The Modes of Discourse

Speech events and schemata are important concepts in discourse analysis. It contributes to our
understanding of how language is used in communication.

Speech Event

A speech event refers to a communicative situation or context in which language is used for
specific purposes and within particular social norms and conventions. It involves not only the
verbal exchange but also the broader situational and cultural factors that influence
communication. Speech events can vary widely in terms of their characteristics, participants,
goals, and settings. Key elements of a speech event include:

• Participants: The individuals involved in the communication, including speakers,

listeners, and any other relevant participants.
• Setting: The physical, social, and cultural environment in which the communication takes
place.
• Goals and Purposes: The intended outcomes or objectives of the communication, which
may include exchanging information, expressing emotions, persuading others, etc.
• Norms and Conventions: The shared rules, expectations, and cultural practices that
govern communication within a particular context.
• Speech Acts: The specific acts or utterances performed by speakers to achieve
communicative goals, such as making requests, giving commands, asking questions, etc.

Examples of speech events include:

• Casual conversation between friends at a coffee shop

• Formal business meeting or negotiation
• Classroom lecture or academic presentation
• Religious ceremony or ritual
• Political rally or public speech

Schemata

Schemata (singular: schema) refers to mental frameworks or cognitive structures that individuals
use to organize and interpret information. Schemata are developed through past experiences,
cultural knowledge, and social interactions, and they help individuals make sense of new
information by providing a framework for understanding and categorizing it. In the context of
discourse analysis, schemata influence both the production and comprehension of discourse,
shaping how language is used and interpreted.
Types of schemata include:

• Semantic Schemata: These involve knowledge about the meanings of words, concepts,
and symbols. Semantic schemata help individuals understand the content and significance
of discourse by relating it to their existing knowledge and experiences.
• Syntactic Schemata: These involve knowledge about the grammatical structure and
organization of language. Syntactic schemata help individuals interpret the syntax and
grammar of discourse, enabling them to extract meaning from sentences and texts.
• Pragmatic Schemata: These involve knowledge about the social and cultural conventions
governing language use in specific contexts. Pragmatic schemata help individuals
interpret the intended meanings of discourse by considering factors such as context, tone,
and speaker intentions.

Examples of schemata in discourse analysis:

A person's schema for a "restaurant" includes expectations about the types of food served, the
layout of the establishment, and the typical interactions with waitstaff.

A reader's schema for a "mystery novel" includes expectations about plot structure, character
development, and narrative conventions.

A listener's schema for a "job interview" includes expectations about appropriate behavior,
communication style, and interview questions.

In summary, speech events and schemata are both important concepts in discourse analysis,
providing insight into the social, cognitive, and cultural dimensions of communication. Speech
events help us understand the contextual factors shaping communication, while schemata help us
understand how individuals interpret and make sense of discourse based on their existing
knowledge and cognitive frameworks.

Spoken discourse and written discourse are two primary modes of communication, each with its
own characteristics shaped by factors such as context, audience, medium, and purpose. Here are
some key characteristics that distinguish spoken discourse from written discourse:

Characteristics of Spoken Discourse:

• Immediacy and Interactivity: Spoken discourse occurs in real-time and allows for
immediate interaction between speakers and listeners. It often involves turn-taking,
 interruptions, overlaps, and backchannel cues (e.g., "uh-huh," "yeah") that signal
engagement and participation.
• Temporal Constraints: Spoken discourse is subject to temporal constraints, with speakers
producing language on the fly and adjusting their speech in response to the immediate
context. This can result in spontaneity, hesitations, repairs, and disfluencies (e.g., pauses,
repetitions).
• Paralinguistic Features: Spoken discourse includes paralinguistic features such as
intonation, stress, pitch, volume, and nonverbal cues (e.g., facial expressions, gestures,
body language) that convey additional layers of meaning, emotion, and emphasis.
• Informality: Spoken discourse often exhibits a more informal register compared to
written discourse. It may include colloquial language, contractions, slang, and
conversational fillers that reflect the natural rhythms and norms of everyday speech.
• Contextual Dependence: Spoken discourse relies heavily on contextual cues, shared
knowledge, and situational factors to convey meaning and facilitate understanding.
Participants may draw on shared experiences, cultural references, or shared knowledge to
co-construct meaning.
• Ephemeral Nature: Spoken discourse is typically ephemeral and transient, with utterances
disappearing once they are spoken. While recordings or transcripts can capture spoken
discourse, the live interaction and immediacy of spoken communication cannot be fully
replicated.

