CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1HISTORY
The power factor of an ac electrical power system is defined as the ratio of
the real power absorbed by the load to the apparent power flowing in the circuit, and is
a dimensionless number in the closed interval of −1 to 1. A power factor of less than one
indicates the voltage and current are not in phase, reducing the instantaneous product of
the two. Real power is the instantaneous product of voltage and current and represents the
capacity of the electricity for performing work. Apparent power is the average product of
current and voltage. Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to
a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the
apparent power may be greater than the real power. A negative power factor occurs when
the device (which is normally the load) generates power, which then flows back towards
the source.

In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws more current
than a load with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power transferred.
The higher currents increase the energy lost in the distribution system, and require larger
wires and other equipment. Because of the costs of larger equipment and wasted energy,
electrical utilities will usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial customers
where there is a low power factor.

Power-factor correction increases the power factor of a load, improving efficiency

for the distribution system to which it is attached. Linear loads with low power factor
(such as induction motors) can be corrected with a passive network
of capacitors or inductors. Non-linear loads, such as rectifiers, distort the current drawn
from the system. In such cases, active or passive power factor correction may be used to
counteract the distortion and raise the power factor. The devices for correction of the
power factor may be at a central substation, spread out over a distribution system, or built
into power-consuming equipment.

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1.2 LITERATURE SURVEY
In the previous chapter, concepts of power factor correction, need of power factor
correction and harmonic standards are discussed. In this chapter, the literature survey on
power factor correction is described in detail. The classification of the power factor
correction techniques, different topologies and control strategies used for the power
factor correction are discussed. Then, single-stage & cascaded converters are compared.
Finally, limitations of the existing power factor correction converters are presented and
the research problem is defined.

Christophe Crebier, Bertrand Revol and Jean Paul Ferrieux [45] have reviewed
single-stage PF corrector boost topologies to shape the input current. According to the
authors, the single-ended boost converter is popular for PFC due to the use of a single
active switch and also due to the ease of driving the switch. For high power applications,
the boost inductor increases conduction losses, cost, volume and weight. Also high
voltage rating devices have to be used. Therefore, it is very desirable to use smaller
inductors & lower rating devices. The output of boost converter is higher than the input
voltage. Therefore if output required is less than the input, then boost converter can not
be used. J. R. Rodriguez, J. W. Dixon and et al [14] have explored various PWM
rectifiers in their paper. The buck-type PFC converter has a capability of obtaining low
DC output voltage. In the conventional single-switch buck converter, no doubt the
component count is low but the line current is nonsinusoidal and the power factor is very
poor.

1.3 PROBLEM FORMULATION

(A) DISADVANTAGES OF LOW POWER FACTOR

The power factor plays an important role in a.c. circuits since power consumed
depends upon this factor
𝑃=𝑉𝐼𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛷 (For single phase supply)
Therefore 𝐼=𝑃/𝑉𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛷
𝑃=√3𝑉𝐼𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛷 (for 3phase supply)

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 𝐼=𝑃/√3𝑉𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛷
It is clear from above that for fixed power and voltage, the load current is
inversely proportional to the power factor. Lower the power factor, higher is the load
current and vice versa. A power factor less than unity results in the following
disadvantages.

(i) Large KVA Rating of equipment: the electrical machinery (e.g. alternators,
transformers, switchgear) is always rated in KVA
𝑘𝑉𝐴=𝑘𝑊/𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛷
It is clear that KVA rating of the equipment is inversely proportional to power
factor. The smaller the power factor, the larger is the KVA rating. Therefore at low power
factor, the KVA rating of the equipment has to be made more, making the equipment
larger and expensive.

(ii) Greater Conductor size: To transmit or a fixed amount of power at constant

voltage, the conductor will have to carry more current at low power factor.
This necessitates large conductor size.

(iii) Large copper losses: The large current at low power factor causes more I2R
losses in all the elements of the supply system. This results in poor efficiency.

(iv) Poor voltage regulation: The large current at low lagging power factor
causes greater voltage drops in alternators, transformers, transmission lines
and distributors. This results in the decreased voltage available at the supply
end, thus impairing the performance of utilizing devices. In order to keep the
receiving end voltage within permissible limits, extra equipment (i.e., voltage
regulator) is required.

(v) Reduced handling capacity of system: The lagging power factor reduces the
handling capacity of all the elements of the system. It is because the reactive
component of current prevents the full utilization of installed capacity.

