i

ABSTRACT

The aim of this study is to explore the role and significance of social media in shaping public
opinions. The implications of the public opinion formation by social media on the social,
political and security aspects of Pakistan will be the main focus of this research paper. In modern
society, the internet and especially social media has become the main source through which
people acquire knowledge. This attribute renders the social media highly influential and
unparalleled. Dynamically disseminated information, regardless of its veracity, authenticity, or
detrimental nature, spreads rapidly among societal circles and they get effected by these
information’s immediately. The theoretical model which is implied in this study is of content
analysis. This study is basically qualitative in nature. The sample of this study are social media
posts which the people do and the comments which are there on those posts. The data is collected
from these public posts on social media.

Politically, social media is used to promote certain ideologies. Propaganda, positive

image of self and negative image of others, the false narratives about political issues and
circumstances are things which are promoted through social media. People’s views are changes
and built because they spend too much time on these social media sites. Talking about the social
aspects, our society is highly effected and attracted towards the ideologies which are promoted
and shown on these social media platforms. The religious ideologies, gender-based ideologies,
economic ideologies, promotion of desired values and cultures are some main areas where social
media targets the audience and shapes the opinions of masses. A whole new culture, belief
system and ideology can be seen in our social circles, which is definitely an impact of social
media. Security aspects in Pakistan are also something which have significant impact of social
media. Different view points about the forces are propagated on the social media. People come
across these posts on daily basis and their opinions are formed. The powerful groups make the
views of audience according to their own desires and masses get effected without even realizing
it because of the high exposure to internet and social media.

This research concludes that the social media plays a vital role in shaping public opinion in the
current times. We cannot deny the impacts of social media on the political, societal and security

2
aspects of Pakistan. This study shows that social media has great and significant impact on the
thought process and opinions of people. The masses develop the views about something about
which they are exposed to on these social media posts. Results show that the people spend a lot
of time on Instagram, Facebook, TikTok, twitter, YouTube etc. So, the only source of news,
information and entertainment is media. Their thought process and opinions are shaped
according to the interest of higher authorities who are handling the systems. The propaganda

KEYWORDS: Social Media, Public Opinion, Social Implications, Political Scenarios, Security
Aspect

3
 Chapter 1

Introduction

The main objective of this research to explore the role and significance of social and in
shaping public opinion and its implications on political, social and security aspects of Pakistan
the first introductory chapter will have a background of the study. The problem statement and
research objectives will be there. Then, the research questions to meet those objectives and the
significance of this research will be included this chapter. The limitations and delimitations of
this study will be discussed afterwards.

1.1 Background of study

In today's fast-paced period characterized by rapid advancements in information and

communication technology, it is undeniable that social media has become an integral part of the
daily lives of modern civilization (Wahyoedi, Suherlan, Rijal, Azzaakiyyah, & Ausat, 2023). The
emergence of social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and TikTok has
significantly transformed the ways in which individuals connect, share information, and express
their opinions (Siagian, Tarigan, Basuki, Basana, & Science, 2023).

These transformations have collectively formed a new platform for social dynamics,
leading to a significant change in the way public opinion is formed and how it influences
different aspects of life. This includes its impact on economic decision-making, social and
political stability, and security matters such as military operations. Social media has significantly
contributed to the digital era by offering a wide-reaching platform for people to openly share
their thoughts and opinions (Maitri, Singh, & Benchmarking, 2023). The seamless and rapid
exchange of information and ideas among social media users has facilitated the swift
dissemination and transcending of geographical and cultural barriers. Social media has become
an indispensable component of the daily lives of individuals in contemporary society. The
proliferation of information and communication technology has brought about a swift
transformation in the manner individuals engage, disseminate information, and articulate their
opinions through social media platforms.

4
 The proliferation of social media technology has been pervasive worldwide in recent
decades. Transitioning from charming oddities to a prevailing influence on the formation and
dissemination of popular sentiment. While there will always be those who reject or intentionally
avoid adopting new technology, the prevalence of social media is such that very few people
worldwide can completely ignore their presence. In democratic countries, where an educated and
engaged population is valued over one that is characterized by lack of knowledge and
indifference, social media has become an inevitable component in shaping public opinion. From
a European standpoint, the effectiveness of public opinion has been considered a crucial element
of robust democracies since the Enlightenment period (Otte & Rousseau, 2002). Mäkelä (2023)
stated that in any democratic society, the inclusion of public opinion as an integral component
aligns with the principle of governance by the people, rather than subordinating public opinion to
an omnipotent government entity.

Social media is crucial in disseminating information about global events to the public.
When viewers lack direct knowledge or expertise of a situation, they heavily depend on the
media to provide them with information. However, it is important to note that the media does not
dictate our thoughts. People do not passively accept media messages without questioning them
(Happer, Philo, & psychology, 2013). However, they play a crucial role in determining the
priorities and directing public attention towards specific topics, so restricting the variety of
arguments and viewpoints that contribute to public discourse. The mass media has historically
facilitated the efficient exchange of information across different groups in the public sphere by
carefully curating and analyzing a vast amount of data, so providing audiences with a coherent
understanding of the world. By promoting specific information over others, these particular
forms of knowledge have been granted the privileged position of being authoritative and, in
some instances, regarded as accurate (Douifi, 2012).

In recent decades, the usage of information and communication technologies (ICTs) and
social media has significantly risen, to the point where they are now an essential component of
our everyday existence. Social media platforms have surpassed their original purpose of
connecting individuals and fostering connections, since they are now characterized by
connectedness, user-generated content, and interaction. They have emerged as a politically
significant platform for fostering awareness and advocating for causes, while transforming the

5
methods by which we obtain and disseminate information. With the emergence of social media,
several scholars e.g Cropf (2008) have argued that these technological advancements would
enhance social environments and significantly influence the attitudes and viewpoints of the
general public towards various subjects.

Social media refers to digital platforms that facilitate interpersonal communication and
the formation of social connections, hence enhancing social capital (Barnes, 2008). (Cutter et al.,
2008)Social media refers to the means by which publishers disseminate their messages to a large
number of individuals, motivating them to form robust ties and unwavering devotion. Tate and
van der Valk (2008) and Lusk (2010) both have a common understanding of the concept of social
media. Social media, in their view, include the use of Facebook, Blogs, Twitter, My Space, and
LinkedIn as means of communication and sharing visual content such as images and videos.
Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) as referenced in Maimaitiyiming et al. (2014) defined social media
as a collection of internet-based applications that are built around the ideological and
technological principles of the web, enabling the creation and sharing of user-generated content.
When utilized with awareness, it serves as an advantageous platform for social interaction among
adolescents.

The process of constructing narratives and shaping opinions has a lengthy historical
background. The phenomenon began shortly after the emergence of modern humans on Earth,
around 200,000 years ago. Initially, the process of constructing a narrative was rather
straightforward. However, with the emergence of numerous revolutions, it became more complex
and took on a strategic intensity. Ultimately, it becomes an integral component of contemporary
communication techniques. It has had an indisputable role in business, politics, and combat.
Conversely, social media networks are a product of the "digital revolution." Social media
networks are omnipresent, not limited by spatial or temporal constraints, accessible to anyone on
the planet, and capable of transmitting audio, visual, and written content. Social media has
significantly influenced opinions, shaped outcomes, magnified ideas, created meaning, and
generated conflicts in the modern world. There are a total of 2 billion active internet users
worldwide, with 35 million of them in Pakistan, who utilize social media networks.

6
 This construction of a narrative has long been constrained by three factors: the temporal
dimension, the spatial dimension, and the evolutionary dimension, all of which are influenced by
the combination of time and space. However, prior to the onset of the 'agricultural revolution' in
the 1200s, the process of constructing narratives was relatively basic. However, as soon as the
'scientific revolution' took place, the process of constructing 'strategic' narratives began promptly.
Following the discovery of America, the print media was utilized as a means of shaping the
narrative surrounding black slaves. One such example is the book titled "How to Make a Negro
Christian," published in Mays (1939), a slave owner.

During the industrial revolution, there was a shift in the way narratives were constructed,
focusing on the business sector. This was done through the use of print and speech media,
employing marketing tactics, captivating commercials, intriguing periodicals, and even the
artwork of renowned painters such as Picasso. Ford (2013), Henry Ford, a prominent figure in
the automotive business and the proprietor of Ford Motors, implemented the closure of his plants
on both Sundays and Saturdays. Constructing a weekend getaway story to enhance the growth of
his automotive sector. De Beers Sa, a diamond company, executed a strategic marketing move by
spreading a story that anyone who couldn't afford to give a diamond ring for their engagement or
marriage would be socially disrespected. De Beers exerted control over the general public's
emotions through manipulation.

During the height of the industrial revolution, colonial powers were concurrently
annexing regions of the world that were abundant in natural resources. During that time, the
construction of a 'strategic narrative' involved combining politics and warfare in order to
manipulate and instill a sense of inferiority in the minds of conquered nations. John Henrik
Clarke astutely identified a critical aspect of control when he stated: "In order to exert dominance
over a population, it is necessary to manipulate their perception of their own identity, history, and
culture. By instilling shame in individuals regarding their cultural heritage and historical
background, the oppressor can effectively maintain control without the need for physical
confinement or restraints."

Further evidence supporting this claim is found in Lord Macaulay's address to the British
Parliament on February 2nd, 1832. In his speech, he proposed replacing India's old and

7
traditional education system and culture. He stated that if the Indians believed that everything
foreign and English was superior to their own, they would lose their self-esteem, abandon their
native culture, and become a completely submissive nation, as desired by the British.

The limited availability of resources and the geopolitical competition for dominance over
resource-abundant regions of the world ultimately resulted in the outbreak of World Wars I and
II, followed by a period of tension known as the Cold War. The World Wars and Cold War
introduced the novel concept of strategic narrative construction through espionage and covert
intelligence operations. Subsequently, use the print, speech, and electronic media to disseminate
propaganda with the intention of instigating disorder and the formation of new nation-states,
undermining morale, and spreading false information targeting politicians specifically and armed
forces in a broader sense.

Advancements in science and technology have subsequently ushered in a new era of

social life, transforming the globe into a "Global Village". The internet and the world-wide-web
have created an ideal environment for the growth and development of social media networks
such as Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp, Snapchat, and others. The advent of new technology has
enabled the creation of increasingly tiny gadgets such as smartphones, tablets allowing
individuals to stay connected at all times and in any location. As a result, social media networks
have evolved with great promise.

Following the collapse of the USSR, capitalism gained global significance through
strategic actions by the United States. The world quickly became unipolar, leading to the
immediate onset of the "war on terror" following the events of 9/11. This eventually culminated
in the invasion of Iraq in 2003, which was based on false pretenses (Belasco, 2011). This period
witnessed the pinnacle of the 'Digital Revolution' with the emergence of numerous social media
platforms. Consequently, the domain of social media was in a state of chaos. The timing was
established. Sage was constructed. The propagandas were prepared. The armies were enthusiastic
and eager to engage in battle. The Arab Spring, which was once hailed as a period of political
change and reform in the Middle East, ultimately turned into a chaotic and uncertain time due to
the spread of propaganda through social media.

8
 The Arab states, characterized by paranoia, and the easily influenced population, were
primarily deceived through the use of propaganda on social media networks. This manipulation
was executed in such a way that individuals believed they were making independent choices, as
famously stated by Joseph Goebbels: "Propaganda works most effectively when those who are
being manipulated are confident in their own free will." Consequently, numerous non-state actors
appeared, disguising themselves as religious or sectarian groups with various titles. ISIS evolved
as an unstoppable stronghold that caused widespread violence and chaos throughout the Middle
East. ISIS utilized social media platforms to recruit, coordinate, mobilize, distribute, and gather
intelligence, exacerbating the situation. ISIS has also created applications such as "The Dawn of
Glad Tidings" and "Nasher". Footage documenting the savage murders of innocent individuals
was disseminated on social media platforms with the intention of instilling fear in the opposing
parties. Numerous hashtags on Twitter incited insurgencies. For example, the hashtag "#Scud
Launch" resulted in the launching of Scud missiles from Yemen at Saudi Arabia.

