Work, Power and Energy

WORK, POWER AND ENERGY


1. WORK
Whenever a force acting on a body displaces it, work is said to be done by the force.
Work done by a force is equal to scalar product of force applied and displacement of the body.
Constant

Force Variable force

1.1 Work done by a constant force :
If the direction and magnitude of a force applying on a body is constant, the force is said to be constant.
Work done by a constant force,
W = Force × component of displacement along force = displacement × component of force along
displacement.
 
If a F force is acting on a body at an angle to the horizontal and the displacement r is along the
horizontal, the work done will, be W = (F cos ) r
= F (r cos )
F
Fcos


r
 
In vector from, W = F. r
 
If F  ˆiFx  ˆjFy  kF
ˆ and r  ˆix  ˆjy  kz
z
ˆ , the work done will be, W = F . x + F . y + F . z
x y z
Note : The force of gravity is the example of constant force, hence work done by it is the example of
work done by a constant force.

1.2 Work done by multiple forces:

If several forces act on a particle, then we can replace F in equation W = F . S by the net force where
 F = F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + .....
 W = [ F ] . S ...(i)
This gives the work done by the net force during a displacement of the particle.
We can rewrite equation (i) as :
W = F 1 . S + F 2 . S + F 3 . S + .....
or W = W 1 + W 2 + W 3 + ..........
So, the work done on the particle is the sum of the individual works done by all the forces acting on the
particle.

1.3 Work done by a variable force

If the force applying on a body is changing in its direction or magnitude or both, the force is said to be
variable, suppose a constant force causes displacement in a body from position P1 to position P2. To
calculate the work done by the force the path from P1 to P2 can be divided into infinitesimal element,
each element is so small that during displacement of body through it, the force is supposed to be
 
constant. It d r be small displacement of body and F be the force applying on the body, the work done
 
by force is dW = F .d r ......
(i) The total work done in displacing body from P1 to P2 is given
P2   P2  
by,  dW  
P1
F .d r or W= 
P1
F .d r

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 Work, Power and Energy

F P2


os
Fc
dr

P1
 
If r1 and r2 be the position vectors of the points P1 and P2 respectively, the total work done will be -
r2  
W= 
r1
F.d r

Note : When we consider a block attached to a spring, the force on the block is k times the elongation
of the spring, where k is spring constant. As the elongation changes with the motion of the block,
therefore the force is variable. This is an example of work done by variable force.

1.4 Calculation of work done from force displacement graph :


Suppose a body, whose initial position is r1, is acted upon by a variable force F and consequently the
body acquires its final position r2. From position r to r + dr or for small displacement dr, the work done
will be Fdr whose value will the area of the shaded strip of width dr.
The work done on the body in displacing it from position r 1 to r2 will be equal to the sum of areas of all
the such strips
r2
Thus, total work done, W =  dW
r1

P2
F
P1

M N
O r1 dr r2
r2
=  F.dr
r1

= Area of P1P2NM
The area between the graph between force and displacement axis is equal to the work done.
Note : To calculate the work done by graphical method, for the sake of simplicity, here we have
assumed the direction of force and displacement as same, but if they are not in same direction, the
graph must be plotted between F cos and r.
(i) Work is a scalar quantity
(ii) The dimensions of work : [ML2T–2]
(iii) Unit of work : there are two types of unit of work
(a) Absolute unit : Joule (in M.K.S), Erg (in C.G.S.) (Note : 107 erg = 1 joule)
(b) Gravitational unit : Kilogram - metre (in M.K.S), Gram-cm (in C.G.S)
(Note : 1 kilogram metre = 9.8 joule = 105 gram cm)

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1.5 Work done by spring force

Example 1. Initially spring is relaxed. A person starts pulling the spring by applying a variable force F. Find
out the work done by F to stretch it slowly to a distance by x.

x
x  Kx2  Kx 2
Solution :  dW =  F  ds =  0
K x dx  W= 
 2

 =
0 2

Example 2. In the above example

(i) Where has the work gone ?
(ii) Work done by spring on wall is zero. Why?
(iii) Work done by spring force on man is _______ .
Solution : (i) It is stored in the form of potential energy in spring.
(ii) Zero, as displacement is zero.
1
(iii) – Kx2
2
Example 3. Find out work done by applied force to slowly extend the spring from x to 2x.
Solution : Initially the spring is extended by x
LN

x=0 x=x x = 2x

2x
 
W= .
F ds
2x
2x  Kx 2  3
W= x
K x.dx  W= 
 2
 =
 x 2
Kx2

It can also found by difference of PE.

