examined on the location or later
in a laboratory, to ascertain the presence of For the purposes of this paper, the data of the Higher concentration of suspended solids can
several scores of organoleptic, physico- Public Utilities Company Naissus from the be explained by the fact that Public Utilities
chemical and microbiologic indicators. period 1st January 2000 to 25th November 2004 Company Naissus takes the water samples
were used. The number of analyzed samples in from the canal, and not from the river. The
The reliability of the Public Utilities Company
this research ranges between 1 and 1,240 higher concentration of nitrites indicates
Naissus was investigated in (Brankovic and
depending on the water quality parameters. occurrence of organic pollution.
Trajkovic, 2007) comparing them to the data of
Statistic data analysis is given in the table 1 Microbiological pollution of the Nišava was not
the Institute for Health protection of Niš. The
where it can be seen that a large majority of the reduced by closing down the industrial
following water quality indicators were
results of analyses of almost all the water facilities, because the main sources are
compared: minimal, maximal and average
quality parameters is within predicted limits. sanitary waste waters. In the Nišava river, there
values of parameters defining the class of the
There are numerous examples corroborating is a high presence of pathogenic bacteria,
water course (dissolved oxygen, BPK, HPK,
this assertion. Out of 670 analyses of the protozoa, viruses and intestinal parasites. The
suspended matter, dry residue, pH and the
dissolved oxygen, only the results of one received microbiological pollution obviously
total colliforms (TC)). The obtained results are
analysis do not comply with regulations. Only significantly exceeds the capacity of self-
presented in the Figure 1.
2% of the analyses of Biochemical Oxygen recovery of the river.
In all the analyzed parameters, the samples of Demand do not comply with the regulations.
the Public Utilities Company Naissus, have TOWARDS THE SUSTAINABLE
Analyses of three parameters significantly do
higher maximum values, and lower minimum MANAGEMENT OF THE NIŠAVA
not satisfy the required quality:
values, which was expected due to the RIVER WATERS
significantly higher number of samples. The • Suspended solids (58% analyses whose
average values of all parameters do not differ result does not comply with regulations) On the basis of the presented result, it is
significantly irrespective of who processed the • Nitrite (23% analyses whose result does not obvious that the Nišava river quality at this
samples. This fact confirms that the obtained comply with regulations) moment is not a limiting factor of the
values are accurate and reliable. sustainable development of the city of Niš.
• Total Coliforms (78% analyses whose
result does not comply with regulations) However, in order to provide an appropriate

81 spatium
long-term water quality of the river Nišava, it is The goal to be achieved is establishment of the Sustainable management of the Nišava river
necessary to take certain measures which optimum balance between water resources waters should lead to:
would enable a sustainable water management. management and their sustainable usage.

