Sampling Error

1.
Sampling and non sampling errors:

Sampling and non-sampling errors are two types of errors commonly encountered in
statistical analysis and research methodologies.
Sampling Errors:
• Sampling errors occur due to the inherent variability between samples and
populations. They arise when the selected sample does not perfectly
represent the entire population being studied.
• Sampling errors are typically a result of using a sample to estimate
population parameters. They can occur due to various factors such as
random chance, sample size, sampling method, or sampling frame.
• Common methods to minimize sampling errors include random sampling,
stratified sampling, cluster sampling, and systematic sampling.
Non-Sampling Errors:
• Non-sampling errors encompass all other sources of error besides those
related to the sampling process itself. These errors can occur at any stage
of the research process, from data collection to data analysis.
• Non-sampling errors can arise due to factors such as faulty data collection
instruments, data entry errors, respondent bias, non-response bias,
measurement error, interviewer effects, and errors in data processing or
analysis.
• Unlike sampling errors, which can be quantified and reduced by increasing
sample size or improving sampling techniques, non-sampling errors are
often more challenging to identify and eliminate.
• To minimize non-sampling errors, researchers should carefully design their
studies, use reliable measurement instruments, ensure data quality control
procedures, and critically assess potential sources of bias throughout the
research process.
2. Biased and unbiased estimator

In statistics, an estimator is a rule or procedure used to estimate a population parameter
based on sample data. Estimators can be classified as either biased or unbiased.
Biased Estimator:
A biased estimator is one whose expected value (or mean) over all possible
samples differs systematically from the true value of the population parameter
being estimated. In other words, a biased estimator tends to consistently
overestimate or underestimate the true value of the parameter.
Unbiased Estimator:
An unbiased estimator is one whose expected value over all possible samples equals the
true value of the population parameter being estimated. In other words, an unbiased
estimator, on average, provides estimates that are not systematically too high or too low
compared to the true parameter value.
3. Sampling with and without replacement
Sampling with and without replacement are two different methods of selecting samples
from a population. Each method has its own implications and is chosen based on the
specific requirements of the study.
Sampling with Replacement:
In sampling with replacement, each selected unit or element is returned to the

population before the next selection is made. This means that the same unit could be
selected more than once in the sample.
• Process:
1. An element is randomly selected from the population.
2. After recording or using the selected element, it is put back into the
population.
3. The process is repeated for each subsequent selection until the
desired sample size is achieved.
• Implications:
• Each selection is independent of previous selections.
• It allows the same unit to be selected multiple times in the sample.
• The probability of selecting any particular unit remains constant
across all selections.
• Suitable for situations where the population is small relative to the
sample size, and precise representation of the population is not
necessary.
• Useful in simulation studies and bootstrapping methods.
Sampling without Replacement:
In sampling without replacement, each selected unit or element is not returned to
the population before the next selection is made. Once an element is selected, it
is excluded from the population for subsequent selections.
• Process:
1. An element is randomly selected from the population.
2. After recording or using the selected element, it is not returned to
the population.
3. The process continues until the desired sample size is achieved,
with each subsequent selection made from the reduced population.
• Implications:
• Each selection affects the probabilities of subsequent selections.
• Once selected, a unit cannot be chosen again.
• The probability of selecting any particular unit changes with each
selection.
• It provides a more accurate representation of the population
because each unit is unique in the sample.
• Commonly used when the population is large relative to the sample
size and when accurate representation of the population is
essential.
In summary, sampling with replacement involves selecting units from the population
and returning them before subsequent selections, while sampling without replacement
involves selecting units without returning them. The choice between these methods
depends on factors such as the size of the population, the desired level of
representativeness, and the specific objectives of the study.

Sampling Error

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1.

Sampling and non sampling errors:

2. Biased and unbiased estimator

3. Sampling with and without replacement

In sampling with replacement, each selected unit or element is returned to the

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