1 1 2 3 2
i.e. Uf = K (2x)2 = 2kx2  Ui = kx  U f – Ui = kx
2 2 2

1.6 Work done by internal force
Sum of internal forces is zero. But it is not necessary that work done by internal force is zero. There
must be some deformation or reformation between the system to do internal work. In case of a rigid
body work done by internal force is zero.
1.7 Nature of work done
Although work done is a scalar quantity, yet its value may be positive, negative or even zero
 
(a) Positive work : As W = F . r  F r cos 
When is acute (<90º) cos is positive. Hence work done is positive.
(i) When a body falls freely under the action of gravity = 0º, cos  = + 1, therefore work done by
gravity on a body, falling freely is positive.

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(b) Negative work : When is obtuse (>90º), cos is negative. Hence work done is negative
(i) When a body is through up, its motion is opposed by gravity. The angle  between the gravitational
 
force F and displacement r is 180º. As cos = – 1, therefore, work done by gravity is negative.
(ii) When a body is moved over a rough horizontal surface, the motion is opposed by the force of
friction.
Hence work done by frictional force in negative. Note that work done by the applied force is not
negative
(iii) When a positive charge is moved closer to another positive charge, work done by electrostatic force
of repulsion between the charges is negative.
(c) Zero work : When force F or the displacement r or both are zero, work done W, will be zero. Again
when angle between F and r is 90º, the work done will be zero.
(i) When we fail to move a heavy stone, however hard we may try, work done by us is zero r  0
(ii) When a collie carrying some load on his head moves on horizontal platform, = 90º. Therefore,
workdone
by the collie is zero. This is because = 90º
(iii) Tension in the string of simple pendulum is always perpendicular to displacement of the bob.
Therefore,
work done by tension is always zero.
Note : Another way of expressing negative or positive work is that when energy is transferred to the
object
work done is positive and when energy is transferred from object the work done is negative and hence
the
work which is a transfer of energy has same dimensions as energy.


Example 4 A position dependent force F  7  2x  3x2 acts on a small body of mass 2kg and displaces it
from x = 0 to x = 5 m. The work done in joule will be
X2 5 5
 2x 2 3x 3 
W  Fdx   (7  2x  3x )dx  7x     135J
2
Solution :
X1 0  2 3 0

Example 5. A uniform chain of mass M and length L is lying on a frictionless table in such a way that its
1/3 part is hanging vertically down. The work done in pulling the chain up the table is
Solution : If length x of the chain is pulled up on the table, then the length of hanging part of the chain
L  ML 
would be   x  and its weight would be   x  g. If it is pulled up further by a distance dx,
3  L 3 
the work done in pulling up.
L/3
ML  M L  MgL

L  3
 x  gdx

 w  L  3  x  gdx 
0
18

Example 6. The work done in pulling a body of mass 5 kg along an inclined plane (angle 60º) with
coefficient of friction 0.2 through 2m, will be
Solution : The minimum force with a body is to be pulled up along the inclined plane is mg (sin + cos )
Work done, W  F.d
= Fd cos º
= mg (sin +  cos ) × d
= 5 × 9.8 (sin 60º + 0.2 cos 60º) × 2
= 98.08 J

2. ENERGY
The energy of a body is defined as the capacity of doing work.
There are various form of energy
(i) mechanical energy (ii) chemical energy (iii) electrical energy (iv) magnetic energy
(v) nuclear energy (vi) sound energy (vii) light energy etc
 Energy of system always remain constant it can neither be created nor it can be destroyed however it
may be converted from one form to another Example