Table 1. Maximal, minimal and average values of water quality parameters

Class II
Max
Allowed No. of
No Parameter Concent samples Min Max Average A B
1 Air temperature (oC) / 167 -3.00 31.00 10.36 - -
2 Water temperature (oC) / 1,212 -2.00 29.00 11.51 - -
3 Color (Pt-Co scale) / 1,224 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0%
4 Odor (-) / 1,112 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0%
5 Turbidity (NTU) / 1,161 0.30 1,000 13.00 - -
6 Electroconductivity (μS/cm) / 1,161 3.00 540.00 385.0 - -
7 pH 6.8-8.5 1,162 7.02 8.90 8.28 5 0.4%
8 Total solids (mg/l) 1,000 430 140.0 920.00 267.1 0 0%
9 Consumption of K-permanganate (mg/l) / 714 1.10 232.00 3.11 5 0.7%
10 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (mg/l) 4 659 0.16 9.36 2.02 16 2%
11 Chemical oxygen demand (mg/l) / 4 0.00 15.00 4.36 - -
12 K-permanganate demand (mg/l) / 847 0.18 19.10 2.79 - -
13 Settleable solids (mg/l) / 3 0.00 2.10 0.77 - -
14 Suspended solids (mg/l) 30 90 0.05 681.00 60.23 52 58%
15 Dissolved solids (mg/l) / 164 6.83 428.00 228.5 - -
16 Dissolved oxygen (mg/l) >6 670 1.10 13.09 8.50 1 0.1%
17 M-alkalinity (ml 0.1 M HCl/l) / 1,123 3.30 65.00 40.66 - -
18 P-alkalinity (mg/l) / 3 13.10 42.00 32.36 - -
19 Alkaline hardness (odH) / 61 2.60 15.30 7.53 - -
20 Non-alkaline hardness (odH) / 61 0.21 10.90 3.79 - -
21 Total hardness (odH) / 1,110 0.15 18.90 11.96 - -
22 Aluminum (mg/l) / 392 0.00 3.10 0.04 5 1%
23 Ammonia (mg/l) 0.1 1,240 0.00 5.70 0.01 1 0.1%
24 Arsenic (mg/l) 0.05 1 0.03 0.03 0.03 0 0%
25 Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (mg/l) / 35 0.00 6.80 0.31 - -
26 Copper (mg/l) 0.1 16 0.00 0.01 0.00 0 0%
27 Cyanide (mg/l) 0.1 41 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0%
28 Zinc (mg/l) 0.2 10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0%
29 Phenol (mg/l) 0.001 764 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0%
30 Fluoride (mg/l) 1 31 0.00 0.10 0.01 0 0%
31 Iron (mg/l) 0.3 1,125 0.00 0.75 0.05 2 0.2%
32 Chloride (mg/l) / 1,153 3.20 40.00 6.69 0 0%
33 Chromium III (mg/l) 0.1 1,121 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0%
34 Chromium VI (mg/l) 0.1 1,121 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0%
35 Cadmium (mg/l) 0.005 14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0%
36 Calcium (mg/l) / 1,114 2.40 179.00 79.00 0 0%
37 Potassium (mg/l) / 7 0.93 1.80 1.31 0 0%
38 Magnesium (mg/l) / 1,112 1.80 86.60 8.81 2 0.2%
39 Manganese (mg/l) / 1,130 0.00 0.17 0.00 0 0%
40 Sodium (mg/l) / 8 3.80 7.00 5.30 0 0%

82 spatium
 Class II
Max
Allowed No. of
No Parameter Concent samples Min Max Average A B
41 Nickel (mg/l) 0.05 1 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0%
42 Nitrate (mg/l) 10 886 1.20 19.00 6.30 41 5%
43 Nitrite (mg/l) 0.05 1,205 0.00 5.00 0.04 276 23%
44 O-phosphate (mg/l) / 654 0.00 48.00 0.15 22 3%
45 Lead (mg/l) 0.05 15 0.00 0.01 0.00 0 0%
46 Mercury (mg/l) 0.001 1 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0%
47 Free chlorine (mg/l) / 143 0.00 20.00 0.39 - -
48 Combined chlorine (mg/l) / 2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 0%
49 Silicate (mg/l) / 36 0.00 8.10 4.26 0 0%
50 Free carbon dioxide (mg/l) / 978 0.00 11.00 1.65 - -
51 Sulfate (mg/l) / 812 3.00 90.00 42.50 0 0%
52 Sulfide (mg/l) / 42 0.00 39.00 0.95 - -
53 Total phosphates (mg/l) / 600 0.00 0.71 0.12 0 -
54 Detergent anion (mg/l) / 751 0.00 0.10 0.00 - -
55 Oils and fats (mg/l) 0.05 23 0.00 0.50 0.03 0 0%
56 1,2-Dichloroethane (μg/l) / 268 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -
57 1,1,1-Trichloroethane (μg/l) / 268 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -
58 Bromoform (μg/l) / 269 0 0 0 - -
59 Dibromchlormethane (μg/l) / 269 0 0 0 - -
60 Dichlorbrommethane (μg/l) / 269 0 0 0 - -
61 Chloroform (μg/l) / 269 0 0.2 0.00 - -
62 Tetrachloroethylene (μg/l) / 269 0 0.2 0.00 - -
63 Trichloroethylene (μg/l) 500 269 0 0.2 0.00 0 0%
64 Carbontetrachlorid (μg/l) 300 266 0 0 0 0 0%
65 Total trihalometani (μg/l) / 269 0 0.2 0.00 - -
66 Total Coliforms (No./100(0) ml) 6*104 1,186 1,500 24*104 172,212 924 78%
67 Total Viable Count, 22 oC (No./1ml) / 1,186 0 3*106 7932 - -
68 Total Viable Count, 37 oC 1,187 0 92*103 1,494 - -
69 Fecal Coliforms (No./100(0) ml) / 1,187 220 38*104 154,270 - -
70 Streptococcus Feacalis (No./100(0)) / 1,187 100 24*104 44,002 - -
71 Sulfitor.SporogenAnaerob.(No/100(0) / 1,187 100 37*103 1,339 - -
72 Bacteriofag (No./100(0) ml) / 35 10 63*103 2,096 - -
73 Citrobacter. sp. / 138 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -
74 Enterobacter. sp / 282 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -
75 Eschericia colli / 1,130 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -
76 Eschericia sp / 157 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -
77 Hafnia / 8 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -
78 Klebsillea / 17 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -
79 Morganella / 2 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -
80 Proteus mirabilis / 3 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -
81 Proteus sp. (No./100(0) ml) / 1,187 200 38*103 2,169 - -
82 Proteus vulgaris / 2 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -
83 Providencia sp / 2 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -
84 PseudomoNiš aeruginosa / 1,184 200 24*104 2,585 - -
85 Serratia sp. / 14 0.00 0.00 0.00 - -