To disseminate false information, "shock and awe" operations were initiated through
social media platforms with the intention of undermining morale or provoking a response. In
order to influence people's opinions, the "net-trolls’ strategies" are implemented on social media
platforms by initiating discussions and inviting comments. The Israel Defense Forces (IDF).
China, Russia, the USA (specifically the CIA), Hezbollah, and other entities have been
employing the strategy of net-trolling to influence and mold public opinions. Social-media
network owners possess significant exploitable power when it comes to constructing narratives.
Facebook, Twitter, and other platforms have utilized their news-feed functionality to affect the
emotional state of users. Instances such as Islamophobia, the "Punish a Muslim Day" campaign,
and the live broadcast of the New Zealand Mosque attack on Facebook are examples of how
social media activity has contributed to hostility towards Islam.

In Pakistan, following the events of 9/11, there was a period of turmoil that caused
significant destabilization in the country. The jihadist utilized social media as a means to shape
and construct public opinion and create a specific storyline. Whether it be TTP, Lashkar-e-Jhingi,
Jamaat-ad-Dawa, or more recently PTM, social media has been utilized as a means to
disseminate their ideology, resulting in significant turmoil and destabilization for the
establishment of Pakistan. According to the press statement from ISPR, numerous 'fake' social

9
media profiles were created to spread false information and create a negative narrative about
Pakistan. In summary, many groups such as "fifth columns," "rightists," "leftists," "non-state
actors," "intelligence agencies," and artificially intelligent "chat-bots/chatter-robots" are actively
utilising social media to construct a particular opinion. Currently, the battle of narratives appears
to have no resolution in sight. Social media networks continuously grant increasing freedom to
individuals, groups, communities (religious/sects), non-state actors, and civil-military
establishments to construct narratives that align with their own perspectives, using any available
methods.

1.2 Statistics related to social media

The following statistics will give the magnitude and the reach of social media in today’s
world.
1- China has the maximum 568 million number of internet users with a penetration of
42.3%. USA has the second largest number of users with over 250 million users and a penetrance
of around 81%. India is third with 150 million users and a penetrance of 12.6%. Pakistan is 27 th
with over 18 million users and with a penetrance of approximately 10%. Presently there are 120
million mobile subscribers in Pakistan and the use of internet is expected to increase with the
launch of 3G and 4G mobile services somewhere during this year. There are 904 million mobile
phone users in India of which 200 million are smart phone users.
2- The use of internet services via mobile has gradually increased and globally
approximately 20% of people are accessing the social media via a mobile device.
3- Facebook celebrated its 10th birthday on 4th February this year. It has 1.23 billion users
which means that were it a country then it would have been the third most populous country in
the world. The average Facebook user has 130 friends, 46% of Facebook users are over the age
of 45 years.
4- One billion tweets were processed by Twitter in 2009 making almost 40 million tweets
per day.
5- 100+ hours of video is uploaded on YouTube in less than four and a half minutes.8
6- One out of eight couples married in the U.S. met via social media in 2011 and conversely
1 in 5 divorces have been blamed on Facebook.

10
 The figure is given which shows the number and percentage of people who use social
media, according to their age groups. These numbers show the enormous reach of these social
media platforms.

Figure 1: Percentage of people using social media

1.3 Problem statement

The main emphasis of the current research work is to explore and examine the role of
social media in shaping public opinion and its implications on social, political and security
aspects in Pakistan. We currently reside in an epoch where the world has transformed into a
global community, with individuals interconnected through social media platforms on the
internet. These changes have collectively formed a new platform for social interactions, leading
to a significant change in how public opinions are formed and how these influences can impact
different aspects of life, such as the economy, society, politics, and security issues. This study is
conducted to explore how social media shapes the opinions of public and their resulting impacts
in Pakistan.

11
1.4 Research objectives

The main aims and objectives of this research are mentioned below

1. To identify the role and significance of social media in shaping public opinion
2. To know the extent at which social media has become a pivotal tool for influencing
public opinion in Pakistan
3. To analyze the influence of social media on social, political and security aspects of
Pakistan.

1.5 Research questions

Research questions which will make the foundation of this research work are given below

1. What is the role and significance of social media in shaping public opinion?
2. To what extent has social media become a pivotal tool for influencing public opinion in
Pakistan
3. What is the influence of social media on social, political and security aspects of Pakistan?

1.6 Significance of the research

The innovations in technology and revolution in internet has altered all the fields of life.
Social media is also one of the major outcomes of internet and technology, which is widely used
by a large number of populations of this world. It is becoming increasingly significant
communication channel both in the civilian and military sector. In the civilian sector, the
political, social, moral and ethical ideologies are promoted with the help of social media and
military sector has been using social media as a medium of information and communication,
fulfilling welfare operations, strategic communication tool for psychological functions and for
opinion formation. Social media can play an important role in shaping the opinion of public and
we cannot deny the impacts of it on society. Social media can form different public opinions and
it can impact the political, societal and security aspects in the most powerful way. This study was
important to know these implications of social media as a tool which can shape public opinions
and the impacts of it in Pakistan.

12
1.7 Outline of the study

 Chapter one is all about the introduction to the topic. In this chapter, a background of the
study is given to get a know-how of the topic. The statement of problem, research
objectives, research questions and significance of this research are part of this
introductory chapter.
 Chapter two is about the literature review. All the related studies which have already
been conducted and the work which is present about this topic will be a part of this
chapter. The theoretical framework to conduct this research work and research model will
also will discussed.
 Chapter three is related to the research methodology. Research paradigm, research
methodology, the data collection methods, tools, and the data analysis techniques will be
a part of this chapter.
 Chapter four is about the data analysis to find the answers of the research questions. The
collected data will be analysed to reach at the conclusions.
 Chapter five concludes the research work. All the findings after data analysis will be a
part of this chapter. This chapter also presents the recommendations for future research.

13
 Chapter two

Literature review

In this chapter, all the available literature and previously conducted studies about the
similar topic will be discussed to gain deeper insights about the terms and ideas. The literature
about social media, opinions, opinion shaping features of media and the significance of social
media will be a part of literature review chapter. Social networking and social media are closely
related, but they have distinct meanings. Social networking refers to the process of users forming
communities with one other, whilst social media involves the utilization of social networking
sites and similar platforms to establish a following.

2.1 Social-media

Social media has the ability to create a virtual platform where people from around the
world may collectively address, examine, and discuss different current matters. This platform not
only facilitates the exchange of opinions, but also functions as a space where diverse beliefs can
converge, interact, and mutually impact one another. Therefore, in this particular arrangement,
social media transcends its role as a mere communication tool and assumes an influential
position in shaping, guiding, and potentially altering public sentiment. Consequently, it can have
a profound impact on the trajectory of wider social, political, and economic occurrences.

Social media is a digital phenomenon that encompasses online platforms enabling

individuals and organizations to engage in communication, information sharing, and interaction
over the internet (Obar & Wildman, 2015). Users have the ability to generate, upload, and
distribute many forms of content, including text, photos, video, and audio, to a larger group of

14
people. The primary objective of social media platforms is to enable users to engage in social
interaction, establish connections, and exchange information (Yohanna, 2020).

Social media platforms enable users to follow, engage with, and react to content posted
by other users. This fosters a more inclusive and participatory exchange dynamic compared to
conventional media platforms. Furthermore, social media enables users to establish an
interconnected web of virtual connections including acquaintances, relatives, colleagues, and
even those with whom they have not had any face-to-face interaction (Appel, Grewal, Hadi, &
Stephen, 2020). Various forms of social media have arisen, each with distinct characteristics and
areas of emphasis. Several instances of social media platforms include:

1. Facebook is a highly popular social networking platform where users can establish personal
accounts, share updates, photos, videos, and engage with friends through comments and likes.

2. Twitter: This social media network enables users to disseminate concise communications
known as "tweets" under a specified character threshold. Users have the ability to track and
engage with other accounts by leaving comments or sharing tweets.

3. Instagram: The primary objective of Instagram is to facilitate the sharing of photographs and
videos. Users have the ability to submit graphic content, implement filters, and utilize hashtags
to discover and distribute content related to particular subjects.

4. LinkedIn is a website that primarily emphasizes the professional component. It enables users
to establish business networks, exchange work experiences, and explore employment
opportunities.

5. TikTok is a platform where users can create and share short movies that are often accompanied
by music or unique challenges.

6. YouTube is mostly recognized as a video-sharing site, but it also has social features that enable
users to engage with one another through comments, channel subscriptions, and video sharing.

The advent of social media has revolutionized the manner in which individuals engage
with information, communicate, and establish connections in the digital realm. Social media
emerged in its early incarnations as soon as technological advancements made it feasible. The
15
design of the World Wide Web enabled seamless navigation between websites by a single click,
while improved Internet connections facilitated the inclusion of a greater amount of multimedia
content compared to the predominantly text-based newsgroups.

Classmates.com and SixDegrees.com were the pioneering companies in developing

social networks using web technologies. Classmates.com, established in 1995, employed a
forceful pop-up advertising strategy to attract internet users to its website. Launched in 1997, this
website incorporated many of the defining elements commonly found on similar platforms.
Users were able to establish personal profiles, curate lists of friends, and communicate with each
other using the site's private messaging system.

However, social media platforms gained widespread popularity during the early 21st
century. Online platforms like Friendster and Myspace arose, enabling individuals to
communicate with family members, friends, and acquaintances. Facebook ultimately replaced
those two websites and emerged as one of the most widely used social media platforms globally,
with billions of users. Alternative forms of social media arose to facilitate the sharing of
particular categories of material. YouTube enables users to disseminate videos, while TikTok is
explicitly tailored for the dissemination of concise videos. LinkedIn places a strong emphasis on
a user's professional network, where individuals construct sites that resemble resumes in terms of
format.

According to Branthwaite and Patterson (2011), the emergence of social media has
completely transformed the way individuals communicate, with a substantial effect from these
platforms. The steady transformation of social media has had a significant impact on
government, corporations, and the general public. The wonders and revelations of the new form
of media are not only due to its excessive use, but also because of the way it has been
transforming the processes and functions of businesses, as well as the method communication is
occurring (Gupta, 2023). Undoubtedly, many social media platforms have provided opportunities
across all sectors. However, like any other form of media, the use of social media by
organizations and individuals has both positive and negative aspects (Sobrino, Oltra-Carrió,
Sòria, Bianchi, & Paganini, 2012).

16
 Nevertheless, it is crucial to bear in mind that the utilization of social media also entails
difficulties, including safeguarding personal data, the dissemination of false information, and the
psychological consequences of excessive online engagement. Social media serves as a platform
for individuals to articulate their emotions and viewpoints, establish and foster interpersonal
relationships, and access knowledge pertaining to many domains. Social media exert a crucial
influence on our economy, culture, lifestyle, and worldview. Following the revolution of social
media, it is undeniable that its primary purpose is to facilitate the connection between
individuals. Individuals often opt for social media platforms due to their capacity to enhance
awareness about the activities and updates of social, professional, and personal connections.
Social media can also play a significant role in establishing social authority. Douifi (2012)
suggest that through the utilization of social media platforms, both organizations and people can
establish themselves as proficient and knowledgeable in their respective domains. Social media
has been proven to be a highly effective platform for practicing freedom of speech and
expression.