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Electric energy 

Motor
 Mechanical energy
Mechanical energy 

Generator
Electrical energy
Light energy  
Photocell
Electrical energy
Electrical energy 
Heater
Heat energy
Electrical energy 
Radio
 Sound energy
Nuclear energy 
Nuclear Reactor
 Electrical energy
Chemical energy 
Cell
Electrical energy
Electrical energy 
Secondary Cell
Chemical energy
Heat energy  
Incendence nt lamp
Light
Energy is a scalar quantity
Unit : Its unit is same as that of work or torque.
In MKS : Joule, watt sec
In CGS : Erg
Note : 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 joule
1 KWh = 36 × 105 joule
107 erg = 1 joule
Dimension [M1L2T–2]
 According to Einstein’s mass energy equivalence principle mass and energy are inter convertible i.e.
they can be changed into each other
Energy equivalent of mass m is, E = mc2
Where, m : mass of the particle [in Kg]
c : velocity of light
E : equivalent energy corresponding to mass m.
In mechanis we are concerned with mechanical energy only which is of two type
(a) kinetic energy (ii) potential energy
2.1 Kinetic energy
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy
If a body of mass m is moving with velocity v, its kinetic energy
1
KE = mv2, for translatory motion
2
1
KE = I2, for rotational motion
2
Kinetic energy is always positive
p2 1
If linear momentum of body is p, KE =  mv 2 - for translatory motion
2m 2
J2 1 2
If angular momentum of body is J, KE =  I - for rotational motion
2I 2
p or J  E p : momentum E : kinetic energy

E
E E

2
P 1/P P
The kinetic energy of a moving body is measured by the amount of work which has been done in
bringing the body from the rest position to its present moving position or
The kinetic energy of a moving body is measured by the amount of work which the body can do against
the external forces before it comes to rest.
If a body performs translatory and rotational motion simultaneously, its total kinetic energy =
1 1
mv 2  I2
2 2
3. WORK-ENERGY THEOREM
According to work-energy theorem, the work done by all the forces on a particle is equal to the change
in its kinetic energy.
W C + W NC + W PS = K

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Where, W C is the work done by all the conservative forces.

W NC is the work done by all non-conservative forces.
W PS is the work done by all psuedo forces.
Modified Form of Work-Energy Theorem :
We know that conservative forces are associated with the concept of potential energy, that is
W C = U
So, Work-Energy theorem may be modified as
W NC + W PS = K + U W NC + W PS = E

Example 7. A body of mass m when released from rest from a height h, hits the ground with speed gh .
Find work done by resistive force.
Solution : Identify initial and final state and identify all forces.

W g + W air res. + W int force = K

1
  mgh
2
mgh + W air res + 0 = m gh – 0  W air res. = 
2 2
Example 8. The bob of a simple pendulum of length l is released when the string is horizontal. Find its
speed at the bottom.
Solution : W g + W T = K
A
O

u
B
1
mg + 0 = mu2 – 0  u  2g
2
Example 9. A block is given a speed u up the inclined plane as shown.

u x

µ

Using work energy theorem find out x when the block stops moving.
Solution : W g + W f + W N = K
1 u2
– mg x sin  – µ mgx cos  + 0 = 0 – mu2  x=
2 2g(sin    cos )

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
4. CONSERVATIVE FORCES
A force is said to be conservative if work done by or against the force in moving a body depends only
on the initial and final positions of the body and not on the nature of path followed between the initial
and final positions.

