Power factor

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Power factor (pistol).

The power factor of an AC electric power system is defined as the ratio of the real power flowing to the load over

the apparent power in the circuit,[1][2] and is a dimensionless number between 0 and 1. Real power is the capacity of the

circuit for performing work in a particular time. Apparent power is the product of the current and voltage of the circuit. Due to

energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current

drawn from the source, the apparent power will be greater than the real power.

In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws more current than a load with a high power factor for the

same amount of useful power transferred. The higher currents increase the energy lost in the distribution system, and

require larger wires and other equipment. Because of the costs of larger equipment and wasted energy, electrical utilities will

usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial customers where there is a low power factor.

Linear loads with low power factor (such as induction motors) can be corrected with a passive network

of capacitors or inductors. Non-linear loads, such as rectifiers, distort the current drawn from the system. In such cases,

active or passive power factor correction may be used to counteract the distortion and raise the power factor. The devices

for correction of the power factor may be at a central substation, spread out over a distribution system, or built into power-

consuming equipment.

Contents

[hide]

1 Linear circuits

o 1.1 Definition and calculation

o 1.2 Power factor correction of linear loads

2 Non-linear loads

o 2.1 Non-sinusoidal components

o 2.2 Distortion power factor

o 2.3 Switched-mode power supplies

o 2.4 Power factor correction in non-linear loads

 2.4.1 Passive PFC

 2.4.2 Active PFC

3 Importance of power factor in distribution systems

4 Measuring power factor

5 Mnemonics
 6 References

7 External links

[edit]Linear circuits

Instantaneous and average power calculated from AC voltage and current with a unity power factor (φ = 0,cosφ = 1). Since the blue line is above the

axis, all power is real power consumed by the load.

Instantaneous and average power calculated from AC voltage and current with a zero power factor (φ = 90,cosφ = 0). The blue line shows all the

power is stored temporarily in the load during the first quarter cycle and returned to the grid during the second quarter cycle, so no real power is

consumed.
Instantaneous and average power calculated from AC voltage and current with a lagging power factor (φ = 45,cosφ = 0.71). The blue line shows

some of the power is returned to the grid during the part of the cycle labelled φ

In a purely resistive AC circuit, voltage and current waveforms are in step (or in phase), changing polarity at the same

instant in each cycle. All the power entering the load is consumed. Where reactive loads are present, such as

with capacitors or inductors, energy storage in the loads result in a time difference between the current and voltage

waveforms. During each cycle of the AC voltage, extra energy, in addition to any energy consumed in the load, is

temporarily stored in the load in electric or magnetic fields, and then returned to the power grid a fraction of a second later in

the cycle. The "ebb and flow" of this nonproductive power increases the current in the line. Thus, a circuit with a low power

factor will use higher currents to transfer a given quantity of real power than a circuit with a high power factor. A linear load

does not change the shape of the waveform of the current, but may change the relative timing (phase) between voltage and

current.

Circuits containing purely resistive heating elements (filament lamps, cooking stoves, etc.) have a power factor of 1.0.

Circuits containing inductive or capacitive elements (electric motors, solenoid valves, lamp ballasts, and others ) often have

a power factor below 1.0.

[edit]Definition and calculation

AC power flow has the three components: real power (also known as active power) (P), measured in watts (W); apparent

power (S), measured involt-amperes (VA); and reactive power (Q), measured in reactive volt-amperes (var).[3]

The power factor is defined as:

In the case of a perfectly sinusoidal waveform, P, Q and S can be expressed as vectors that form a vector triangle such

that:
If φ is the phase angle between the current and voltage, then the power factor is equal to the cosine of the

angle, , and:

Since the units are consistent, the power factor is by definition a dimensionless number between 0 and 1.

When power factor is equal to 0, the energy flow is entirely reactive, and stored energy in the load returns to

the source on each cycle. When the power factor is 1, all the energy supplied by the source is consumed by

the load. Power factors are usually stated as "leading" or "lagging" to show the sign of the phase angle.

If a purely resistive load is connected to a power supply, current and voltage will change polarity in step, the

power factor will be unity (1), and the electrical energy flows in a single direction across the network in each

cycle. Inductive loads such as transformers and motors (any type of wound coil) consume reactive power

with current waveform lagging the voltage. Capacitive loads such as capacitor banks or buried cable

generate reactive power with current phase leading the voltage. Both types of loads will absorb energy

during part of the AC cycle, which is stored in the device's magnetic or electric field, only to return this energy

back to the source during the rest of the cycle.