The advent of social media has significantly expanded the potential and prospects for
global communication, dissemination of information, and raising awareness. The general
population highly values social media for its provision of maximum freedom of expression.
Social media networks mostly comprise user-generated content. The majority of its users
participate and converse with unrestricted liberty. While social media platforms provide a means
for users to freely express themselves, it is imperative that they are not permitted to express any
ideas that pose a threat, cause offence, or bring shame upon groups based on characteristics such
as color, race, national origin, disability, or religion (Belasco, 2011). Social media present a
significant problem. These platforms facilitate the dissemination of damaging discourses
targeting specific groups of individuals. The categories of hatred target including race, behavior,
sexual orientation, class, gender, ethnicity, disability, religion, and others. It signifies that social
media platforms offer a cost-effective tool to freely express oneself, hence facilitating the
dissemination of hate speech. Social internet is increasingly becoming the epicenter of hate
speech.

17
2.2 Public opinion

Public opinion encompasses the combined perspectives, attitudes, convictions, and

evaluations held by a group of individuals regarding a specific matter, occurrence, or subject
matter that is significant within society (Moussaïd, Kämmer, Analytis, & Neth, 2013). Public
opinion refers to the collective perspectives, attitudes, and beliefs of a substantial segment of a
community towards a specific subject. Certain researchers perceive the aggregate as a fusion of
the perspectives held by either all or a specific portion of society, while others view it as an
assemblage of numerous divergent or conflicting viewpoints. In his 1918 work, American
sociologist Charles Horton Cooley emphasized that public opinion is not just a state of
widespread agreement, but rather a dynamic process of interaction and reciprocal influence. By
the 1990s, progress in statistical and demographic analysis resulted in a comprehension of public
opinion as the combined perspective of certain groups of people, for example a specific
socioeconomic or cultural group.

2.3 Power of public opinion

` The impact of public opinion extends beyond the realms of politics and elections. It
exerts significant influence in various domains, including culture, fashion, literature and the arts,
consumer expenditure, as well as marketing and public relations. Lippmann (1985) in his treatise
titled "Public Opinion" published in 1922, the American editorialist Walter Lippmann noted that
democracies often obscure the nature of public opinion. However, he acknowledged that there
have been adept manipulators of public opinion who possess a deep understanding of this
phenomenon, enabling them to sway the majority during elections.

The concept of public opinion is widely acknowledged, although its definition varies
significantly due to the diverse perspectives of scholars studying the subject. Divergent
interpretations of public opinion have emerged throughout history, particularly with the use of
novel techniques for gauging public sentiment in the realms of politics, trade, religion, and social
activity. Political scientists and certain historians have typically emphasized the significance of
public opinion in government and politics, specifically focusing on its impact on the formulation
of government policy. Indeed, several political scientists have considered public opinion to be

18
synonymous with the collective desires and intentions of the nation. Within a narrow context,
there can exist only a singular prevailing viewpoint on a particular matter at any given moment.

On the other hand, Reinhoudt and Audier (2018) sociologists typically view public
opinion as a result of social interaction and communication. According to this perspective, the
existence of public opinion on a particular matter is contingent upon the exchange of information
and ideas among members of the public. While their personal viewpoints may initially align,
their convictions will not create a collective public opinion unless they are communicated to
others through various channels such as television, radio, email, social media, print media,
phone, or face-to-face dialogue. Sociologists also highlight the potential existence of many
divergent public viewpoints on a certain issue simultaneously. While a particular perspective
may strongly influence or align with government policy, it does not exclude the presence of other
organized perspectives on political matters. The sociological perspective acknowledges the
significance of public opinion in domains unrelated to governance. Public opinion, as described
by American researcher Irving Crespi, is inherently dynamic, complex, and always evolving.
Therefore, fads and styles are suitable topics for studying public opinion, just like popular
sentiments towards celebrities or organizations.

The consensus among scholars of public opinion is that for a phenomenon to be

considered as public opinion, it must meet four essential conditions: (1) the presence of an issue,
(2) a substantial number of individuals expressing opinions on the issue, (3) some of these
opinions reflecting a consensus, and (4) this consensus exerting influence, either directly or
indirectly. Unlike scholars, individuals who seek to influence public opinion priorities the
practical task of molding the viewpoints of specific "publics," such as employees, stockholders,
neighborhood associations, or any other group whose actions can impact the interests of a client
or stakeholder. Theoretical matters are of lesser importance to them. Politicians and publicists
want to exert influence on voting and purchasing decisions, respectively. Therefore, they strive to
ascertain any attitudes and opinions that might impact the desired behavior.

Frequently, the viewpoints conveyed in public settings diverge from those stated in
private. Certain perspectives, despite being commonly held, may not be articulated whatsoever.
In an authoritarian or totalitarian state, a significant number of individuals may hold opposition

19
towards the government, although they may refrain from openly expressing their views, even to
their close acquaintances, due to fear. In such instances, the formation of an anti-government
public sentiment is inevitably hindered (Lippmann, 1985).

Public opinion emerges from the collective exchange of knowledge, experiences, and
perspectives among individuals in society (Mallinson & Hatemi, 2018). Public opinion
encompasses a wide range of domains, such as politics, society, economics, culture, and more.
Public opinion is a crucial factor in the functioning of democracy and the process of making
decisions in society. Various entities, such as governments, public institutions, non-governmental
organizations, and enterprises, frequently consider public opinion when creating policies,
designing products or services, and evaluating reactions to specific efforts (Harahap,
Kraugusteeliana, Pramono, Jian, & Ausat, 2023). Public opinion has a significant role in shaping
social and political dynamics by impacting governmental decisions, garnering support for
policies, and driving social movements. The perception of the general public is constantly
changing and developing as time progresses. The aforementioned influences have the capacity to
alter and shape individuals' perception of the surrounding reality. Hence, a comprehension of
public sentiment holds significance in the examination of social, political, and economic matters.

2.4 Social-media and public opinion

Social media, a contemporary phenomenon, has permeated several aspects of society,

rather than being limited to a single domain (Comunello, Anzera, & Relations, 2012). The impact
of social media on contemporary society is indisputable. Given that more than half of the world's
population utilises social platforms and the average individual dedicates a minimum of two hours
daily to reading through them, it is undeniable that our digital environments have significantly
transformed our previous way of life. Social media has significantly altered the way we establish,
develop, and sustain our relationships by offering novel means of connecting with others and
staying engaged with the world. It has also provided platforms for self-expression. However,
although these online communities have become a regular part of our everyday lives, experts are
just starting to comprehend the implications of social media usage on future generations. The
landscape of social media is constantly expanding, with prominent platforms such as Meta and
Instagram transforming into key digital advertising arenas in addition to their social functions.

20
Marketers have a crucial duty to disseminate informative messaging, rather than adding to the
abundance of false information that flourishes on social media.

An essential and difficult aspect of social media is assessing the authenticity of the
messages shared across several platforms. When provocative comments spread rapidly online,
they have a significant influence on people's emotions, foster a sense of mistrust, and generate
varying perspectives. Social media platforms play a vital influence in societies due to the
heightened level of interactions among individuals (Dagan, Tsoory, Fainzilber, & Panayotis,
2016). Based on a review of several research studies, it has been found that the general
population often depends on information provided on social media platforms. This reliance on
social media can result in the spread of rumors and conjecture when there is a lack of accurate
information (Waldvogel & Journal, 2017). However, social media platforms have the capability
to effectively convey an organization's message across several channels to a significant audience,
without any distortion or deception, in a more relatable manner. The majority of studies in this
field have discussed the influence of social media (Cornelius & Natvig, 2022).

2.5 Features of social media

Junco and education (2012) say that social media has some online platforms and
applications. According to Alme et al. (2010) as referenced in Maimaitiyiming et al. (2014)
social media connects the people in best possible ways with the help of these applications and
tools because of the interconnective nature of this platform. These applications and tools help
people in sharing the information, communication and entertainment at the same time. According
to Shetty, Rosario, Hyder, and Engineering (2015), social media serves as a platform for
individuals to establish relationships, where they can generate, distribute, and trade information
and ideas across virtual communities and networks.

2.5.1 Advantages of utilising social media platforms

Adolescent kids can derive numerous advantages from using social media. Below, a
selection of them will be discussed.

21
Socialization and communication

Adolescents are able to fulfil various significant objectives through social media platforms,
mirroring their offline activities. These tasks include maintaining connections with friends and
family, forming new social connections, sharing visual content, and engaging in the exchange of
ideas (Aizenman, Chinn, & Ito, 2008). Various studies have shown that adolescents can derive
significant benefits from participating in social media. These benefits extend to their perception
of themselves, their community, and the world. Some of these benefits include: fostering
individual and collective creativity by developing and sharing artistic and musical projects;
generating and expanding ideas through the creation of blogs, podcasts, videos, and gaming sites;
broadening online connections by connecting with individuals from diverse backgrounds who
share similar interests (this type of communication is crucial for adolescents as it promotes
respect, tolerance, and meaningful discussions about personal and global issues); and nurturing
their individual identity and unique social skills. These findings are supported by research
conducted by Boyd in 2007 and 2008.

Optimized Educational Prospects

Various research has demonstrated that social media can boost students' learning chances.
Adolescents in middle and high school are utilising social media platforms to establish
connections with their peers for the purpose of collaborating on academic assignments and group
projects (Boyd, DIGITAL MEDIA, Media, & Learning, 2008). For instance, Facebook and other
comparable social media platforms enable students to convene outside of class in order to
cooperate and discuss ideas pertaining to assignments. Veryzer and Borja de Mozota (2005)
states that certain schools effectively utilize blogs as instructional aids, hence enhancing
proficiency in English, written communication, and imaginative thinking.

Retrieving Information

Adolescents are discovering that they can readily and confidentially obtain online
information regarding their health concerns. In a study by Hayes et al. (2006), they found that
there is a growing availability of high-quality health resources for young people, covering a
range of issues that are of interest to this audience. These themes include sexually transmitted

22
illnesses, stress reduction, and recognizing signs of depression. Adolescents suffering from
chronic illnesses have the opportunity to utilize online platforms to establish networks with
individuals who share comparable health issues (Lehart, Chegini, & Gmeiwieser, 2010). The
utilization of mobile technology, specifically smartphones, instant messaging, and text
messaging, has resulted in several enhancements in the healthcare of teenagers. These include
improved adherence to medicine, enhanced comprehension of diseases, and a reduction in
missed appointments (Krishna, Boren, Balas, & e-Health, 2009).

2.5.2 Dangers associated with the utilization

The impact of social media on psychological well-being

Multiple corroborating concepts demonstrate the potential for social media, particularly
Facebook, to contribute to psychological issues. Evidently, social media has adverse effects on
individuals, particularly by fostering excessive self-analysis and self-criticism among young
people.

Depression associated with the use of Facebook

Multiple researchers have introduced a novel concept known as "Facebook depression",

which refers to the onset of depression in individuals who spend an excessive amount of time on
social media platforms, namely Facebook, and subsequently display typical symptoms of sadness
(Stewart, 2012). Striving for approval and maintaining social bonds with peers is a crucial aspect
of social existence. Nevertheless, the pervasive nature of the digital realm, which necessitates
continual involvement, engenders a sense of self-consciousness that can potentially precipitate
sadness in certain individuals. Similar to offline depression, those experiencing Facebook
depression are susceptible to social isolation and may resort to hazardous online platforms and
blogs in search of 'assistance' that could encourage substance abuse, unsafe sexual practices,
aggressive tendencies, and self-destructive behaviors (Fawzi et al., 2021).

The correlation between social media usage and anxiety

Social media not only contributes to sadness and anxiety, but it also frequently causes
stress among its users. A study conducted on a sample of 7,000 moms revealed that 42% of

23
mothers who utilize the photo-sharing platform reported experiencing occasional episodes of
stress (Damota, Uninversity, & Communication, 2019). Social media contributes to sadness and
anxiety through two distinct mechanisms. Persistent stress leads to the development of
depression and anxiety.