Consider a body of mass m being raised to a height h vertically upwards as show in above figure. The
work done is mgh. Suppose we take the body along the path as in (b). The work done during horizontal
motion is zero. Adding up the works done in the two vertical parts of the paths, we get the result mgh
once again. Any arbitrary path like the one shown in (c) can be broken into elementary horizontal and
vertical portions. Work done along the horizontal parts is zero. The work done along the vertical parts
add up to mgh. Thus we conclude that the work done in raising a body against gravity is independent of
the path taken. It only depends upon the initial and final positions of the body. We conclude from this
discussion that the force of gravity is a conservative force.
Examples of Conservative forces :
(i) Gravitational force, not only due to the Earth but in its general form as given by the universal
law of gravitation, is a conservative force.
(ii) Elastic force in a stretched or compressed spring is a conservative force.
(iii) Electrostatic force between two electric charges is a conservative force.
(iv) Magnetic force between two magnetic poles is a conservative forces.
In fact, all fundamental forces of nature are conservative in nature.
Forces acting along the line joining the centres of two bodies are called central forces. Gravitational
force and Electrostatic forces are two important examples of central forces. Central forces are
conservative forces.
PROPERTIES OF CONSERVATIVE FORCES
(i) Work done by or against a conservative force depends only on the initial and final positions of
the body.
(ii) Work done by or against a conservative force does no depend upon the nature of the path between
initial and final positions of the body.
If the work done a by a force in moving a body from an initial location to a final location is independent
of the path taken between the two points, then the force is conservative.
(iii) Work done by or against a conservative force in a round trip is zero. (w = 0)
If a body moves under the action of a force that does no total work during any round trip, then the force
is conservative; otherwise it is non-conservative.
The concept of potential energy exists only in the case of conservative forces.
(iv) The work done by a conservative force is completely recoverable.

Complete recoverability is an important aspect of the work of a conservative force.

NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES
A force is said to be non-conservative if work done by or against the force in moving a body depends
upon the path between the initial and final positions.
The frictional forces are non-conservative forces. This is because the work done against friction
depends on the length of the path along which a body is moved. It does no depend only on the initial
and final positions. Note that the work done by frictional force in a round trip is not zero.
The velocity-dependent forces such as air resistance, viscous force etc., are non conservative forces.

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S.No. Conservative forces Non-Conservative forces

1 Work done does not depend upon path Work done depends on path.

2 Work done in round trip is zero. Work done in a round trip is not zero.

Forces are velocity-dependent and

3 Central in nature. retarding in nature.

When only a conservative force acts within a Work done against a non-
systrem, the kinetic enrgy and potential energy conservative force may be
4
can change. However their sum, the mechanical dissipated as heat energy.
energy of the system, does not change.

Work done is not completely

5 Work done is completely recoverable.
recoverable.

Example 10. The figure shows three paths connecting points a and b. A single force F does the indicated
work on a particle moving along each path in the indicated direction. On the basis of this
information, is force F conservative?

Ans. No

Explane: For a conservative force, the work done in a round trip should be zero.

Example 11. Find the work done by a force F = x î + y ĵ acting on a particle to displace it from point A (0, 0)

to B(2, 3).

Solution : .
dW = F .ds = (x î + y ĵ ) (dx î + dy ĵ )

2 3
2 3 x2 y2 13
W= 0
xdx + 
0
ydy =   +   =
 2 0  2 0 2
units

True or False

Example 12. In case of a non conservative force work done along two different paths will always be different.
Ans. False

Example 13. In case of non conservative force work done along two different paths may be different.
Ans. True

Example 14. In case of non conservative force work done along all possible paths cannot be same.
Ans. True

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
5. POTENTIAL ENERGY
The energy which a body has by virtue of its position or configuration in a conservation force field
Potential energy is a relative quantity.
Potential energy is defined only for conservative force field.
Potential energy of a body at any position in a conservation force field is defined as the workdone by an
external agent against the action of conservation force in order to shift it from reference point.
(PE = 0) to the present position or.
Potential energy of a body in a conservation force field is equal to the work done by the body in moving
from its present position to reference position.
At reference position, the potential energy of the body is zero or the body has lost the capacity of doing
work.

Relationship between conservative force field and potential energy (U) F = U  grad (U)
U ˆ U ˆ U ˆ
=– i j k
x y z

Example 15. U = 3x2

dU 
Solution : Fx =   F  6xiˆ
dx
If force varies only with one dimension then
x2
dU
F=–
dx
or U   
x1
Fdx

Repulsion forces
U+ve
U-ve r
Attraction forces

Potential energy may be positive or negative

(i) Potential energy is positive, if force field is repulsive in nature
(ii) Potential energy is negative, if force field is attractive in nature 
If r  (separation between body and force centre), U , force field is attractive or vice-versa.
  If r , U , force field is repulsive in nature.