Characteristics of Written Discourse:

• Permanent Record: Written discourse provides a permanent record of communication that

can be revisited, analyzed, and preserved over time. It allows for asynchronous
communication, with readers accessing the text at their own pace and convenience.
• Complexity and Elaboration: Written discourse often exhibits greater complexity and
elaboration compared to spoken discourse. It allows for careful planning, revision, and
refinement of language, with writers able to craft nuanced arguments, descriptions, or
narratives.
• Formality: Written discourse tends to be more formal and structured compared to spoken
discourse. It may adhere to grammatical conventions, standard spelling, punctuation, and
formatting norms appropriate for the genre or context.
• Lack of Immediate Feedback: Unlike spoken discourse, written discourse lacks
immediate feedback from the audience. Writers must anticipate their readers' needs,
knowledge, and potential interpretations, as they do not have the benefit of real-time
interaction to clarify or adjust their message.
• Reduced Nonverbal Cues: Written discourse lacks the nonverbal cues present in spoken
discourse, such as intonation, facial expressions, and gestures. Writers must rely solely on
language and textual cues to convey meaning, tone, and emphasis.
 • Planning and Revision: Written discourse allows for careful planning, drafting, and
revision of content. Writers have the opportunity to organize their thoughts, refine their
language, and ensure clarity, coherence, and effectiveness in their communication.

Overall, spoken discourse and written discourse each have unique characteristics that reflect the
dynamics of oral and written communication. While spoken discourse emphasizes immediacy,
interaction, and informal language, written discourse prioritizes permanence, complexity, and
formality. Understanding these differences is essential for effective communication in various
contexts and mediums.

In discourse analysis, the modes of discourse refer to different forms or styles of communication
that are used to convey meaning and achieve specific communicative goals. Each mode of
discourse has its own characteristic features, structures, and conventions, which shape how
information is organized and presented. Understanding the modes of discourse can help analyze
and interpret various types of communication, including written texts, spoken language, visual
media, and digital communication. There are several common modes of discourse:

1. Narrative Mode: The narrative mode involves telling a story or recounting a sequence of
events. Narratives typically have a plot structure, with characters, settings, conflicts, and
resolutions.

Example: A novel, short story, or personal anecdote.

2. Non narrative mode which include:

• Descriptive Mode: The descriptive mode involves providing detailed descriptions or

vivid imagery to evoke sensory experiences and create a sense of place or atmosphere.

Example: A travel brochure, nature writing, or a painting.

• Expository Mode: The expository mode involves explaining, informing, or analyzing a

topic or concept. Expository discourse is characterized by clarity, logical organization,
and the presentation of factual information.

Example: A textbook, academic article, or instructional manual.

• Argumentative Mode: The argumentative mode involves presenting a claim or viewpoint

and supporting it with evidence, reasoning, and persuasive techniques. Argumentative
discourse aims to persuade the audience to accept a particular position or take a specific
action.

Example: An opinion editorial, debate, or legal argument.

• Persuasive Mode: Similar to the argumentative mode, the persuasive mode aims to
influence the attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors of the audience. However, persuasive
 discourse may rely more on emotional appeals, rhetorical devices, and appeals to values
or desires.

Example: Advertising, political speeches, or fundraising appeals.

• Interactive Mode: The interactive mode involves direct interaction and communication
between participants. It includes spoken dialogue, conversation, and other forms of
interactive discourse.

Example: Face-to-face conversation, telephone conversation, or online chat.

• Multimodal Mode: The multimodal mode involves the combination of different modes of
communication, such as text, images, sound, and video. Multimodal discourse can
convey meaning through various sensory channels simultaneously.

Example: A multimedia presentation, website, or advertisement with text, images, and

audio.

• Digital Mode: The digital mode involves communication mediated through digital
technologies, such as the internet, social media, and digital platforms. Digital discourse
may have unique characteristics, including interactivity, immediacy, and global reach.