A Number of analyses whose result does not comply with regulations

B % of analyses whose result does not comply with regulations

83 spatium
• Improvement of the quality of life of the used for water supply, and its quality may be a References
entire population of the region, limiting factor for the sustainable development
• Protection of health of the population in the of the city of Niš. On the basis of the analyzed Branković, S. and Trajković, S. (2007), The
entire region, water samples the following conclusions can Nišava River water quality downstream of the
be drawn: Sicevo gorge, Monography „Sicevo and
• Improvement of the environmental conditions Jelasnica gorges environmental status
in the entire river basin. • The water quality status at the water intake monitoring, Trajkovic and Brankovic (eds.),
The strategy of the sustainable management of location is satisfactory, excluding the total Institute for Nature Conservation of Serbia and
the river waters of Nišava should be coliforms (TC). This parameter is a constant Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture,
harmonized with the Water resources plan of problem of the Nišava river quality. 83 – 92.
the Republic of Serbia. This strategy should be Concentration of suspended matter and Davis, D. M. (2007), Integrated Water Resource
harmonized with the activities in this field nitrites can occasionally be over the Management and Water Sharing, Journal of
within the process of fulfilling the obligations permissible limits. Water Resources Planning and Management,
of our country as a member of ICPDR-u 133 (5), 427-445.
• The biggest Nišava river water polluters are
(International Commission for Protection of Gocić, M., Branković, S., Stanković, P., Trajković,
waste waters from the sewages of the
Danube River) and with the activities of the S. and Stanković, M. (2007), Monitoring the
upstream places and of the city of Niš. quality of running waters in the protected
recently adopted National strategy of Industrial waste waters, for the time being,
sustainable development. areas of the Jelasnica nad Sicevo gorges:
do not represent a big threat for the river project overview, Monography „Sicevo and
Within the sustainable management of waters, course. However, an increase of the Jelasnica gorges environmental status
it is necessary to promote institutional industrial production may cause monitoring, Trajkovic and Brankovic (eds.),
strengthening, development and enforcement Institute for Nature Conservation of Serbia and
deterioration of water quality.
of the law, establish and develop public Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture,
• In order to provide an appropriate long-term
awareness, with the active participation of the 97-100.
public in the decision process being a water quality of the river Nišava, it is
Libra, A. J. (2007), Environmental Process
component of this new approach (Libra 2007). necessary to take certain measures which Engineering: Building Capacity for
The implementation plans should be based on would enable a sustainable water Sustainability, Journal of Professional Issues in
the principles of the sustainable development, management in the entire Nišava river basin. Engineering Education and Practice, 133(4),
proximity and the regional approach, The sustainable development of the city of 308-319.
precaution, polluter pays, application of the Niš in this area is not possible without the Potic, O. and Trajkovic, S. (2004), Irrigation of
best available technique and responsibility of wider regional approach. the Bela Palanka field from the “Zavoj”
all the participants in the process (Davis reservoir, International Conference BALWOIS
2007). 2004, Ohrid, Macedonia, fp-113.
In the framework of the measures leading to the
sustainable Nišava water management, a
proposition of the solution of the environmental
status of the Nišava should be provided, of the
cadastre of polluters, give a proposition of
monitoring according to the Framework
Directive on Waters, propose an early warning
system, solution of the treatment of communal
and industrial waste waters of the city of Niš.
All the solutions should be implemented
according to the solutions at the National level,
and the existing regional solutions, taking into
account the experience from the EU.
In the implementation phase, it is necessary to:
• plan, approve and prepare the design
documents,
• implement solutions, monitor realization of
projects and monitor environment factors,
• educate population and
• train the participants of the process.
CONCLUSIONS
The Nišava River belongs to the most important
natural resources of the city of Niš. The Nišava
river water, on the territory of the city of Niš, is