6. POWER
(a) The time rate of doing work is called power

dw  d x
(b) Power =  F.
dt dt
 
In translatory motion : P  F. v
 
In rotational motion : P   . 
(c) It is scalar quantity
(d) Unit :
In MKS - J/sec, watt
In CGS - erg/sec, (Note : 1KW = 103 watt, 1 HP = 746 watt)
(e) Dimension : [M1L2T–3]
Note : Power is the rate at which applied force transfers energy
w
(a) Power P  where w work is done in t time
t
dw
(b) Instantaneous power P = , it’s value may change with time.
dt
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Example 16. A pump can lift 9000 kg coal per hour from a mine of depth 120 m. Assuming its efficiency to be
75% its power will be (in watts) -
work
Solution : Power =
time
ouput power 3 output power
Efficiency of pump = ; =
input power 4 P
3P 3 mgh
Output power =  P =
4 4 t
4 mgh 4 9000  9.8 120
P = =  = 3920 W
3 t 3 3600
Example 17. A person of mass 60 kg is capable of taking a 15 kg massive objets to a height of 10 m in
3 miutes. The efficiency of person is -
work output mgh
Solution : % Efficiency    100 =  100
work input (m  M)gh
 m   15 
=    100 =    100 = 20%
mM  15  60 
Example 18. An automobile of mass m accelerates from rest. If the engine supplies constant power p, the
velocity at time t is given by
Solution : Given that power = Fv = p = constant
dv mdv p v2 p
or m
dt
v p [as F = ma =
dt
or 
v dv 
m 
dt 
2
 t  C1
m
Now as initially, the body is at rest i.e. v = 0 at t = 0 so, C1 = 0
2pt
 v
m
Example 19. In the above problem, the position (s) at time (t) is given by
1/2
ds ds  2pt 
Solution : By definition v  or  [From (1)]
dt dt  m 
1/2 1/2
 2pt   2p  2 3/2
  
ds  
 m 
 dt  s 
m 3
t  C2

1/2
 8p 
Now as t = 0, s = 0, so C2 = 0  s   t3/2
 9m 

7. POTENTIAL ENERGY CURVE
A graph plotted between the PE of a particle and its displacement from the centre of force field is called
PE curve
Using graph, we can predict the rate of motion of a particle at various positions.

dU
Force on the particle is F(x) = –
dx
Case : I On increasing x, if U increase, force is in (–)ve x-direction i.e. attraction force.
Case : II On increasing x, if U decreases, force is in (+)ve x-direction i.e. repulsion force.

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Different positions of a particle

Position of equilibrium
If net force acting on a body is zero, it is said to be in equilibrium for equilibrium
dU
= 0 Points P, Q, R and S are the states of equilibrium positions.
dx
Types of equilibrium :
Stable equilibrium - When a particle is displaced slightly from a position and a force acting on it brings
it back to the initial position, it is said to be in state equilibriums position.
dU d2U
Necessary conditions - = 0,   ve
dx dx 2
Unstable equilibrium : When a particle is displaced slightly from a position and force acting on it tries
to displace the practice further away from the equilibrium position, it is said to be in unstable
equilibrium.
dU d2U
Condition : = 0 potential energy is max i.e. =   ve
dx dx 2
Neutral equilibrium : In the neutral equilibrium potential energy is constant when a particle is
displaced from its position it does not experiences any force to acting on it and continues to be in
equilibrium in the displaced position, it is said to be in neutral equilibrium.

8. MECHANICAL ENERGY :
Definition: Mechanical energy ‘E’ of an object or a system is defined as the sum of kinetic energy ‘K’
and potential energy ‘U’, i.e., E=K+U
Important Points for M.E.:
1. It is a scalar quantity having dimensions [ML2T-2] and SI units joule.
2. It depends on frame of reference.
3. A body can have mechanical energy without having either kinetic energy or potential energy.
However, if both kinetic and potential energies are zero, mechanical energy will be zero. The
converse may or may not be true, i.e., if E = 0 either both PE and KE are zero or PE may be
negative and KE may be positive such that KE + PE = 0.
4. As mechanical energy E = K + U, i.e., E - U = K. Now as K is always positive, E – U  0,i.e., for
existence of a particle in the field, E  U.
5. As mechanical energy E = K + U and K is always positive, so, if ‘U’ is positive ‘E’ will be
positive. However, if potential energy U is negative, ‘E’ will be positive if K > |U| and E will be
negative if K < |U|
i.e., mechanical energy of a body or system can be negative, and negative mechanical energy
means that potential energy is negative and in magnitude it is more than kinetic energy. Such a
state is called bound state, e.g., electron in an atom or a satellite moving around a planet are in
bound state.