Constantly being vigilant for new social media posts triggers the fight or flight response
in your innate limbic system, similar to being on constant alert for predators. This results in the
release of the stress hormone cortisol (Gupta, 2023). As per Jackob's statement, mainly, social
media encourages the presentation of a false image that emphasizes the enjoyable, thrilling, and
successful aspects of our lives, while revealing very little about the challenges we face on a more
profound level. This can result in a deceptive sense of closeness or connection on order to
assimilate, we endeavour to present impeccably content and fashionable appearances on our
profiles, as we observe others doing the same. Consequently, our profiles portray the image we
desire to project, rather than providing an authentic representation of our true selves.

The Impact of social media on Catfishing

Excessive engagement with social media platforms might detrimentally impact real-life
relationships (Quiring et al., 2021). By engaging in this behavior, we neglect our significant
relationships with our loved ones and immediate family members, as we allocate a greater
portion of our time and energy towards the deceptive realm of social media. Catfish refers to
individuals who fabricate false profiles on social networking platforms, and "catfishing" is the
act of establishing online friendships with strangers by assuming a counterfeit or pilfered
identity. This deceitful behavior has caused significant harm to numerous individuals, leading to
the dissolution of marriages, relationships, and adversely affecting their emotional well.

Social media and bullying

The rise of social media has exacerbated the problem of bullying among young people in
recent decades, since it provides a platform for victims to publicly share content that can lead to
their humiliation in front of their peers. Bullying is characterized as a persistent and repetitive
hostile behavior perpetrated by either an individual or a group against a vulnerable victim who
lacks the ability to effectively protect themselves (Bannink, Broeren, van de Looij–Jansen, de

24
Waart, & Raat, 2014). Campbell and Schools (2005)) asserts that the advent of the Internet and
mobile phones has given rise to a distinct type of bullying known as 'cyber bullying'.
Cyberbullying is the use of technological means, particularly the Internet and social media, to
engage in aggressive behavior (Bannink et al., 2014).

Social Media and terrorism

Another perilous facet of social media is the swift assimilation of this platform by terrorist
organizations. Over the past few decades, instances of Islamic terrorism have transpired
worldwide, encompassing not only nations with a Muslim majority but also Europe, Russia, and
the United States. Terrorist organizations have been utilising social media platforms to their
advantage, employing them as tools for gathering intelligence, recruiting individuals, raising
funds, and disseminating propaganda (H. Chen et al., 2008). Weimann states that terrorists began
utilising the Internet approximately 16 years ago. Since then, the surveillance of terrorist groups'
utilization of the Internet and online platforms has significantly increased, as indicated by
Weimann, from 12 to more than 9,800 terrorist websites.

Criminal activities

To establish a correlation between terrorism and social media, it is necessary to evaluate the
various profiles of new recruits, which can be categorized into two groups (Bhui, Everitt, &
Jones, 2014). Isolated individuals are the initial cohort that readily gravitates towards radical
organizations. The second group comprises those who suffer from emotional disorders, such as
depression. The last motivation for certain individuals to join terrorist organizations is the sense
of significance that these extremist groups provide them. The aforementioned psychological
disorders, such as sadness, solitude, and unstable personality, facilitate the recruitment of new
members for terrorist groups. Based on the preceding sections, it can be inferred that social
media is among the numerous contributors to emotional problems. Hence, social media can be
unequivocally regarded as both a weapon utilized by terrorist organizations and as the initial
feasible measure in the process of radicalizing prospective recruits (H. Chen et al., 2008).

Social media typically has both positive and bad repercussions. The benefits arise when
individuals utilize social media for proper purposes and predefined objectives, whereas the

25
drawbacks manifest when the opposite occurs. Currently, as a result of technological progress,
particularly in the form of smartphones and mobile data, even elementary school children are
utilising social media platforms. According to studies, in addition to reaping the advantages,
young students may also bear the disadvantages associated with social media.

Users of social media platforms are rapidly exposed to information within minutes after
the occurrence of an incident. Viewing videos, whether genuine or fabricated, can evoke intense
emotions. In the city of Lviv in western Ukraine, a peace activist symbolically displayed 109
baby carriages in a square to represent the tragic loss of children in the war with Russia. Within a
matter of minutes, the photograph became accessible to millions of individuals through their
mobile devices, prompting an instantaneous demand to halt the fighting. Similarly, a 'deepfake'
film depicted Ukrainian President Zelenskyy urging soldiers to relinquish their guns.

The American political conflict is waged on the platform of Twitter, which boasts a user
base of 220 million subscribers. Last week, entrepreneur Elon Musk made a significant
acquisition by purchasing Twitter for a staggering $44 billion, marking one of the most
expensive transactions to date. Musk, who identifies as a "free speech absolutist," will now have
complete authority over the corporation. A number of American legislators have labelled the
agreement as 'perilous for the principles of democracy (Akkermans, Collings, da Motta Veiga,
Post, & Seibert, 2021)'.

Within the realm of politics, former United States president Barack Obama holds the
highest number of Twitter followers, amounting to 131 million. Following closely behind is
Donald Trump, who had 89 million followers until his account was suspended, and Joe Biden,
who currently has 34 million followers. Renowned actor and wrestler Dwayne (The Rock)
Johnson boasts an impressive Instagram following of over 308 million individuals, surpassing
the combined Twitter followers of Biden and Trump. There is speculation that he would declare
his candidature for the presidency of the United States. Internationally, Indian Prime Minister
Modi has a substantial following of 76 million on Twitter. However, this number is rather little
when considering the population of India, which exceeds 1.4 billion. Turkish Prime Minister
Erdogan has 18 million followers, while Imran Khan has 16 million followers on the same
platform (Singh, Shukla, & Mishra, 2018).

26
 Social media include not only political discourse on Twitter, but also, and to a greater
extent, entertainment, marketing, and educational content. The youth's decision-making process
is being significantly impacted by its disruptive power. Every business, regardless of its size,
relies on social media marketing facilitated by influencers and search engine optimization (SEO).
Facebook boasts a staggering 2.9 billion subscribers, while YouTube has an impressive 2.2
billion. TikTok, on the other hand, has amassed a substantial user base of 1 billion. Instagram
follows with 500 million users, and Twitter trails behind with 220 million individuals.
YouTube's lack of time constraints makes it an ideal platform for hosting a wide range of
content, including entertainment, news channels, travel and food vlogs, and skill courses (Siagian
et al., 2023).

Influential vloggers such as PewDiePie, boasting a subscriber count exceeding 100

million on YouTube, and Kim Kardashian, with a staggering 300 million followers on Instagram,
are exerting a significant impact on the mindset and behavior of Generation Y and Generation Z.
During a recent press appearance, Cristiano Ronaldo, who holds the record for the greatest
number of Instagram followers worldwide with 422 million, caused a significant decline in
Coca-Cola's stock value by $4 billion when he removed the coke bottles placed in front of him.
Influencers' dissemination of memes and tweets has been observed to have an impact on the
fluctuation of stock values, either positively or negatively (Ponce-Cueto & Molenat Muelas,
2015). Pakistan's internet user base has been rapidly expanding, reaching 61 million in January
2021, representing a growth of over 11 million users within a year from 2020 to 2021. Based on
the current trend, it is reasonable to estimate that there are presently more than 76 million
individuals using the internet. This accounts for over 70% of the population, excluding those
aged 0-14.

Social media is exerting a significant influence on the decision-making process of the

youth in Pakistan, as it does in many other nations. There are 43 million individuals, which
accounts for 20% of the population, who use Facebook and Twitter. Additionally, 22 million
people, equivalent to 10% of the population, utilize YouTube. WhatsApp is the leading
smartphone application for communication, sharing movies, photographs, and links, with a user
base of over 46 million. Social media platforms will persistently expand, evolve, and transform
as emerging technologies such as metaverse, web3, 5G, and IOT continue to advance. Pakistan

27
must strive to match the progress of these advancements. The populace is swiftly gaining
consciousness of the potency of social media and its sway over decision-makers. Social media
will undeniably dominate the future, shaping public opinion and dictating market trends
(Bouzembrak, Klüche, Gavai, & Marvin, 2019).

From a broader standpoint, the media provides us with extensive knowledge, elevates the
consciousness of individuals, empowers them to speak out against societal injustices, and most
importantly, educates society. An unfettered and fortified media has the potential to foster a
pervasive culture of inclusive democracy, essential human rights, harmonious coexistence,
tolerance, and peace. The media, by serving as a conduit for early warnings, have played a
crucial role in dismantling totalitarian governments, shedding light on severe human rights
abuses, and promoting justice and reconciliation. In addition to providing news, the media can
also be utilized for propaganda purposes in order to accomplish national objectives.

It exerts influence over public opinion, emotions, attitudes, and behaviors with the intention
of benefiting its sponsor. The media influences individuals' perception. It can be effectively used
to influence and shape people's thinking as a sort of propaganda. Psychological warfare can be
initiated much in advance of the commencement of actual military operations. The media, like
other instruments employed by nations, can fulfil several objectives. Media, when functioning
optimally, foster serenity and enhance comprehension. The communication boundaries and
physical boundaries of modern nation-states largely remain distinct and have few similarities
(Pfaltzgraff Jr, 1997).

2.6 Theoretical framework

A theoretical framework is a comprehensive evaluation of established ideas that acts as a

guide for constructing the arguments that will be utilized in one's own research. Researchers
build theories to elucidate occurrences, establish correlations, and formulate predictions. Within
a theoretical framework, one elucidates the prevailing theories that substantiate their research,
demonstrating the pertinence and foundation of their article or dissertation topic in established
concepts. Put simply, your theoretical framework provides a rationale and context for your
subsequent research. A content analysis model is a comprehensive set of procedures used to

28
analyse collections of communications. Lasswell's seminal framework defines content analysis
as the study of "the source, message, medium, audience, and impact" (Torgerson, 2017).

Elo and Kyngäs (2008) gave a model to conduct content analysis and that model will be
used in this study. The model which will be followed is given below.

Figure 2: Content analysis process by (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008)

2.6.1 Analytical process

Content analysis can be in qualitative research and quantitative research as well. It can be applied
in the inductive as well as the deductive reasoning of research process. The aims and objectives
of the study define the selection of content analysis and its type accordingly. The content analysis
can be of different categories. (Lauri & Kyngas, 2005). Inductive or deductive content analysis
approaches have the similar process to be followed initially for the analysis of given data

29
(Kyngas & Vanhanen, 1999). In inductive content analysis, the specific ideas are taken and we
more towards the general ideas in research process to understand some phenomenon. While in
the deductive content analysis strategy, a general idea is taken and the specific details of the
phenomenon are kept into consideration for the final results. (Burns & Grove, 2010). These
methods share comparable preparatory stages.

2.6.1.1 Preparatory phase

Both inductive and deductive analytical methods consist of three primary stages:
preparation, organization, and reporting. However, there is a lack of established guidelines for
analyzing data. The fundamental aspect of content analysis is the classification of the numerous
words in the text into smaller content categories (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008). The preparatory step
commences by choosing the unit of analysis. J. Pandey (2019), the term "word" or "theme" can
be used to refer to a concept or idea, as described by Polit and Beck in 2004. Prior to selecting
the unit of analysis, it is crucial to evaluate the level of detail and the sampling considerations.