For example, to get 1 kW of real power, if the power factor is unity, 1 kVA of apparent power needs to be

transferred (1 kW ÷ 1 = 1 kVA). At low values of power factor, more apparent power needs to be transferred

to get the same real power. To get 1 kW of real power at 0.2 power factor, 5 kVA of apparent power needs to

be transferred (1 kW ÷ 0.2 = 5 kVA). This apparent power must be produced and transmitted to the load in

the conventional fashion, and is subject to the usual distributed losses in the production and transmission

processes.

Electrical loads consuming alternating current power consume both real power and reactive power. The

vector sum of real and reactive power is the apparent power. The presence of reactive power causes the real

power to be less than the apparent power, and so, the electric load has a power factor of less than 1.

[edit]Power factor correction of linear loads

A high power factor is generally desirable in a transmission system to reduce transmission losses and

improve voltage regulation at the load. It is often desirable to adjust the power factor of a system to near 1.0.

When reactive elements supply or absorb reactive power near the load, the apparent power is reduced.

Power factor correction may be applied by an electrical power transmission utility to improve the stability and

efficiency of the transmission network. Individual electrical customers who are charged by their utility for low

power factor may install correction equipment to reduce those costs.

Power factor correction brings the power factor of an AC power circuit closer to 1 by supplying reactive

power of opposite sign, adding capacitors or inductors that act to cancel the inductive or capacitive effects of
the load, respectively. For example, the inductive effect of motor loads may be offset by locally connected

capacitors. If a load had a capacitive value, inductors (also known as reactors in this context) are connected

to correct the power factor. In the electricity industry, inductors are said to consume reactive power and

capacitors are said to supplyit, even though the reactive power is actually just moving back and forth on each

AC cycle.

The reactive elements can create voltage fluctuations and harmonic noise when switched on or off. They will

supply or sink reactive power regardless of whether there is a corresponding load operating nearby,

increasing the system's no-load losses. In the worst case, reactive elements can interact with the system and

with each other to create resonant conditions, resulting in system instability and

severe overvoltagefluctuations. As such, reactive elements cannot simply be applied without engineering

analysis.

1. Reactive Power Control Relay; 2. Network connection points; 3. Slow-blow Fuses; 4. Inrush Limiting Contactors;

5.Capacitors (single-phase or three-phase units, delta-connection); 6. Transformer Suitable voltage transformation to suit

control power (contactors, ventilation,...)

An automatic power factor correction unit consists of a number of capacitors that are switched by means

of contactors. These contactors are controlled by a regulator that measures power factor in an electrical

network. Depending on the load and power factor of the network, the power factor controller will switch the

necessary blocks of capacitors in steps to make sure the power factor stays above a selected value.

Instead of using a set of switched capacitors, an unloaded synchronous motor can supply reactive power.

The reactive power drawn by the synchronous motor is a function of its field excitation. This is referred to as

a synchronous condenser. It is started and connected to the electrical network. It operates at a leading power

factor and puts vars onto the network as required to support a system’s voltage or to maintain the system

power factor at a specified level.

The condenser’s installation and operation are identical to large electric motors. Its principal advantage is the

ease with which the amount of correction can be adjusted; it behaves like an electrically variable capacitor.

Unlike capacitors, the amount of reactive power supplied is proportional to voltage, not the square of voltage;
this improves voltage stability on large networks. Synchronous condensors are often used in connection

with high voltage direct currenttransmission projects or in large industrial plants such as steel mills.

For power factor correction of high-voltage power systems or large, fluctuating industrial loads, power

electronic devices such as the Static VAR compensator or STATCOM are increasingly used. These systems

are able to compensate sudden changes of power factor much more rapidly than contactor-switched

capacitor banks, and being solid-state require less maintenance than synchronous condensers.

[edit]Non-linear loads

A non-linear load on a power system is typically a rectifier (such as used in a power supply), or some kind of

arc discharge device such as a fluorescent lamp, electric welding machine, or arc furnace. Because current

in these systems is interrupted by a switching action, the current contains frequency components that are

multiples of the power system frequency. Distortion power factor is a measure of how much the harmonic

distortion of a load current decreases the average power transferred to the load.

Sinusoidal voltage and non-sinusoidal current give a distortion power factor of 0.75 for this computer power supply load.

[edit]Non-sinusoidal components

Non-linear loads change the shape of the current waveform from a sine wave to some other form. Non-linear

loads create harmonic currents in addition to the original (fundamental frequency) AC current. Filters

consisting of linear capacitors and inductors can prevent harmonic currents from entering the supplying

system.