Example 20. A small block of mass 100 g is pressed against a horizontal spring fixed at one end to
compress the spring through 5.0 cm (figure). The spring constant is 100 N/m. When released,
the block moves horizontally till it leaves the spring. Where will it hit the ground 2 m below the
spring?

Solution : When block released, the block moves horizontally with speed V till it leaves the spring.
1 1
By energy conservation kx2 = mv2
2 2

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kx 2 kx 2
V2 =  V=
m m
2H
Time of flight t =
g
So. horizontal distance travelled from the free end of the spring is = V × t
kx 2 2H 100  (0.05)2 22
= × = × =1m
m g 0.1 10
So, At a horizontal distance of 1 m from the free end of the spring.

Example 21. A meter scale of mass m initially vertical is displaced at 45º keeping the upper end fixed, the
change in PE will be-
Solution : Work = change in PE = Force × displacement
dU = mg (1  cos )
2

/2 45º G'


G

1 mg  1 
= mg × (1  cos 45º ) (  = 1m) = 1  
2 2  2

Example 22. If the speed of a car increases 4 times, the stopping distance for this will increase by -
Solution : Work = Change in KE
1 1
FS = mv2 – 0 = mv 2
2 2
S' v '2 S'
  2   16  S’ = 16 S
S v S

b c
Example 23. If the potential energy function for a particle is U = a –  the force constant for
x x2
oscillation will be.
b c
Solution : U=a–  .........(1)
x x2
dU b 2c
  2  3 .........(2)
dx x x
dU 1
2
6c 
and   2b  x  .........(3)
dx 2 x 3  
dU
` for equilibrium 0
dx
3
2c d2U  b   6c  b4
 x=  Substituting this value in (3)     2b  
b dx2  2c   2c / b  8c3
d2U
as  K  K = b4/8c3
dx 2

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Problem 1 : On passing through a wooden sheet a bullet looses 1/20 of initial velocity. The minimum
number of sheets required to completely stop the bullet will be-
Solution : Use v2 = u2 + 2as
for a sheet of thickness s v = (19/20)u 
 19   39  u2
   20 u   u  2as  2as = (361/400)u2 – u2 a = – 
2

   400  2s
u2 u2
suppose for n sheet v = 0 02 = u2 + 2a (ns) n = – =  11
2as  39  u2
2  s
 400  2s
Problem 2 : The work done in taking out 2 lit of water using a bucket of mass 0.5 kg from a well of depth 6m
will be-
Solution : W = mgh
= (mbucket + mwater)gh [2 Lit water = 2 kg water]
= (0.5 + 2.00) × 9.8 × 6 = 15 × 9.8 = 147 J
Problem 3 : A body has velocity 200 m/s and its kinetic energy is 200 J. The mass of the body would be
1  2E  2  200 4  102 1
Solution : mv 2  E or m 2    m = 0.01 kg
2  v  (200) 2
4  10 4
100
Problem 4 : A body of mass 8 kg moves under the influence of a force. The position of the body and time
are related as x = 1/2t2 where x is in meter and t in sec. The work done by the force in first two
seconds.
Solution : Work done = change in kinetic energy
2 2 2
1 1  dx  1  2t  1 2 2
or mv 2  m    m     8     16Joules
2 2  dt  2 2 2  2 
Problem 5 : A body falls on the surface of the earth from a height of 20 cm. If after colliding with the earth,
its mechanical energy is lost by 75%, then body would reach upto a height of
1 h 1
Solution : mgh  mgh'   h'    20  5cm
4 4 4
Problem 6 : Potential energy function describing the interaction between two atoms of a diatomic molecule
is
a b
U(x)  12  6
x x
In stable equilibrium, the distance between them would be
Solution : In stable equilibrium potential energy is minimum. For minimum value of U(x)
d
[U(x)]  0
dx
d  a b  12a 6b 6
or   6   0 or  7  0 or 13 ( 2a  bx6 )  0
dx  x12
x  x13
x x
1/6
 2a 
or bx6 – 2a = 0  x 
 b 
Problem 7 : Two electrons are at a distance of 1 × 10–12m from each other. Potential energy (in eV) of this
system would be
Solution : Potential energy of the system
Kq q 9  109  1.6  10 19  1.6  10 19
U 1 2  = 23.04 × 10—17 Joule
r 1 10 12
23.04  10 17
 19
eV  1.44  103 eV
1.6  10