84 spatium
IN MEMORIAM During his professional career, Professor Milić
published 5 books, and more than 50 scientific
articles, took part in numbered urban studies,
urban and spatial plans, urban and architectural
projects as well as urban and architectural
competitions, where he took several prizes and
mentions. He contributed to more than 20
articles and documents in the field of spatial
and urban planning at local, regional and
national level. During the year of 2004, he was
Assistant Minister at the Ministry of Capital
Investment, responsible for spatial and urban
planning.

Professor Milić had great talent, for drawings

as well for writings. His freehand drawings are
well known and very reputablle among the
architects and artists. As a result of his wish, to
represent in public his freehand drawings, the
book Vladimir A. Milić – drawings, was
published late this year.
Professor Vladimir A. Milić, PhD, Arch.
Professor Milić was a member of a number of
national and international professional
We are sad to report the death of Professor associations.
Vladimir A. Milić, a scholar and researcher in By his death Faculty of Architecture University
the field of spatial and urban planning, and of Belgrade, and the planning profession in
member of the SPATIUM Editorial Board. Serbia lost one of its most prominent member.
Born in Belgrade, May 27, 1965, graduated
primary and secondary school in Prijedor
(Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina).
He took all his academic degrees at Faculty of
Vladan Đokic, Faculty of Architecture University
Architecture University of Belgrade: Bachelor of
of Belgrade
Architecture in 1992, Master of Architecture in
1996 (Regulation of the Urban Form in Urban
Planning), and PhD in field of Architecture and
Urbanism in 2002 (Research of Principles for
Social Housing in the Frame of New Urban
Planning Model).

From 1992-2002 he was employed as a

teaching assistant at the Faculty of Architecture
University of Belgrade. In 2003, he was elected
at the position of assistant professor at the
same Faculty. He was teaching urban planning
and urban design courses, both theoreticly and
practicaly. His innovation was elective course
Urbanism Without Urbanists, established at the
Faculty of Architecture couple years ago, and
very popular among the students. As a
professor, he supervised a number of Bachelor
and Master thesis.

85 spatium
CIP-Katalogizacija u publikaciji
Narodna biblioteka Srbije, Beograd
71/72
Spatium: urban and regional planning,
Architecture, housing, building, geodesia,
Environment/ editor in chief Nada Milašin.
- 1997, no 1(sept.)-.-Belgrade:
Institute of Architecture and Urban &Spatial
Planning of Serbia, 1997-.-29 cm
ISSN 1450-569X =Spatium (Belgrade)
COBISS.SR-ID 150289159

86 spatium