In linear circuits having only sinusoidal currents and voltages of one frequency, the power factor arises only

from the difference in phase between the current and voltage. This is "displacement power factor". The

concept can be generalized to a total, distortion, or true power factor where the apparent power includes all
harmonic components. This is of importance in practical power systems that contain non-linear loads such

asrectifiers, some forms of electric lighting, electric arc furnaces, welding equipment, switched-mode power

supplies and other devices.

A typical multimeter will give incorrect results when attempting to measure the AC current drawn by a non-

sinusoidal load; the instruments sense the average value of a rectified waveform. The average response is

then calibrated to the effective, RMS value. An RMS sensing multimeter must be used to measure the actual

RMS currents and voltages (and therefore apparent power). To measure the real power or reactive power,

a watt meter designed to work properly with non-sinusoidal currents must be used.

[edit]Distortion power factor

The distortion power factor describes how the harmonic distortion of a load current decreases the average

power transferred to the load.

THDi is the total harmonic distortion of the load current. This definition assumes that the voltage stays
undistorted (sinusoidal, without harmonics). This simplification is often a good approximation in

practice. I1,rms is the fundamental component of the current and Irms is the total current - both are root

mean square-values.

The result when multiplied with the displacement power factor (DPF) is the overall, true power factor or

just power factor (PF):

[edit]Switched-mode power supplies

Main article: switched-mode power supply#Power factor

A particularly important class of non-linear loads is the millions of personal computers that typically

incorporate switched-mode power supplies (SMPS) with rated output power ranging from a few

watts to more than 1 kW. Historically, these very-low-cost power supplies incorporated a simple

full-wave rectifier that conducted only when the mains instantaneous voltage exceeded the voltage

on the input capacitors. This leads to very high ratios of peak-to-average input current, which also

lead to a low distortion power factor and potentially serious phase and neutral loading concerns.

A typical switched-mode power supply first makes a DC bus, using a bridge rectifier or similar

circuit. The output voltage is then derived from this DC bus. The problem with this is that
the rectifier is a non-linear device, so the input current is highly non-linear. That means that the

input current has energy at harmonics of the frequency of the voltage.

This presents a particular problem for the power companies, because they cannot compensate for

the harmonic current by adding simple capacitors or inductors, as they could for the reactive power

drawn by a linear load. Many jurisdictions are beginning to legally require power factor correction

for all power supplies above a certain power level.

Regulatory agencies such as the EU have set harmonic limits as a method of improving power

factor. Declining component cost has hastened implementation of two different methods. To

comply with current EU standard EN61000-3-2, all switched-mode power supplies with output

power more than 75 W must include passive PFC, at least. 80 PLUS power supply certification

requires a power factor of 0.9 or more.[4]

[edit]Power factor correction in non-linear loads

[edit]Passive PFC

The simplest way to control the harmonic current is to use a filter: it is possible to design a filter

that passes current only at line frequency (e.g. 50 or 60 Hz). This filter reduces the harmonic

current, which means that the non-linear device now looks like a linear load. At this point the power

factor can be brought to near unity, using capacitors or inductors as required. This filter requires

large-value high-current inductors, however, which are bulky and expensive.

A passive PFC requires an inductor larger than the inductor in an active PFC, but costs less.[5][6]

This is a simple way of correcting the nonlinearity of a load by using capacitor banks. It is not as

effective as active PFC.[7][8][9][10][11]

Passive PFCs are typically more power efficient than active PFCs. Efficiency is not to be confused

with the PFC, though many computer hardware reviews conflate them.[7] A passive PFC on a

switching computer PSU has a typical power efficiency of around 96%, while an active PFC has a

typical efficiency of about 94%.[12]

[edit]Active PFC

An "active power factor corrector" (active PFC) is a power electronic system that controls the

amount of power drawn by a load in order to obtain a power factor as close as possible to unity. In

most applications, the active PFC controls the input current of the load so that the current

waveform is proportional to the mains voltage waveform (a sine wave). The purpose of making the

power factor as close to unity (1) as possible is to make the load circuitry that is power factor

corrected appear purely resistive (apparent power equal to real power).[13] In this case, the voltage
and current are in phase and the reactive power consumption is zero. This enables the most

efficient delivery of electrical power from the power company to the consumer.[14]

Specifications taken from the packaging of a 610W PC power supply showing Active PFC rating

Some types of active PFC are:

 Boost

 Buck

 Buck-boost

Active power factor correctors can be single-stage or multi-stage.