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 Work, Power and Energy

K
Problem 8 : Potential energy function U(r) corresponding to the central force F  would be
r2
Solution : Central force is conservative. Therefore
dU
F(r)   rˆ or dU  F(r).dr  F(r)dr
dr
K 1
  
U  dU   F(r)dr   
2 
dr  K 2 dr  Kr 1  C
r
K
If at r = , U = 0, then C = 0  U = Kr–1 =
r
Problem 9 : The stopping distance for a vehicle of mass m moving with speed v along level road, will be (
is the coefficient of friction between tyres and the road)
Solution : When the vehicle of mass m is moving with velocity v, the kinetic energy of the vehicle
K = 1/2 mv2 and if S is the stopping distance, work done by the friction
W = FS cos  = m MgS cos 180º = – m MgS
So by Work-Energy theorem, W = DK = Kf – ki
v2
 – MgS = 0 – 1/2 Mv2  S=
2g
Problem 10 : A particle of mass m is moving in a horizontal circle of radius r, under a centripetal force equal
to (–k/r2), where k is constant. The total energy of the particle is
Solution : As the particle is moving in a circle, so
mv 2 k 1 k
 2 Now K.E = mv2 =
r r 2 2r
r r
dU k  k
Now as F  
dr

 

P.E, U   F dr    2
r
 dr   r

k k k
So total energy = U + K.E.    
r 2r 2r
Negative energy means that particle is in bound state.
Problem 11 : The work done by a person in carrying a box of mass 10 kg. through a vertical height of 10 m is
4900J. The mass of the person is
Solution : Let the mass of the person is m .
Work done, W = P.E at height h above the earth surface.
= (M + m) gh or 4900 = (M + 10) 9.8 x 10 or M = 40 kg
Problem 12 : A uniform rod of length 4m and mass 20kg is lying horizontal on the ground. The work done in
keeping it vertical with one of its ends touching the ground, will be - .
Solution : As the rod is kept in vertical position the shift in the centre of gravity is equal to the half the
length = l/2
4
Work done w = mgh = mg = 20 x 9.8 x = 392 J
2 2
Problem 13 : A man throws the bricks to the height of 12 m where they reach with a speed of 12 m/sec. If he
throws the bricks such that they just reach this height, what percentage of energy will he save
1
Solution : In first case, W1 = m(v1)2 + mgh
2
1
 m(12)2 + m × 10 × 12
2
= 72 m + 120 m
and in second case, W 2 = mgh
= 120 m
192m  120m
The percentage of energy saved   100  38%
192m

******

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KEY CONCEPT
 Work done by Constant Force :
W= F. S
Since work is the dot product of two vectors therefore it is a scalar quantity.
W = FS cos  or W = (F cos )S

 Work Done by Multiple Forces :

If several forces act on a particle, then we can replace F in equation W = F . S by the net force  F
where
 F = F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + .....
W = [ F ] . S ...(i)
W = F 1 . S + F 2 . S + F 3 . S + .....
or W = W 1 + W 2 + W 3 + ..........
So, the work done on the particle is the sum of the individual works done by all the forces acting on the
particle.
 Dimensions of Work :
[Work] = [Force] [Distance] = [MLT–2] [L] = [ML2T–2]
Work has one dimension in mass, two dimensions in length and ‘–2’ dimensions in time,
 Work in Terms of Rectangular Components :
In terms of rectangular components, F and S may be written as :
F = Fx î + Fy ĵ + Fz k̂ and S = Sx î + Sy ĵ + Sz k̂
F.S = FxSx + Fy Sy + FzSz
 Work Done by a Variable Force :
When the magnitude and direction of a force vary in three dimensions, it can be expressed as a
function of the position. For a variable force work is calculated for infinitely small displacement and for
this displacement force is assumed to be constant
dW = F.ds
The total work done will be sum of infinitely small work
B B