These criteria have a significant role in determining what to study. It is necessary that the
sample is representative of the larger population from which it is derived. Probability or
judgement sampling is required when a document is excessively vast to be comprehensively
examined (Appel et al., 2020). A semantic unit might comprise multiple sentences and
encompass multiple semantic interpretations. Therefore, employing it as a fundamental element
for examination renders the process of analysis arduous and demanding (Damota et al., 2019).
Conversely, a restricted analytical unit, such as a single word, might lead to fragmentation
(Happer et al., 2013). The unit of analysis can vary depending on the study issue and may
include elements such as letters, words, sentences, portions of pages or phrases, the number of
participants in a conversation, or the time spent on the discussion (Gunasekaran & Ngai, 2004).

Peel, Larremore, and Clauset (2017) emphasized that the optimal unit of analysis is
complete interviews or observational protocols that are sufficiently comprehensive to be
regarded as a whole, yet compact enough to be held in mind as a contextual framework for the
study of meaning units. At the outset of the analysis, the researcher must make a determination
regarding whether to exclusively analyse the apparent material or also include the latent content.
The objective of analyzing latent content is to observe non-verbal cues such as silence, sighs,

30
laughing, and posture (Taele, Barreto, & Hammond, 2015). There is ongoing discussion on the
feasibility of analyzing hidden meanings in documents, as such analysis typically requires
interpretation. Peel et al. (2017) states that researchers select the contents they evaluate based on
the purpose and research question of the study.

Following the analytical process, the researcher aims to comprehend the data and gain an
understanding of the underlying patterns and dynamics. Bannink et al. (2014) says that this
involves obtaining a holistic perspective on the data. According to Anderson, Rouleau, Bryan,
and Carlson (2003), the key question to consider while analyzing the data is: who is the source of
the information? Where is this occurring? At what point in time did it occur? What is occurring?
For what reason? The objective is to fully engage with the facts, which is why the written
material is thoroughly reviewed multiple times (Burnard 1991, Polit & Beck 2004). Without the
researcher attaining a thorough understanding of the facts, no insights or ideas can emerge (Polit
& Beck, 2004). Once the data has been comprehended, analysis is carried out using either an
inductive or deductive methodology (Andrews & Rapp, 2015).

2.6.1.2 Analysis phase

Once the researcher has opted for inductive content analysis, the subsequent task involves
arranging the qualitative data (Akgun, Greenhow, & Ethics, 2022). This process involves the
initial coding of data, the creation of categories, and the process of abstraction. Open coding
involves the practice of annotating and inserting headings within the text while reading it (Appel
et al., 2020). The written information is carefully reviewed, and any relevant headings are
recorded in the margins to comprehensively describe all parts of the text (Liu & Liu, 2019). The
headings are extracted from the margins and recorded on coding sheets, as described by Cole
(1988), Downe-Wamboldt (1992), and Dey (1993). At this step, categories are formed without
any restrictions, as suggested by (Goddard & Melville, 2004).

Following the completion of this coding process, the various groups are organized and
classified under overarching topics (McCarthy, Minsky, Rochester, & Shannon, 2006) (McCain
1988, Burnard 1991). The purpose of data grouping was to diminish the quantity of categories by
consolidating those that share similarities or differences into more comprehensive higher-level
categories (Brynjolfsson & Mcafee, 2017). Nevertheless, Dey (1993) argues that the act of
31
categorization involves more than just grouping similar or related observations. It entails
classifying data as belonging to a specific group, which necessitates comparing these data with
other observations that do not fall within the same category (Beck, Stern, & Haugsjaa, 1996).
The primary objective of establishing categories is to offer a method of delineating the
phenomenon, hence enhancing comprehension and facilitating the generation of knowledge
(Cavanagh 1997). During the process of inductive content analysis, the researcher use
interpretation to determine which items should be grouped together in categories (Dey 1993).

Abstraction refers to the process of creating a broad and comprehensive description of a

research issue by producing categories. This concept has been discussed by Robson (1993),
Burnard (1996), and Polit & Beck (2004). Each category is labelled with words that describe its
content and characteristics. Categories are formed by grouping subcategories that share similar
events and situations, while primary categories are formed by grouping categories together (P.
Pandey & Pandey, 2021).

Content analysis stands apart from other forms of analysis due to its unique reliance on
data obtained from communication behaviors. Therefore, it is mostly utilized for the purpose of
gathering and examining facts in order to comprehend the interpretations assigned to a certain
matter inside a specific framework (Krippendorf, 1989, p. 403). This process entails extracting
significance regarding attitudes, symbols, cultures, and institutions, from which inferences are
finally derived.

32
 Chapter 3

Research Methodology

In this chapter, the ontology, epistemology, research methodology and research methods
will be discussed. The type of research which will be used in this study, the research tools which
will be implied to conduct this research and the data collection, data analysis techniques are a
part of this chapter.

3.1 Research philosophy

Before starting any research process, the research paradigm and research philosophy is
the most important thing to be kept into consideration. Research philosophy is basically a road
map to conduct research, chose a research methodology, research type, research design and
research methods. Everything depends upon the research philosophy which was selected at first
place. (Boyd et al., 2008). We can choose any research paradigm from realism and idealism. For
the current research, the paradigm of will be used. Epistemology is basically the search for truth
based on the knowledge, facts and figures. . Branthwaite and Patterson (2011) says that the
objective of science is to convert beliefs (doxa) into knowledge (episteme) through a systematic
procedure. In the Western scientific tradition, two primary research philosophies have been
recognized: positivist (sometimes referred to as scientific) and interpretivist (alternatively known
as anti-positivist) (Gallie’s, 1991).

33
 Figure 3: Research Philosophy and research paradigms

3.2 Research Methodology

There are essentially three types of research approaches. Qualitative research,

quantitative research, and mixed technique research. All the three types and their characteristics
will be discussed below. Then the most suitable research approach will be selected for the
current research.

A research methodology included all the techniques and tools which will be implied in
the study. The research type which we select to be appropriate for a study define the whole
research design and the research methods. Basically, research methodology is the most important
thing to be selected which is appropriate to meet the research objectives and the research goals in
the best possible way. The three types of research are qualitative research, quantitative research
and the mixed method research. The research methodology and the type of research selected for
this research will be elaborated below.

34
 Figure 4: Research methodology and types of research

3.2.1 Qualitative research

Qualitative research is a method used to investigate and comprehend the significance that
individuals or groups assign to a social or human situation. The research process encompasses
the formulation of inquiries and methodologies, the collection of data within the participant's
environment, the analysis of data by progressively deriving general themes from specific
instances, and the researcher's evaluation of the data's significance (Cropf, 2008). The ultimate
written report possesses a versatile framework. Practitioners of this type of investigation employ
an inductive approach, starting from facts and progressing to identify themes. They priorities
understanding individual significance and stress the need to accurately depict the intricacies of a
given scenario (Ouyang, Jiao, & Intelligence, 2021).

The chosen research methodology for this study is a qualitative approach, which involves
conducting a thorough and in-depth analysis of many aspects of public opinion creation using
social media. As we want to know about the role of social media on public opinion shaping and
its implications on the social, political and security aspects of Pakistan, a qualitative analysis will
give us more insights about the real happenings which are going on the thought processes and
views of people which are getting formed afterwards.
35
3.3 Research Design

To initiate the study process, an extensive examination of existing literature was carried
out in order to establish a comprehensive conceptual framework. Texts pertaining to the
influence of social media on communities were examined to glean insights on the inherent
capabilities and constraints of this medium (Grant & Osanloo, 2014). The secondary data was
organized to gain a better understanding of how social media is used to influence public opinions
(Haseski, 2019).

3.4 Research Method

The research methodology employed in this study is content analysis. Content analysis is
a research methodology employed to ascertain the occurrence of specific words, topics, or
concepts within qualitative data, such as text. Researchers can employ content analysis to
quantitatively and analytically examine the occurrence, significance, and interconnections of
specific words, topics, or concepts (Agrawal, Gans, & Goldfarb, 2017). For instance, academics
can analyse the linguistic patterns employed in a news story to detect any indications of
prejudice or partiality. Subsequently, researchers can draw deductions on the content of the texts,
the author(s), the intended recipients, and even the cultural and temporal context in which the
text is situated. "A method for deducing conclusions by methodically and impartially identifying
distinctive attributes of messages." (P. Pandey & Pandey, 2021)

Categories of Content Analysis

Content analysis can be broadly categorized into two types: conceptual analysis and
relational analysis (Jones & Jones, 2021). Conceptual analysis is a method used to ascertain the
presence and occurrence rate of concepts inside a given text. Relational analysis expands upon
conceptual analysis by investigating the interconnections between concepts within a text. Each
form of analysis can yield distinct outcomes, findings, interpretations, and significances
(Klimova & Poulova, 2016).

The study will employ conceptual analysis as the method of content analysis. Conceptual
content analysis entails selecting a certain concept for evaluation and then quantifying and

36
counting its occurrence. The primary objective is to analyse the frequency of specific terms in
the data. Terms can be either explicit or implicit. Explicit terms can be readily discerned (Lewis,
Fretwell, Ryan, & Parham, 2013). Encoding implicit terms is a complex task that requires
determining the degree of implication and making subjective judgements, which can pose
challenges to the reliability and validity of the process. Consequently, the coding of implicit
terms necessitates the utilization of a dictionary, contextual translation rules, or a combination of
both (Luan et al., 2020).

Steps for doing a conceptual content analysis are discussed below:

i. Determine the scope of analysis: whether it will be focused on individual words, word
meanings, phrases, sentences, or broader topics.

ii. Determine the number of concepts to be coded by creating a predetermined or interactive

collection of categories or concepts. Make a decision amongst the following options:
Option A is to provide the ability to incorporate additional categories throughout the
coding process, whereas option B is to adhere to the predetermined set of categories.
Option A facilitates the incorporation and evaluation of novel and consequential
information that could have substantial ramifications for one's study inquiry. Option B
enables the researcher to maintain concentration and scrutinize the data for certain
concepts.

iii. Determine whether to code for the presence or occurrence rate of a particular notion. The
decision alters the coding process.

iv. When coding for the presence of a concept, the researcher would consider a concept as
present if it appeared at least once in the data, regardless of the number of times it
appeared. When coding for the frequency of a concept, the researcher would count the
exact number of times a concept appears in a text.

v. Determine the method by which you will differentiate between concepts:

37
 vi. Should text be encoded verbatim or encoded consistently across different formats? For
instance, the comparison between the words "dangerous" and "dangerousness". The
objective is to establish coding guidelines that ensure these word segments are
systematically classified in a coherent manner. The rules have the potential to classify all
of these word segments into a unified category, or alternatively, the rules can be devised
to enable the researcher to differentiate these word segments into distinct codes.

vii. What degree of inference is permissible? Are you referring to terms that suggest the
concept indirectly or words that directly express the concept? For instance, the word
"dangerous" can be used instead of saying "the person is scary" or "that person could
cause harm to me". These word segments may not warrant distinct classifications, given
the inherent connotation of "dangerous".

viii. Establish guidelines for encoding your texts. Once steps 1-4 have been finalized, a
researcher can commence the formulation of guidelines for the conversion of text into
codes. Implementing this approach will ensure that the coding process remains well-
structured and uniform. The researcher has the ability to selectively encode precisely the
desired information. The coding procedure is considered valid when the researcher
demonstrates consistency and coherence in their application of codes, adhering to their
established translation standards. Adhering to the translation principles in content
analysis is synonymous with validity.

ix. Determine the appropriate course of action for dealing with irrelevant information:
should it be disregarded (e.g. common English terms such as "the" and "and"), or should
it be utilized to reassess the coding scheme if it could contribute to the coding outcome?

x. Write the text in code format: This task can be accomplished manually or by utilising
software. Researchers can utilize software to input categories and automate the coding
process, ensuring rapid and efficient results. Manual coding allows a researcher to readily
identify faults such as typographical mistakes and misspellings. By employing computer
programming, it is possible to eliminate errors from text and incorporate all accessible

38
 data. The choice between manual and computer coding is particularly important when
dealing with implicit information that requires careful categorization for precise coding.

xi. Evaluate your findings: Make inferences and derive generalizations whenever feasible.
Decide how to handle text that is not relevant, undesirable, or unused: review again,
disregard, or evaluate the coding scheme. Exercise caution when interpreting the results,
as conceptual content analysis is limited to quantifying the information. Commonly,
overarching trends and patterns can be discerned.