Example: Social media posts, blogs, emails, or online forums.

These modes of discourse are not mutually exclusive, and texts or communicative acts often
combine elements from multiple modes to achieve their communicative goals. Analyzing the
mode of discourse helps uncover the underlying strategies and conventions used to create
meaning and engage with the audience.

Discourse Structure

Discourse structure refers to the organization and arrangement of elements within a piece of
discourse, whether it's spoken or written. It involves how ideas are sequenced, how sentences
and paragraphs are connected, and how the overall coherence and cohesion of the discourse are
achieved. Understanding discourse structure helps to analyze how meaning is constructed and
conveyed to the audience. There are several key components of discourse structure:

1. Macrostructure:

Macrostructure refers to the overarching organization of the entire discourse, including its main
sections or parts. These parts may include introduction, body, and conclusion in a written text, or
opening, development, and closing in a speech.
Example: In an academic essay, the macrostructure typically consists of an introduction
(providing background information and a thesis statement), body paragraphs (presenting
arguments or evidence), and a conclusion (summarizing key points and providing closure).

2. Microstructure:

Microstructure refers to the organization of smaller linguistic units within the discourse, such as
sentences, paragraphs, and clauses. It involves the sequencing of ideas, the use of transitions, and
the arrangement of information within individual units.

Example: In a paragraph discussing the causes of climate change, the microstructure might
include a topic sentence introducing the main idea, followed by supporting details and examples
arranged in a logical order.

3. Coherence and Cohesion:

Coherence refers to the overall sense of unity and logical flow within the discourse. Cohesion
refers to the linguistic devices used to create connections and relationships between different
parts of the discourse.

Example: Cohesive devices such as pronouns (e.g., "it," "they"), conjunctions (e.g., "and,"
"but"), and lexical repetition help maintain coherence and cohesion by linking ideas and
providing continuity between sentences and paragraphs.

4. Textual Features:

Textual features include elements such as headings, subheadings, bullet points, and formatting
styles that help structure and organize the discourse visually.

Example: In a technical report, headings and subheadings are used to divide the content into
sections and subsections, making it easier for readers to navigate and locate specific information.

5. Rhetorical Structure:

Rhetorical structure refers to the strategic arrangement of discourse elements to achieve

persuasive or communicative goals. It involves considerations such as audience awareness, tone,
and rhetorical appeals.

Example: A persuasive speech may follow a rhetorical structure that includes an attention-
grabbing introduction, a clear thesis statement, supporting arguments with evidence,
counterarguments addressed and refuted, and a memorable conclusion that reinforces the main
message.
Understanding discourse structure allows analysts to identify patterns, strategies, and
conventions used in communication, and to assess how effectively a piece of discourse achieves
its intended purpose and engages with its audience.

Genres or type of discourse

In discourse analysis, genres refer to recognizable patterns or types of communication that are
characterized by specific linguistic, structural, and functional features. Genres are social and
cultural constructs that emerge within particular communities or contexts, shaping how language
is used to achieve communicative goals. Analyzing genres in discourse provides insights into the
conventions, norms, and strategies employed by speakers or writers to create meaning and
interact with their audience. Here are key aspects of genres in discourse analysis:

1. Form and Structure: Genres exhibit characteristic forms and structures that help distinguish
them from other types of communication. This includes features such as organization, layout,
rhetorical devices, and linguistic choices.

Example: The form and structure of a news article typically include a headline, lead paragraph
summarizing the main points, body paragraphs providing details and analysis, and a conclusion.

2. Function and Purpose: Each genre serves specific communicative functions and purposes,
which may include informing, persuading, entertaining, or instructing the audience. The purpose
of a genre influences its content, style, and conventions.

Example: The purpose of an advertisement is to promote a product or service and persuade

consumers to make a purchase.

3. Audience Expectations: Genres are shaped by the expectations and needs of their intended
audience. They fulfill specific audience expectations regarding content, format, tone, and style.

Example: Academic essays are tailored to meet the expectations of academic audiences,
including professors, peers, and researchers, by following conventions such as clear
argumentation, citation of sources, and adherence to academic standards.