WA B  F.ds  (Fcos )ds
A

A
In terms of rectangular components,
F = Fx î + Fy ĵ + Fz k̂ , ds = dx î + dy ĵ + dz k̂
xB xB xB

WA  B = 
xA
FX dx  
xA
FY dy   F dz
xA
Z

 Relation Between Momentum and Kinetic Energy :

Important Points for K.E.
1. As mass m and v2 ( v.v ) are always positive, kinetic energy is always positive scalar i.e, kinetic energy
can never be negative.
2. The kinetic energy depends on the frame of reference,
p2
K= and P = 2 m K ; P = linear momentum
2m

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 Potential Energy :
In case of conservative force
U2 r2
 U1
dU    r1
F  dr

r2
i.e., U2  U1    r1
F  dr   W , where W is work done by conservative forces

Whenever and wherever possible, we take the reference point at  and assume potential energy to be
zero there, i.e., If we take r1 =  and U1 = 0 then
r
U  
F  dr   W

 Types of Potential Energy :

1 2
(a) Elastic Potential Energy: ky U
2
where k is force constant and ‘y’ is the stretch or compression. Elastic potential energy is always
positive.
(b) Electric Potential Energy: It is the energy associated with charged particles that interact via
electric force. For two point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance ‘r’,
1 q1q2
U
40 r
As charge can be positive or negative, therefore electric potential energy can also be positive or
negative.
(c) Gravitational Potential Energy: It is due to gravitational force. For two particles of masses m 1 and
m2 separated by a distance ‘r’, it is given by:
mm
U  G 1 2
r
which for a body of mass ‘m’ at height ‘h’ relative to surface of the earth reduces to U = mgh
Gravitational potential energy can be positive or negative.
 Mechanical Energy :
Definition: Mechanical energy ‘E’ of an object or a system is defined as the sum of kinetic energy ‘K’
and potential energy ‘U’, i.e.,
E=K+U
 Conservative Forces :
A force is said to be conservative if work done by or against the force in moving a body depends only
on the initial and final positions of the body and not on the nature of path followed between the initial
and final positions.
U
F= –
r
 Conservative Force & Potential Energy :
U
We know that F= –
r
 Types of Equilibrium :
(a) Stable equilibrium : When a particle is displaced slightly from a position and a force acting on
it brings it back to the initial position, it is said to be in stable equilibrium position.
Necessary conditions :-
dU d2U
= 0, and = +ve Potential energy is minimum.
dx dx 2
(b) Unstable Equilibrium : When a particle is displaced slightly from a position and force acting
on it tries to displace the particle further away from the equilibrium position, it is said to be in
unstable equilibrium.
Condition :-
dU d2U
= 0 potential energy is maximum i.e. = = – ve
dx dx 2

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(c) Neutral equilibrium : In the neutral equilibrium potential energy is constant. When a particle is
displaced from its position it does not experience any force acting on it and continues to be in
equilibrium in the displaced position. This is said to be neutral equilibrium.

 Work-Energy Theorem :
According to work-energy theorem, the work done by all the forces on a particle is equal to the change
in its kinetic energy.
W C + W NC + W PS = K
Where, W C is the work done by all the conservative forces.
W NC is the work done by all non-conservative forces.
W PS is the work done by all psuedo forces.

 Modified Form of Work-Energy Theorem :

We know that conservative forces are associated with the concept of potential energy, that is
W C = U
So, Work-Energy theorem may be modified as

W NC + W PS = K + U

W NC + W PS = E


 Power :
Power is defined as the time rate of doing work.

The average power ( P or pav) delivered by an agent is given by

W
P or pav =
t
where W is the amount of work done in time t.

F  dS dS
P = F = F . v
dt dt
By definition of dot product,
P = Fv cos 

where  is the smaller angle between F and . v

This P is called as instantaneous power if dt is very small.

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