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1.4 OBJECTIVE
It can be concluded that power factor correction techniques can be applied to the
campus, power systems and also households to make them stable and due to that the
system becomes stable and efficiency of the system as well as the apparatus increases.
The use of shunt capacitor reduces the costs. Care should be taken for overcorrection
otherwise the voltage and current becomes more due to which the power system or loads
becomes unstable and the life of capacitor banks reduces. This paper shows an efficient
technique to improve the power factor of a power system by an economical way.

Static capacitors are invariably used for power factor improvement in factories or
distribution line. But this paper presents a system that uses capacitors only when power
factor is low otherwise they are cut off from line. Thus it not only improves the power
factor but also increases the life time of static capacitors. The power factor of any
distribution line can also be improved easily by low cost small rating capacitor. This
system with static capacitor can improve the power factor of any distribution line from
load side. As, if this static capacitor will apply in the high voltage transmission line then
its rating will be unexpectedly large which will be uneconomical & inefficient. So a
variable speed synchronous condenser can be used in any high voltage transmission line
to improve power factor.

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 CHAPTER 2
POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The cosine of angle between voltage and current in an ac circuit is known as
power factor. In an a.c. circuit, there is generally a phase difference between voltage and
current. The term cosΦ is called the power factor of the circuit. If the circuit is inductive,
the current lags behind the voltage and the power factor is referred to as lagging. But in a
capacitive circuit, current leads the voltage and power factor is said to be leading.
Consider an inductive circuit taking a lagging current I from supply voltage V; the angle
of lag being Φ[1-2]. The phasor diagram of the circuit is shown in figure 1. The circuit
current can be resolved into perpendicular components, namely:
a) IcosΦ in phase with V known as active or wattful component.
b) IsinΦ 90ο out of phase with V is called reactive ot wattless component.

Fig 1 Phasor diagram for lagging circuit

The reactive component is a measure of the power factor. If the reactive
component is small, the phase angle Φ is small and hence power factor cos Φ will be

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high. Therefore a circuit having small reactive current(i.e. , IsinΦ) will have high power
factor and vice-versa.
2.2 POWER TRIANGLE
The analysis of power factor can be made in terms of power drawn by the ac
circuit. If each side of the current traingle oab of figure 1 is multiplied by voltage V, then
we get the power triangle oab shown in figure 2.
Where
OA = VICosΦ and represent the active power in watts or kW
AB = VISinΦ and represent the reactive power in VAR or KVAR
OB = VI and represent the apparent power in VA or KVA

Fig 2 Power triangle

The following points may be noted from the power triangle
(i) The apparent power in an a.c. circuit has two components viz., active and
reactive power at right angles to each other.
OB2 = AB2 +AB2
Or (apparent power)2 =(active power)2 + (reactive power )2
Or (kVA)2 = (kW)2 +(kVAR)2
OA active power
(ii) Power factor, CosΦ = OB = apparent power= 𝑘𝑊 𝑘𝑉𝐴

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Thus the power factor of a circuit may also be defined as the ratio of active power to
apparent power.
(iii) The lagging reactive power is responsible for the low power factor. It is clear
from the power triangle that smaller the reactive power component, the higher is the
power factor of the circuit[3-5].
kWSinΦ
𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅 = 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛷 = CosΦ

𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅=𝑘𝑊𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛷

(iv) For leading currents, the power triangle becomes reversed. This fact provides
a key to the power factor improvement. If a dev ice taking leading reactive power (e.g.
capacitor) is connected in parallel with the load, then the lagging reactive power of the
load will c partly neutralized, thus improving the power factor of the load[5].

(v) The power factor of a circuit can be defined in one of the following three
ways:

(a) Power factor = CosΦ = cosine of angle between V and I

Resistance
(b) Power factor = 𝑅𝑍= Impedance

Active power
(c) Power factor = 𝑉𝐼𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛷𝑉𝐼= Apparent Power

(vi) The reactive power is neither consumed in the circuit nor it does any useful
work. It merely flows back and forth in both directions in the circuit. A wattmeter does
not measure reactive power[5-7].
2.3 CAUSES OF LOW POWER FACTOR
Low power factor is undesirable from economic point of view. Normally, the
power factor of the whole load on the supply system is lower than 0.8. The following are
the causes of low power factor [6]:
(i) Most of the ac motors are of induction type (1phase and 3 phase induction
motors) which have low lagging power factor. These motors work at a power factor
which is extremely small on light load (0.2 to 0.3) and rise to 0.8 or 0.9 at full load.