4. Contextual Factors: Genres are influenced by the social, cultural, and situational contexts in
which they are used. Contextual factors such as cultural norms, institutional practices, and
historical traditions shape the conventions and conventions of genres.

Example: Legal documents, such as contracts or court judgments, adhere to specific legal
conventions and terminology that reflect the norms and practices of the legal profession.
5. Variability and Hybridity: While genres exhibit recognizable patterns and conventions, they
are not rigid or fixed categories. Genres can vary and evolve over time, and they may also blend
or hybridize with other genres to create new forms of communication.

Example: Digital genres, such as blogs or social media posts, combine elements of traditional
written genres with interactive features and multimedia content.

6. Genre Analysis: Genre analysis in discourse analysis involves examining the characteristics,
functions, and communicative purposes of different genres within specific contexts. It focuses on
identifying the conventions and rhetorical strategies employed in each genre to achieve its goals.

Example: A genre analysis of political speeches might explore the language, rhetoric, and
persuasive techniques used by politicians to appeal to their audience and advance their political
agendas.

Overall, genres play a central role in shaping communication practices and organizing discourse
within social and cultural contexts. Analyzing genres in discourse provides valuable insights into
how language is used to construct meaning, negotiate identities, and enact social roles within
different communities and contexts.

Furthermore, genres or discourse types which refer to specific categories or forms of

communication are characterized by particular structures, conventions, and purposes. They can
be distinguished based on the medium of communication (spoken or written), as well as other
factors such as audience, context, and communicative goals. Understanding genres helps
individuals navigate and interpret different types of discourse effectively. Here are examples of
genres in terms of both spoken and written discourse:

Spoken Discourse Genres are but not limited to:

1. Conversation: Conversations are informal spoken exchanges between individuals or groups.

They typically involve turn-taking, adjacency pairs, and cooperative contributions from
participants.

Example: Casual conversations between friends, family members, or colleagues.

2. Interview: Interviews involve a structured exchange of questions and answers between an

interviewer and one or more interviewees. They can be conducted for various purposes, such as
gathering information, conducting research, or evaluating candidates.

Example: Job interviews, research interviews, or media interviews with public figures.

3. Public Speaking: Public speaking refers to formal spoken presentations delivered to an

audience. It may involve prepared speeches, lectures, presentations, or sermons.

Example: TED Talks, academic lectures, political speeches, or religious sermons.

4. Debate: Debates are structured discussions in which participants present arguments for and
against a specific topic or proposition. They typically follow rules of engagement and may
involve rebuttals and cross-examination.

Example: Formal debates in academic settings, political debates, or debates on current affairs.

5. Storytelling: Storytelling involves recounting narratives or personal experiences to entertain,

educate, or convey cultural values. It often includes elements such as characters, plot, setting,
and themes.

Example: Folk tales, bedtime stories, personal anecdotes, or stand-up comedy routines.

Written Discourse Genres are but not limited to:

1. Narrative: Narratives are written accounts of events, experiences, or stories. They typically
follow a chronological sequence and include elements such as characters, plot, setting, and
conflict.

Example: Novels, short stories, memoirs, or autobiographies.

2. Expository Writing: Expository writing involves presenting information, explaining concepts,

or analyzing topics in a clear and organized manner. It aims to inform, instruct, or persuade
readers.

Example: Textbooks, academic essays, research papers, or instructional manuals.

3. Argumentative Writing: Argumentative writing presents a claim or viewpoint and provides

evidence, reasoning, and analysis to support it. It aims to persuade readers to accept a particular
position or viewpoint.

Example: Persuasive essays, opinion editorials, argumentative essays, or position papers.

4. Journalistic Writing:

Journalistic writing involves reporting news, events, or stories for newspapers, magazines, or
online publications. It follows journalistic conventions such as objectivity, accuracy, and balance.

Example: News articles, feature stories, investigative reports, or opinion columns.

5.Technical Writing: Technical writing communicates specialized information or instructions

related to a particular field or subject. It aims to be clear, concise, and precise.

Example: User manuals, technical reports, scientific papers, or engineering specifications.

These examples illustrate the diversity of genres in both spoken and written discourse, each
serving different purposes, audiences, and contexts. Understanding the conventions and
characteristics of genres helps writers and speakers effectively communicate their messages and
engage with their audiences.