In the case of a switched-mode power supply, a boost converter is inserted between the bridge

rectifier and the main input capacitors. The boost converter attempts to maintain a constant DC

bus voltage on its output while drawing a current that is always in phase with and at the same

frequency as the line voltage. Another switchmode converter inside the power supply produces the

desired output voltage from the DC bus. This approach requires additional semiconductor switches

and control electronics, but permits cheaper and smaller passive components. It is frequently used

in practice. For example, SMPSwith passive PFC can achieve power factor of about 0.7–0.75,

SMPS with active PFC, up to 0.99 power factor, while a SMPS without any power factor correction

has a power factor of only about 0.55–0.65.[15]

Due to their very wide input voltage range, many power supplies with active PFC can automatically

adjust to operate on AC power from about 100 V (Japan) to 230 V (Europe). That feature is

particularly welcome in power supplies for laptops.

[edit]Importance of power factor in distribution systems

The significance of power factor lies in the fact that utility companies supply customers with volt-

amperes, but bill them for watts. Power factors below 1.0 require a utility to generate more than the

minimum volt-amperes necessary to supply the real power (watts). This increases generation and

transmission costs. For example, if the load power factor were as low as 0.7, the apparent power

would be 1.4 times the real power used by the load. Line current in the circuit would also be 1.4
times the current required at 1.0 power factor, so the losses in the circuit would be doubled (since

they are proportional to the square of the current). Alternatively all components of the system such

as generators, conductors, transformers, and switchgear would be increased in size (and cost) to

carry the extra current.

Utilities typically charge additional costs to customers who have a power factor below some limit,

which is typically 0.9 to 0.95. Engineers are often interested in the power factor of a load as one of

the factors that affect the efficiency of power transmission.

With the rising cost of energy and concerns over the efficient delivery of power, active PFC has

become more common in consumer electronics.[16] Current Energy Star guidelines for computers

(ENERGY STAR Program Requirements for Computers Version 5.0 ) call for a power factor of ≥

0.9 at 100% of rated output in the PC's power supply. According to a white paper authored by Intel

and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, PCs with internal power supplies will require the

use of active power factor correction to meet the ENERGY STAR 5.0 Program Requirements for

Computers.[17]

In Europe, IEC 555-2 requires power factor correction be incorporated into consumer products.[18]

[edit]Measuring power factor

Power factor in a single-phase circuit (or balanced three-phase circuit) can be measured with the

wattmeter-ammeter-voltmeter method, where the power in watts is divided by the product of

measured voltage and current. The power factor of a balanced polyphase circuit is the same as

that of any phase. The power factor of an unbalanced polyphase circuit is not uniquely defined.

A direct reading power factor meter can be made with a moving coil meter of the electrodynamic

type, carrying two perpendicular coils on the moving part of the instrument. The field of the

instrument is energized by the circuit current flow. The two moving coils, A and B, are connected in

parallel with the circuit load. One coil, A, will be connected through a resistor and the second coil,

B, through an inductor, so that the current in coil B is delayed with respect to current in A. At unity

power factor, the current in A is in phase with the circuit current, and coil A provides maximum

torque, driving the instrument pointer toward the 1.0 mark on the scale. At zero power factor, the

current in coil B is in phase with circuit current, and coil B provides torque to drive the pointer

towards 0. At intermediate values of power factor, the torques provided by the two coils add and

the pointer takes up intermediate positions.[19]

Another electromechanical instrument is the polarized-vane type.[20] In this instrument a stationary

field coil produces a rotating magnetic field, just like a polyphase motor. The field coils are

connected either directly to polyphase voltage sources or to a phase-shifting reactor if a single-

phase application. A second stationary field coil, perpendicular to the voltage coils, carries a

current proportional to current in one phase of the circuit. The moving system of the instrument

consists of two vanes that are magnetized by the current coil. In operation the moving vanes take

up a physical angle equivalent to the electrical angle between the voltage source and the current

source. This type of instrument can be made to register for currents in both directions, giving a

four-quadrant display of power factor or phase angle.

Digital instruments can be made that either directly measure the time lag between voltage and

current waveforms and so calculate the power factor, or by measuring both true and apparent

power in the circuit and calculating the quotient. The first method is only accurate if voltage and

current are sinusoidal; loads such as rectifiers distort the waveforms from the sinusoidal shape.