CH 7

First-Order Circuits

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 Overview

• Study the source-free response of RC and

RL circuits.
• Study singularity equations and know their
importance in solving linear differential
equations.
• Study the step response of RC and RL
circuits.

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• We carry out the analysis of RC and RL circuits by
applying Kirchhoff’s laws.
• Applying the laws to RC and RL circuits produces
differential equations, which are more difficult to solve
than algebraic equations.
• The differential equations resulting from analyzing RC
and RL circuits are of the first order. Hence, the circuits
are collectively known as first-order circuits.

A first-order circuit is characterized

by a first-order differential equation.

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 The Source-Free RC Circuit
A source-free RC circuit occurs when its dc source is
suddenly disconnected. The energy already stored in the
capacitor is released to the resistors.

Since the capacitor is initially charged, we

can assume that at time t = 0, the initial
voltage is

Applying KCL at the top node of the circuit in

Fig. 7.1 yields

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But from the initial conditions, v(0) = A = V0. Hence,

This shows that the voltage response of the RC circuit is an

exponential decay of the initial voltage. Since the response
is due to the initial energy stored and the physical
characteristics of the circuit and not due to some external
voltage or current source, it is called the natural response
of the circuit.

The natural response of a circuit refers to the

behavior (in terms of voltages and currents) of the
circuit itself, with no external sources of excitation.
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The time constant, , of a circuit is the time required
for the response to decay to a factor of 1∕e or 36.8
percent of its initial value.
This implies that at t = τ, Eq. (7.7) becomes:

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The current iR(t) is found as:

The power dissipated in the resistor is:

The energy absorbed by the resistor up to time t is:

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Example 7.1: In Fig. 7.5, let vC (0) = 15 V. Find vC, vx, and ix for t > 0.
Solution:
We first need to make the circuit in Fig. 7.5 conform with the standard RC
circuit in Fig. 7.1. We find the equivalent resistance or the Thevenin resistance
seen by the capacitor:

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Example 7.2: The switch in the circuit in Fig. 7.8 has been closed for
a long time, and it is opened at t = 0. Find v(t) for t ≥ 0. Calculate the initial
energy stored in the capacitor.

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 The Source-Free RL Circuit
At t = 0, we assume that the inductor has an initial current I0:

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Example 7.3: Assuming that i(0) = 10 A, calculate i(t) and ix(t) in
the circuit of Fig. 7.13.
METHOD 1: The equivalent
resistance is the same as the Thevenin
resistance at the inductor terminals.
Because of the dependent source, we
insert a voltage source with vo = 1 V
at the inductor terminals a-b, as in
Fig. 7.14(a). Applying KVL to the
two loops results in:

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Example 7.4: The switch in the circuit of Fig. 7.16 has been
closed for a long time. At t = 0, the switch is opened. Calculate
i(t) for t > 0.
Solution:
When t < 0, the switch is closed, and the inductor acts as
a short circuit to dc. The 16-Ω resistor is short-circuited;
the resulting circuit is shown in Fig. 7.17(a). To get i1 in
Fig. 7.17(a), we combine the 4-Ω and 12-Ω resistors in
parallel to get:

Using current division:

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When t > 0, the switch is open and the voltage source is
disconnected. We now have the source-free RL circuit in Fig.
7.17(b). Combining the resistors, we have:

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Example 7.5: In the circuit shown in Fig. 7.19, find io, vo, and i for
all time, assuming that the switch was open for a long time.

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 Singularity Functions
Singularity functions are functions that either are discontinuous or
have discontinuous derivatives.

Singularity functions (also called switching functions)

are very useful in circuit analysis. They serve as good
approximations to the switching signals that arise in
circuits with switching operations. They are helpful in the
neat, compact description of some circuit phenomena,
especially the step response of RC or RL circuits to be
discussed in the next sections.

The most widely used singularity functions are: step

function, impulse function, and ramp function.
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The unit step function u(t) is 0 for negative values of t, and 1 for
positive values of t:

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For example, the voltage:

may be expressed in terms of the unit step function as:

A voltage source of V0u(t) is shown in Fig. 7.25(a); its equivalent

circuit is shown in Fig. 7.25(b).

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Similarly, a current source of I0u(t) is shown in Fig.
7.26(a), while its equivalent circuit is in Fig. 7.26(b).
Notice that for t < 0, there is an open circuit (i = 0), and
that i = I0 flows for t > 0.

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The derivative of the unit step function u(t) is the unit impulse
function δ(t), which we write as:

The unit impulse function—also

known as the delta function—is shown
in Fig. 7.27.