3.5 Sample

The primary dataset for this project consists of behavioral data obtained from publicly
accessible Facebook pages in Pakistan. One significant constraint arises from both technological
challenges and ethical considerations, namely that only data from publicly accessible pages is
gathered. According to Rossi, Schwartz, and Mahnke (2016), the majority of Facebook
engagement occurs within closed groups and private conversations, with a limited number of
individuals actively participating in public forums. To clarify, the intention of the study is not to
make assumptions about how individuals use Facebook. Instead, it aims to investigate the
capacity of social media as a public platform for acquiring political knowledge and developing
new perspectives. Consequently, it is not obligatory for all individuals to engage in equal
measures of participation.

3.6 Data Collection

This thesis focuses on tracking data from Facebook, specifically public pages. Tracking
data from public pages is the predominant method of data collection from Facebook (X. Chen,
Xie, Zou, Hwang, & Intelligence, 2020). This strategy enables researchers to retrieve
comprehensive behavioral data from public pages, encompassing the identities of individuals
who post, react, and remark, as well as the timing of these actions, the specific pages involved,
and the information to which they are responding (Chiu et al., 2023). The data of interest for this
study encompasses all occurrences of the development of public opinion. Identifying all public
pages that may be relevant to political opinion formation is an insurmountable task. However, an
exhaustive effort is made to collect data from various sources, including pages representing

39
politicians, political parties, media organizations, publishers, unions, local communities, NGOs,
charities, public institutions, gossip magazines, local sports clubs, and hobby groups. Instead of
providing a detailed account of all the unprocessed data gathered for each encounter, it is more
beneficial to elucidate the knowledge that can be derived from it. The analysis will be conducted
in the chapter dedicated to data analysis.

40
 Chapter 4

Data analysis

The primary objective of this study was to analyse the three key dimensions through
which the media influences the attitudes of individuals, with the intention of manipulating the
viewpoints of the general public. The main focus and foundation of the research is to ascertain
the ramifications and influences of social media on the formation of public opinion. The data
collected from the Facebook groups was categorized accordingly. In the initial stage, the
pertinent data was encoded to identify the primary themes associated with politics, social issues,
and security factors.

The political posts were gathered from the official pages of political parties and the fan
pages of political figures in order to understand the genuine phenomenon of opinion formation.
The posts regarding social factors, moral dilemmas, and ethical concerns were gathered from
publicly accessible pages intended for the general audience. They communicate their concerns,
difficulties, and life events on these pages. An analysis was conducted on the postings and
comments to ascertain the influence of social media on shaping societal attitudes and altering
individuals' viewpoints. The security aspects were assessed by examining the Facebook pages
that were associated with the military. An analysis was conducted on the fan pages dedicated to
the Pakistan Army, as well as general pages where people discuss security matters, in order to
gain valuable insights on the subject.

Internet-based media or social media are essentially digital adaptations of traditional print
media. The emergence of new media has brought about substantial societal transformations

41
worldwide. societal media platforms like Twitter and Facebook have played a key role in
disseminating news and information, even in underdeveloped nations. A crucial aspect in this
context pertains to the individuals or entities that possess authority over the media unit, as well
as the underlying motives driving such control. Typically, state governments hold the primary
authority, but in numerous instances, the private sector also operates with their own objectives,
such as pursuing business interests or advancing their ideologies, which can occur
simultaneously. These objectives or goals might be either explicit or implicit, and they can
impact the actions taken on relevant media platforms. Likewise, the viewers/audience, users are
also stakeholders engaged in this process.

The role of a certain aspect of social media is primarily influenced by several elements
associated with the characteristics of the media itself, such as the content (news or entertainment)
and the methods employed. The media fulfils various functions in society, such as providing
information, imparting knowledge, and offering entertainment. Various forms of media captivate
a significant portion of our daily free time, particularly through social media platforms such as
WhatsApp, Instagram, YouTube, TikTok, Twitter, and Facebook. Even in children, same types
of activities are documented, where friends, family, and schools are seen as the most significant
influences on socialization.

The significance and influence of social media, regardless of its social, cultural, political,
religious, or economic aspects, is highly crucial. Mass and social media have become
fundamental sources of information for both individuals and society, regardless of their accuracy.
The media also have a substantial impact on the political and democratic processes of a nation.
By disseminating knowledge to the general population, it can contribute to the effective
functioning of a democratic state by providing information about public policies and their
consequences, thereby increasing public awareness. Whether the media plays a helpful or
harmful function, it has a significant impact on human life that requires careful consideration.
The behavior and cognition of individuals, which contribute to the formation of habits and
attitudes, are influenced by various factors. In the present era, media serves as one of the
influential tools that can bring about intricate social transformations.

42
4.1 Political aspects

Politicians, political parties, and governments are progressively adopting social media
platforms like Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram to engage with constituents and influence public
sentiment. Nevertheless, the utilization of social media in politics elicits concerns over the
dissemination of disinformation, manipulation, and the proliferation of hate speech. The content
predominantly featured comments pertaining to political themes. The recurring subject was the
political prejudices, favoritism towards some parties, and the unfavorable sentiments against
other political parties. Social media has emerged as a predominant platform for accessing news,
with the opinions expressed in these posts serving as the sole source of information for those
engaging in discussions. The political parties that exhibited greater activity on social media and
consistently shared positive content about themselves in public groups received a higher number
of likes, indicating their popularity among social media users. These political party pages and fan
groups were filled with numerous posts that portrayed themselves in a positive light while
depicting rival political parties in a negative one. The fans of these pages were sharing same
content that they were being exposed to on various social media networks.

Undoubtedly, social media has profoundly altered the manner in which individuals
engage in political participation by offering a medium for self-expression, fostering the growth
of communities, and facilitating rapid communication. Nevertheless, similar platforms have also
been utilized to disseminate false information and propaganda, resulting in an adverse effect on
political discourse. The proliferation of misinformation, conspiratorial conjectures, and distorted
narratives on social media platforms has contributed to the fragmentation, skepticism, and
deterioration of public dialogue. Moreover, algorithms often priorities sensational or
controversial content over accurate journalism, exacerbating the issue. Conversely, social media
has facilitated the amplification of marginalized voices, enabling direct communication between
individuals and elected officials, and promoting grassroots movements.

4.1.1 The impact of social media on political discourse

The impact of social media on political discourse has been substantial, fundamentally
altering the dynamics of interaction and engagement between politicians, governments, and

43
individuals. Social media has had a profound impact on political discourse by providing a
platform for marginalized perspectives to be voiced. Social media has empowered marginalized
communities by providing them with a platform to express their perspectives, raise awareness
about issues that matter to them, and expand their horizons. This has fostered greater diversity
and inclusivity in political discussions, facilitating the representation of a broader range of
perspectives. However, social media has presented new challenges to political discourse.
Spreading false or misleading material, which can rapidly gain popularity on social media sites,
is a highly challenging endeavour. Consequently, there has been a widespread increase in
conspiracy theories, misinformation, and propaganda, which has created significant challenges in
engaging in political discussions based on factual information.

Moreover, social media algorithms often priorities content that aligns with users' previous
beliefs, leading to the formation of echo chambers that exacerbate partisan divisions and polarize
political discourse. Notwithstanding these challenges, social media is a potent tool for political
communication and engagement. The advent of this technology has empowered citizens to
participate in direct communication with politicians and government agencies, fostering a sense
of involvement and responsibility in the political process. Social media has revolutionized the
management of political campaigns by enabling politicians to access a wider audience and
engage in direct communication with voters. Nevertheless, with the ongoing expansion of social
media and its influence on political discussions, it is imperative to address the challenges it
presents and guarantee that technology upholds democracy and the welfare of society.

4.1.2 The emergence of political propaganda

Political propaganda has transformed into a potent instrument for shaping public
sentiment and exerting influence on political choices. Advancements in digital technology have
enabled propagandists to disseminate their beliefs quickly and effectively through various
channels, such as social media, print and broadcast media, and direct mailings. Propagandists can
utilize various communication channels to specifically target particular demographic groups and
construct narratives that strongly resonate with their intended audience. Political propaganda has
the power to significantly shape individual perspectives and behaviors, leading to the
polarization of political discussions and a decline in trust towards institutional authority.

44
 Moreover, the utilization of propaganda techniques can undermine the integrity of
democratic processes, resulting in the manipulation of elections and the suppression of minority
rights. In order to mitigate these risks, it is imperative for researchers, politicians, and civil
society organizations to work together in order to advance openness and accountability in
political advertising, enhance media literacy education, and safeguard the integrity of democratic
processes by implementing strong election security measures. To safeguard the fundamental
principles of democracy and ensure that the public sphere remains a domain of well-informed
discussions and productive debates, it is imperative to adopt a comprehensive approach to
counter the proliferation of political propaganda. To address this issue, it is crucial to
comprehend the perils associated with propaganda and take measures to minimize its detrimental
effects, while still upholding the principles of free speech and open communication. An informed
and engaged public is essential for a functioning democracy, and this can only be achieved by a
commitment to transparency, responsibility, and adherence to democratic principles.

4.1.3 The influence of social media on political engagement

People can utilize social media platforms to engage with like-minded individuals,
fostering a sense of direction and inspiring political engagement. Nevertheless, social media
presents certain challenges for political involvement. An eminent cause for concern is the
proliferation of false and misleading information, which possesses the capacity to significantly
impact political decision-making. People can experience confusion and deception due to the
dissemination of false news articles, propaganda, and manipulated media, which hinders their
ability to make informed assessments.

Social media algorithms have the ability to generate personalized feeds by analyzing user
behavior, thus limiting exposure to many perspectives and strengthening existing beliefs.
Another concern pertains to the utilization of personal data for political purposes. Social media
corporations sometimes priorities data gathering at the expense of user privacy, leading to
concerns about the potential exploitation of personal information for targeted political marketing
purposes. This has the capacity to strengthen preexisting biases and manipulate public
perception, putting the credibility of political discourse at risk. Ultimately, the growing
dependence on social media for political information and involvement can undermine traditional

45
modes of political participation, such as voting and civic engagement. To ensure that social
media promotes rather than impedes political engagement, it is imperative to address these
challenges. To achieve this, it is necessary to implement stricter regulations on social media
corporations, allocate more resources to media literacy education, and emphasize the importance
of traditional forms of political engagement. By acknowledging the potential hazards of social
media and implementing measures to alleviate them, we may effectively utilize social media's
influence to foster constructive transformation and strengthen our democratic establishments.

4.1.3 The advantages of social media in politics

The political landscape has been transformed by social media, offering numerous
advantages to politicians, individuals, and governments alike. The advent of social media has
revolutionized our engagement with politics and governance, enabling instantaneous
communication and mobilization, as well as providing crucial perspectives and input. Social
media in politics has a notable advantage in promoting transparency and responsibility.
Politicians and government officials have the ability to interact directly with the public via social
media, providing an unprecedented level of openness regarding their actions and policies. Direct
observation allows citizens to watch the actions and performance of their leaders, fostering trust
and confidence.

Social media platforms enable voters to hold elected officials accountable for their
commitments and deeds, ensuring that individuals in positions of power remain responsive to the
needs of the public. Social media facilitates the inclusion and involvement of the general
populace in the political process. Online polls, surveys, and debates empower individuals to
articulate their perspectives and exert influence over governmental decisions. Social media
platforms offer an equitable forum for individuals from all socioeconomic backgrounds to
express their opinions. This fosters a more participative and inclusive kind of democracy,
wherein every individual plays a crucial role in shaping the future of their town and nation.