The unit impulse function δ(t) is zero everywhere

except at t = 0, where it is undefined.
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Properties of the impulse function:

Sifting
property:

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Integrating the unit step function u(t) results in the unit ramp
function r(t); we write:

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Example 7.6: Express the voltage pulse in Fig. 7.31 in terms of
the unit step. Calculate its derivative and sketch it.
Solution:

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Example 7.7 Express the sawtooth function shown in Fig. 7.35 in
terms of singularity functions.
Solution: METHOD 1. Let v(t) = v1(t) + v2(t) + v3(t)

v(t) = 5r(t) − 5r(t − 2) − 10u(t − 2)

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METHOD 2. A close observation of Fig. 7.35 reveals that v(t) is
a multiplication of two functions: a ramp function and a gate
function. Thus:

v(t) = 5t[u(t) − u(t − 2)] = 5tu(t) − 5tu(t − 2)

= 5r(t) − 5(t − 2 + 2)u(t − 2) = 5r(t) − 5(t − 2)u(t − 2) − 10u(t − 2)
= 5r(t) − 5r(t − 2) − 10u(t − 2)
the same as before.
METHOD 3.
v(t) = 5r(t)u(−t + 2) = 5r(t)[1 − u(t − 2)]

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Example 7.8: Given the signal

Express g(t) in terms of step and ramp functions.

Solution:
g(t) = 3u(−t) − 2[u(t) − u(t − 1)] + (2t − 4)u(t − 1)
= 3u(−t) − 2u(t) + (2t − 4 + 2)u(t − 1)
= 3u(−t) − 2u(t) + 2(t − 1)u(t − 1)
= 3u(−t) − 2u(t) + 2r(t −1)
= 3[1 − u(t)] − 2u(t) + 2r(t − 1) = 3 − 5u(t) + 2r(t − 1)

1 2
t

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Example 7.9

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 Step Response of an RC Circuit
The step response of a circuit is its behavior when the excitation is
the step function, which may be a voltage or a current source.

Applying KCL, we have:

For t > 0, we have:

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Integrating both sides and introducing the initial conditions:

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This is known as the complete
response (or total response) of the RC
circuit.

If we assume that the capacitor is

uncharged initially ( we set V0 = 0):

which can be written alternatively as:

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The current through the capacitor is obtained using i(t) = C dv ∕ dt:

Complete response = natural response + forced response

stored energy independent source

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Complete response = transient response + steady-state response
temporary part permanent part

The transient response is the circuit’s temporary response that

will die out with time:

The steady-state response is the behavior of the circuit a long

time after an external excitation is applied:

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Example 7.10: The switch in Fig. 7.43 has been in position A for a
long time. At t = 0, the switch moves to B. Determine v(t) for t > 0
and calculate its value at t = 1 and 4 s.
Solution: For t < 0:

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For t > 0: τ = RThC = 4 × 103 × 0.5 × 10−3 = 2 s

v(∞) = 30 V

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Example 7.11 In Fig. 7.45, the switch has been closed for a long
time and is opened at t = 0. Find i and v for all time.
Solution:
The resistor current i can be discontinuous at t = 0, while the capacitor
voltage v cannot. Hence, it is always better to find v and then obtain i
from v.

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For t < 0, the switch is closed and 30u(t) = 0:

v = 10 V, i = -10/10 = -1 A.

v(0+) = v(0−) = 10 V.

For t > 0:

i() = 30/(10 + 20) = 1 A.

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Step Response of an RL Circuit

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If I0 = 0, then:

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Example 7.12 Find i(t) in the circuit of Fig. 7.51 for t > 0.
Assume that the switch has been closed for a long time.
Solution: For t < 0, the 3-Ω resistor is short-circuited, and the inductor
acts like a short circuit:

For t >
0:

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Example 7.13 At t = 0, switch 1 in Fig. 7.53 is closed, and
switch 2 is closed 4 s later. Find i(t) for t > 0. Calculate i for t = 2
s and t = 5 s.
Solution:
We need to consider the three
time intervals t ≤ 0, 0 ≤ t ≤ 4,
and t ≥ 4 separately.

For t < 0, switches S1 and S2

are open so that i = 0.

Since the inductor current

cannot change instantly:

i(0−) = i(0) = i(0+) = 0

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For 0 ≤ t ≤ 4, S1 is closed so that the 4- and 6-Ω resistors
are in series. (Remember, at this time, S2 is still open.)
Hence, assuming for now that S1 is closed forever:

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For t ≥ 4, S2 is closed; the 10-V voltage source is connected, and the
circuit changes. This sudden change does not affect the inductor
current because the current cannot change abruptly. Thus, the initial
current is:

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