Furthermore, social media provides valuable feedback and insights into prevailing views
and preferences. Politicians and governments can evaluate the effectiveness of their programmes
and make adjustments by monitoring social media trends and conversations. Social media

46
monitoring can also facilitate the detection of emerging issues and concerns, enabling leaders to
proactively address them. This ensures that policies are aligned with the needs and aspirations of
the whole population, rather than being influenced solely by the interests of a privileged few.
Ultimately, social media can enhance political inclusivity and improve accessibility. Social
media serves as a means of connecting people from different geographical locations, enabling
politicians and citizens of diverse backgrounds to engage and cooperate with each other. Social
media platforms offer inclusive avenues for marginalized groups, granting a voice to individuals
who may otherwise be marginalized from the political sphere. Moreover, social media can
facilitate the connection between urban and rural communities by fostering a sense of unity and
common goals that transcend geographical boundaries. Politicians and governments can enhance
the diversity of their citizens' perspectives by utilising social media, leading to a democracy that
is more inclusive and representative.

4.1.4 The hazards of social media in politics

The impact of social media on politics has been significant, offering numerous benefits
while also posing significant risks. The direct connection between politicians and individuals
offers an unprecedented level of transparency and responsibility. Individuals can utilize social
media platforms to express their opinions and influence government decisions, fostering a more
engaged and all-encompassing kind of democracy. Nevertheless, social networking presents
some apprehensions. The proliferation of false and misleading information, which has the
potential to manipulate public sentiment and undermine trust in democratic establishments, is a
significant cause for concern. Moreover, social media platforms have the ability to strengthen
preexisting biases and generate "filter bubbles" that solidify partisan divisions and impede
endeavour to establish shared understanding.

The use of social media by political actors may lead to infringements on privacy and
cyber assaults, endangering vital data and compromising the integrity of democratic procedures.
In order to combat disinformation, it is imperative to cultivate media literacy and engage in fact-
checking endeavour. Strengthening data protection policies and regulations can help prevent
privacy breaches and cyberattacks. Social media platforms must assume the obligation of
monitoring their platforms and enforcing community norms in order to eradicate hazardous or

47
inappropriate content. Engaging in cross-party collaboration and dialogue can also contribute to
mitigating polarization and tribalism. Political actors can foster an atmosphere of cooperation
and mutual respect by engaging in productive dialogue and actively exploring areas of
agreement. Ultimately, robust cyber security protocols can protect political actors from cyber
threats and safeguard the authenticity of democratic procedures. Ultimately, social media has
transformed the political landscape, offering both opportunities and challenges. Political entities
can harness the potential of social media to enhance democratic processes and enhance the well-
being of individuals by recognizing these risks and implementing measures to alleviate them.

4.1.5 Misleading information and deceptive propaganda

The advent of social media has revolutionized our modes of interpersonal communication
and information consumption. Social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram
have facilitated easier communication and sharing of ideas and experiences among individuals.
Nevertheless, the emergence of social media has given birth to novel concerns, including the
widespread spread of false information and the erosion of personal privacy. This paper aims to
examine the advantages and disadvantages of social media and its impact on society. Firstly,
social media offers numerous benefits. For instance, it allows individuals to establish
connections with others who share similar interests and backgrounds, irrespective of their
geographical location. This can facilitate the establishment of communities and the cultivation of
a sense of belonging. Social media provides a forum for marginalized voices to express
themselves, enabling individuals to highlight important social issues.

Social media can serve as a potent tool for activism and advocacy, empowering
individuals to rally and bring about meaningful transformations. Conversely, social media
possesses specific drawbacks. An issue of utmost significance is the proliferation of
disinformation, which has the potential to have severe and far-reaching societal consequences.
Misinformation proliferates rapidly on social media, often without undergoing fact verification
or being presented with proper context, and is arduous to rectify after it has garnered widespread
attention. This could potentially lead to perplexity, skepticism, and even aggression. Moreover,
as individuals grow more dependent on approval and followers for self-worth, social media can
potentially be addictive and pose risks to mental well-being. Social media enterprises often

48
collect and trade user data, exacerbating concerns around privacy and surveillance.
Notwithstanding these challenges, there are strategies that can be employed to mitigate the
disadvantages of social media and amplify its benefits. For example, social media companies
should implement more rigorous fact-checking policies and enhance the openness of their data
gathering and utilization. To ensure privacy and wellbeing, users can implement additional steps
such as reducing screen time and utilising privacy settings. Ultimately, it is the individual
responsibility of each and every one of us to employ social media in an ethical and accountable
fashion, and to contribute towards the establishment of a more secure and equitable online
milieu.

4.2 Social aspects

Social media has a dual impact on social lives, with both positive and negative effects. It
has the ability to alter social behaviors and beliefs, from before birth to after death, thereby
influencing sociological change. Various theories on mass communication media shed light on
these transformative powers of social media. Social media posts which were analyzed in this
study had different themes and sub themes about the societal issues. The posts encompassed
topics such as religion, economy, moral dilemmas, ethical deliberations, and moral regulation
based on values and religions, among others. Regarding religious matters, the problems of
sectarianism and extremism were observed as subordinate themes in which social media
contributes to the shaping of opinions.

4.2.1 Religious extremism

We cannot deny the positive and negative impacts of social media and the ideologies
which are promoted on these platforms. Religious extremism is one aspect which was evidently
present in these social media posts. The negative image of one religion and one community, the
spread of hatred against the minorities and the negative portrayal of the people who follow the
other religions or belief system seemed to be so common on these posts. The spread of hatred
and angst against certain communities was an evident theme which was analyzed through the
content analysis of the posts which were taken from the public pages of social media. The
masses who were commenting on such posts had so much negativity and hatred because of the

49
influence of what they are exposed to. There is no cross verification of the facts and figures
because of the reach and blind following of the people who are promoting such extremist
ideologies. Negative portrayal of religions was created purposefully by these posts to spread
negativity.

4.2.2 Religious sectarianism

The data analysis of posts clearly represented that sectarianism by the Muslim Facebook
users exist in Pakistan and specifically related to Sunni and Shia. so many posts were seen about
the glorification of one’s own sect and giving negative comments on others sects on daily basis if
someone else was posting some religious stuff, the comments were about bashing their religious
and sectarian inclinations. Everyone in these posts tried to teach others what the religion is and
how should the Ibaadat should be performed according to the teachings of their sect, not
according to religion Islam as a whole.

4.3 Security aspects

From the review of social media posts in relation to the current research topic, it has been
observed that even though digital technologies have revolutionized the world in making
communication easier and flawless, but at the same time it has also influenced operations,
security and morale of armed forces as discussed by (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010). One of the main
aspects that have been observed from majority of the posts is the fact of generation gap among
younger army personnel who are already in contact with using such social media networks and
the senior ones and policy makers who are still going through the process of understanding and
operating this platform along with its full implications. However, there are both positive and
negative elements associated with the use of social media. Since this has taken significant
implication for the effectiveness and efficiency of army operations and policy making.

4.3.1 Implications of social media on security

The review of the social media posts and pages affiliations also depicted and discussed
that social media has taken an important place to military communications. The current research
work aimed to identify the impact of social media on security and narrative building about the

50
armed forces, however the understanding from previous researchers have identified that the use
of social media in armed forces has facilitated in generating new knowledge of the values related
to social media to the Defense ministry, facilitating army personnel and their families along with
the wider community (Gupta, 2017). However, few of the posts have identified several
vulnerabilities and weaknesses with respect to the use of social media by armed forces. It has
also been found from the study that armed forces engaged in wider use of social media are also
exposed to risky online behaviors, identifying alternative ways of communication and
connections, bypassing official protocols through social media (Lusk, 2010).

Furthermore, posts have also highlighted that advents of social media technologies are
crucial to the military experience. It has also been found from the review of different posts and
pages in this regard that majority of armed personnel along with their families have become
‘digital by default’. Facebook and Twitter specifically have been emerged as an important and
significant tool for managing relationships of army personnel during their overseas deployment.
Hence it has become a major coping mechanism for the relatives and families at the time of
separation.

4.3.2 Meaningful use of social media by forces

With the use of social media in considerable broader perspective, the risk concerns
associated with it led to critical threats for the user. The policies and guidelines for the use of
social networking sites are required to be broad and flexible that should also be adaptable enough
to evolve the nature of social networking sites. However, there are proven best practices and
procedural mitigations that can offer a powerful defense against oppositions and adversaries
when followed in proper way (Panayotis, 2016). The armed forces of some countries are required
to work on clear and permanent policy pertaining to social media usage which is flexible and
broad enough to cover all the security gaps that have appeared and will continue to come up with
the advancements in social networking sites and its usage (Matthews & Faulkner, 2013).

However, the findings of the study have also led to conclude that social media has
influenced both the security and armed forces in different manners. Where at one side it has
aided in building relationships in terms of smooth flow of communication, representation of

51
armed forces in spreading authentic information and having contact with their families,
recruitment and reach out people, on the other hand it has served as a path for warfare and cyber
security concern for the users. The user may be prone to critical security issue as the information
or posts he/she shares on the internet may be used by hackers and cyber criminals.

However, in spite of all the technical risks and vulnerabilities linked with social
networking and social media platforms, it is impractical to endeavour to block entrée to rapidly
growing number of social media networks and expect them to be safe from exploitation and
cyber-attacks. Moreover, it has also been found from the discussion that Armed forces are using
social media networks and the use of this medium should not be restricted as the presence of
these social media platforms has become significant for the armed forces. Social media platforms
are actually turned out to be the most effective recruitment medium for military, both from local
and international perspective of any of the country with respect to the perspective of
communicating values, mission and specific selected activities and wider social engagement of
armed forces.

It is also observed from the review of articles that armed forces, irrespective of any
country, has to go a long way in safeguarding networks, personnel and missions, therefore, there
is a need to create an awareness campaign along with robust security features, moreover,
permitting service members to have an access to the sites that support collaboration opportunities
and real-time information.

4.3.3 Use of social media for negative propaganda against forces

When we talk about the opinion shaping characteristics and nature of social media, it was
analyzed in the posts of these pages that a certain narrative is built and created in the masses.
There was a very clear pattern which showed the portrayal of negative image of Armed forces.
This seemed to be a propaganda to make the masses think negatively about the security
institutions. These social media platforms are used to spread some misinformation about the
forces in Pakistan’s Cyberspace.

The atmosphere of anxiety and anarchy is created by the complete planning and plotting.
Military is shown as being powerful and oppressors who are ruling the country since it got

52
independence in these posts on the social media platforms to set a wrong image of security
institute. This type of propagandas promote uncertainty in the people which serves the purpose of
the powerful. The negative image building is a feature o social media and people believe in that
because of the social presence of certain personalities who propagate such negativity. The people
scroll the posts and without double checking the promoted information, the shared posts leave an
imprint on their minds because of the huge and enormous exposure to social media. These threats
and conspiracies were evident in so many posts of Facebook by the people who have a real
presence and people follow them blindly. Fake news and misinformation’s are generated
purposefully with certain hidden agendas which have impact on the opinions of people. They
unwittingly become a weapon for anti-state elements by spreading narratives that undermine
Pakistan's national security, without fully understanding the resulting ramifications.

Chapter 5

Findings and Conclusion

This is the final chapter of the study, concluding the whole research work. The conclusion
is based on the review of literature and discussion of the main findings. Considering the topic of
the research work, some of the recommendations are also given at the end of this chapter.

5.1 Conclusions

From the review and findings of the study in relation to the role of social media in public
opinion shaping and its implications for the social, political and security aspects of Pakistan, it
can be concluded that in the 21st century, social media has actually taken an important place and
has turned out to be an essential tool for the opinion formation of masses. This increased
intervention and adaptation of social media is not only to reach wider audience across the world
for information and recruitment purpose, but also with an aim of new front in warfare, political
scenarios and societal values and norms.

Conflict is a prominent characteristic of the contemporary world. In modern times,

civilians have a significantly greater role in the overall activities of conflicts, however their
53
involvement might range from being victims to actively participating. Furthermore, throughout
the majority of conflicts of the 20th century, states maintained a preoccupation with their
population and the perceived legitimacy of the war, at least on the surface. Following the
conclusion of the Cold War, several battles have ensued, resulting in the loss of thousands of
lives and the immense misery and displacement of millions. Due to the enhanced availability of
social media through current technology, countries are now taking measures to govern and
regulate the influence of media during conflicts. This is done in order to persuade the public of
the just cause and necessity of war.

The 21st century will be characterized by significant problems arising from the
information revolution in the social media. To address these difficulties, it is necessary to
comprehend the role of social media in the previous conflict. Social Media institutions have
undergone globalization processes. This study has focused on its political and social aspects,
with a particular emphasis on its military implications. The fundamental essence of battle
remains unchanged, but its nature is constantly evolving, shifting from physical to non-physical,
from traditional to unconventional, or often a blend of both.

The current global situation is highly unpredictable, unclear, complex, and confusing, and
it is expected to continue being so in the near future. To accurately understand the current
environment, it is important to consider the decreasing limitations of nation-states, the
intertwining of geopolitics and geo-economics, the growing divisions within societies, and the
rapid advancements in technology. These factors collectively impact politics, societies, global
economics and military warfare techniques. Hybrid warfare is a relatively recent concept that
lacks a broadly agreed-upon definition.

The definition and application of the phrase Hybrid Warfare have significantly deviated
from its initial introduction in 2002 by William J. Nemeth. Hybrid warfare refers to the strategic
utilization of both civil and military methods and resources in a coordinated fashion (Damota et
al., 2019). Hybrid Warfare include covert subversion activities that are non-military in nature.
The techniques of economic subversion and propaganda transmission have existed for a long
time (Knox & Technology, 2020). However, they have evolved to embrace current technologies,
making them more relevant in today's world (Koryak, 2017, p.207). Hybrid Wars, as defined by

54
Andrew Koryak, are conflicts that are instigated from outside sources and exploit various factors
such as historical, ethnic, religious, socio-economic, and geographic differences within
strategically important countries. These conflicts progress from Color Revolutions to
Unconventional Wars, with the aim of disrupting, controlling, or influencing transnational
infrastructure projects that connect multiple poles of power. This is achieved through methods
such as adjusting, changing, or restarting the existing regime in power (Koryak, 2017, p.208).

According to (Mäkelä, 2023), hybrid wars are not domestically originated; rather, they
are incited by alien entities that take advantage of pre-existing societal divisions. Within the
backdrop of Pakistan, it is evident that external forces are exploiting our internal divisions, such
as ethnic identity, religious differences, and regional conflicts, in order to engage Pakistan in a
hybrid warfare (Groß, 2003). According to Frank Hoffman, hybrid warfare combines the deadly
nature of traditional state conflicts with the intense and prolonged enthusiasm of irregular
fighting. Hoffman's definition is applicable to the situation in Pakistan, as all the components of
Hybrid warfare are being utilized simultaneously. According to Janis Berezins, the Russians
have prioritized the concept of influence in their operational planning and have employed
various strategies to achieve this, including effective internal communication, deceptive
operations, psychological operations, and well-crafted external communication (Bērziņš, 2014,
p.6). This term is equally applicable to the ongoing hybrid warfare in Pakistan, where non-state
actors are utilising media as a tool. This case study focuses on the role of media in hybrid
warfare in Pakistan

It possesses a sophisticated communication network and engage in deceptive operations

and psychological warfare through the execution of terrorist strikes. The social media in modern
democracies have transitioned from conventional to investigative reporting, which involves not
only reporting on statements but also providing a comprehensive analysis of the problems being
discussed. Similar to numerous developing nations, the Pakistani social media consistently
priorities politics to a significant extent. Politicians and military leaders' statements and tales are
prominently featured in the posts of social media platforms like Instagram, twitter, Facebook and
TikTok etc. Following the 9/11 attacks in the United States, Pakistan has been under intense
scrutiny and attention. The occurrence of frequent acts of terrorism, ongoing efforts to combat

55
terrorism, and the continuously changing geopolitical landscape, particularly since the initiation
of the CPEC project, must not be disregarded.

Our social media actively engages in discussing and generating debate on security
concerns, political issues and social issues. Regrettably, these social media warriors tend to
priorities engaging in discussion forums about political statements made by politicians or
military commanders, rather than adhering to an investigative thoughtful strategy. They
unwittingly become a weapon for anti-state elements by spreading narratives that undermine
Pakistan's national security, without fully understanding the resulting ramifications. The
Pakistani social media is widely regarded as being free, autonomous, and progressively assertive,
and it plays a crucial role in influencing public sentiment. However, in actual, all the social
media platforms are in a race and rush to get more views and followers only, without
investigating the truth or any moral and ethical consideration to promote a true news. Hence,
rather than portraying a favorable image of Pakistan, the social media relies on sensationalism. A
disproportionate amount of time is allocated to post a sponsor-driven propaganda rather than
focusing on the fundamental challenges faced by the population. Without a comprehensive social
media policy that covers all areas, the social media is not regulated and can be used by hostile
states or non-state actors to spread useless propaganda against state institutions, including the
Armed Forces. If the Pakistani media persists in criticizing government policies in the same
manner, the primary obstacle that arises is determining who can effectively showcase the
government's accomplishments and effectiveness to both the local and global population.

The global impact of social media in spreading information and influencing public
opinion has been well recognized. The utilization of the Internet and social media is experiencing
an unparalleled surge. As a leader in technology, social media provides online coverage of a
majority of global events, including some that are not broadcasted live. Although Governments
may desire to maintain secrecy regarding certain operations, news, or events, social media has
made it increasingly difficult to do so. Two videos were live-streamed from Ukraine to document
the confrontation between pro-Russian and pro-Ukrainian protestors. Subsequent to these films,
there was a display of physical conflict at the trade union building, which prompted a flood of
posts on Facebook regarding this regrettable matter.

56
 The significance of social media in Ukraine, Israel, and Syria has demonstrated that this
emerging platform has evolved into a contemporary form of diplomacy that enables direct
communication with individuals and the dissemination of messages, bypassing the need for
traditional media outlets. Over the past decade, social media has thrived and emerged as the
primary means of communication. The rapid progress in technology has revolutionized our
lifestyle in the era of information. The impact of social media on both peace and war is equally
significant. On one hand, it has heightened people's consciousness, facilitated interconnectivity
across areas, and fostered social and economic advancement in societies.

However, technology has also expanded the range of danger domains from traditional to
hybrid, presenting significant difficulties to national security. Social media platforms such as
Facebook and Twitter have played a significant role in empowering individuals to combat issues
such as the infringement of women's rights, child abuse, and corruption. Additionally, these
platforms have facilitated the growth of movements like #metoo and #Timesup. Conversely, the
recent Yellow Vest protests in France, which were sparked by a rise in petrol costs, were
exacerbated by the influence of social media platforms. This was due to the fact that the national
media was not adequately covering the events, but individuals were able to stay informed
through Facebook. According to French journalist Frederic Filous, Facebook is a truthful
representation of people's thoughts and opinions. When it disseminates clearly fabricated news,
such as displaying photographs of demonstrators shot in Spain two years ago or propagates
rumors of tanks poised to strike against the Yellow Vests movement (resulting in 15,000
interactions), the prompt refutation by mainstream media goes unnoticed amidst the cacophony.

Moreover, the utilization of social media as a tool by miscreants is exemplified by the

violent actions carried out by so many movements in response to the decision of the Asia Bibi
case. The violence was being ignored by the national media; however, WhatsApp and Facebook
were extensively utilized to incite chaos within the country. Approximately 70% of internet users
actively utilize social networking websites due to the ease of sharing opinions, staying informed
about current events and trends, and engaging with individuals worldwide. Recent data indicates
that the average internet user possesses.

57
 Social network accounts, significantly amplifying the vulnerability to privacy violations
(Jones & Jones, 2021). These networks offer anonymity, which complicates the problem by
allowing individuals with extreme views to openly spread their ideas without revealing their
identities. This trend is on the rise in Pakistan. On November 8th, 2018, the BBC reported that
Asia Bibi had departed from Pakistan. This news quickly travelled across several media
platforms, including television, print, and social media (BBC News, 2018). The occurrence
instilled a feeling of unease among individuals, as they anticipated a resurgence of widespread
violence. Consequently, the majority of individuals refrained from travelling on the following
day. Currently, the construction of dams is being deliberately stirred up as a controversial topic
on social media in order to create unrest in the country

In the current era, the dissemination of thoughts is facilitated by social networks such as
Facebook, Twitter, and WhatsApp. Policymakers currently face the greatest obstacle in terms of
disaster readiness, shaping public perception, boosting morale among the populace, and
establishing the concept of triumph and resilience on the domestic front as a crucial starting
point. The advent of new media has enabled the production of high-quality content at a reduced
cost compared to traditional media methods, while also ensuring the same or even greater
audience reach. Social media has provided technologically advanced states with a cost-effective
means to pursue their aims by reaching a large population. Conversely, social media has given
rise to security concerns that can only be addressed by educating the general population on the
importance of exercising caution when using social media platforms.

The advent of the technological revolution and the information era has fundamentally
transformed our outlook. Pakistan should implement a thorough social media policy and
strengthen its lobbying efforts to bridge the disparity between the actual state of affairs and the
inaccurate perception of the country. Undoubtedly, conventional media has predominantly
aligned itself with national goals and purposes. To enhance the impact and efficacy of social
media, it is imperative for media policy to incorporate contemporary trends and establish a
framework for self-regulation. government must exert a certain level of authority over them. The
phenomenon of rapid news reporting (known as Breaking News Phobia) without reliable sources
must be addressed promptly by law enforcement agencies through the implementation of
stringent punitive actions against those found responsible.

58
 The media should refrain from sensationalism and priorities the production of high-
quality material. Media programmes should refrain from employing harsh language and utilising
communication technologies that have the potential to incite hostility and violence. The media
should priorities presenting the viewpoint of current subjects while maintaining respect for
others. The media should assist the government in counter-terrorist efforts by providing sensible
and mature coverage of acts of terrorism and violence. They must avoid causing distress and
panic, which is exactly what the terrorists want, therefore undermining the government's
objectives. The media should recognize the responsibility to enhance national security and so, it
should combat the rumors and reports that are contrary to the nation's welfare. Pakistan must
comprehend and acknowledge the possible danger posed by the media and implement effective
measures to counter it. This may be achieved by strengthening its media presence and using the
maximum capabilities of this influential tool.

5.2 Recommendations for future studies

The data for this research work was collected from the posts of Facebook. The other
social media platform can be used for the studies as well. The main focus of this paper was to
investigate the role and significance of social media in public opinion shaping and its
implications on the political, social and security aspects in relation to Pakistan. social media is
the most commonly used platform by the masses and its effects are not limited to these three
aspects only. Our economy, gender roles, priorities, values and even culture is getting effected by
this role of social media. So, the future research can be done on these other aspects which are
influence by the public opinion formation policies of social media. The other studies can get
more quantitative data to know the effects of social media on the opinion of people in figures and
numbers to be more precise as well. So, this research will open new corridors of research on
same directions from other perspectives.

59
60