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 (ii) Arc lamps, electric discharge lamps and industrial heating furnaces operate at
low lagging power factor.

(iii) The load on the power system is varying; being high during morning and
evening and low at other times. During low load period, supply voltage is increased
which increases the magnetization current. This results in the decreased power factor.

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 CHAPTER 3
IMPORTANCE OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
3.1 FOR CONSUMERS
A consumer has to pay electricity charges for his maximum demand in KVA plus
the units consumed. If the consumer improves the power factor, then there is a reduction
in his maximum KVA demand and consequently there will be annual saving due to
maximum demand charges. Although power factor improvement involves extra annual
expenditure on account of power factor correction equipment, yet improvement of p.f. to
a proper value results in the net annual saving for the consumer.
3.2 FOR GENERATING STATIONS
A generating station is as much concerned with power factor improvements as the
consumer. The generators in a power station are rated in KVA but the useful output
depends upon KW output.
As station output is∶
𝑘𝑤=𝑘𝑉𝐴𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛷
Therefore number of units supplied by it depends upon the power factor. The
greater the power factor of the generating station, the higher is the KWh it delivers to the
system. This leads to the conclusion that improved power factor increases the earning
capacity of the power station.
3.3 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION CALCULATION
In Power factor calculation, the source voltage and current drawn can be
measured using a voltmeter and ammeter respectively. A wattmeter is used to get the
active power[3].
As 𝑃=𝑉𝐼𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛷 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡
P Wattmeter reading
Or 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛷= VI= voltmeter reading X Ammeter reading

Now calculate the reactive power Q = VI SinΦ VAR.

This reactive power can now be supplied from the capacitor installed in parallel
with load in local. Value of capacitor is calculated as per following formula:
V2 Q
𝑄= Xc , 𝐶= 2πfV2 farad

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 CHAPTER 4
POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT METHODS
4.1 STATIC CAPACITOR
The power factor can be improved by connecting capacitors in parallel with the
equipment operating at lagging power factor. The capacitor (generally known as static
capacitor) draws a leading current and partly or completely neutralizes the lagging
reactive component of load current. This raises the power factor of the load. For three
phase loads, the capacitor can be connected in delta or star as shown in figure 3. Static
capacitors are invariably used for power factor improvement in factories. Table 1shows
advantages and disadvantages of using Static Capacitor.

Fig 3 Static capacitor connected in parallel with the load

Table 1: Advantages and disadvantages of using Static Capacitor
Advantages Disadvantages
low losses. Have short service life ranging from 8 to 10
years.

require little maintenance as there are no Easily damaged if the voltage exceeds the
rotating parts. rated value.

Can be easily installed as they are light and Once the capacitors are damaged, their
require no foundation repair is uneconomical.

Can work under normal atmospheric

conditions

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4.2 SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSORS
A synchronous motor takes a leading current when over-excited and therefore,
bhaves as a capacitor. An over -excited synchronous motor running on no load is known
as synchronous condenser. Whwn such a machine is connected in parallel with the
supply, it takes a leading currennt which partly neutralises the lagging reactive
component of the load. Thus the poor factor is improved. Figure no 4 shows the power
factor improvement by synchronous condenser method.
The 3 phase load takes current IL at low lagging power factor CosΦL. The
synchronous condenser takes a current Im which leads the voltage by an angle Φm. The
resultant current I is the phasor sum of Im and IL and lags behind the voltage by an angle
Φ. It is clear that Φ is less than ΦL so that CosΦ is greater than CosΦL. Thus the power
factor is increased from CosΦL to CosΦ. This method is generally used at major bulk
supply substations for power factor improvement. Table 2 shows advantages and
disadvantages of using Synchronous condenser method

Fig 4 Synchronous condenser method

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TABLE 2: Advantages and disadvantages of using synchronous condenser
METHOD
Advantages Disadvantages
Finer control can be achieved y varying the The cost is higher than static capacitors.
field excitation.
Possibility of overloading a synchronous Higher maintenance and operating cost.
condenser for short periods.
System stability is improved. Lower efficiency due to losses in rotating
parts and heat losses and noise.
The faults can be easily removed Increase of short-circuit currents when the
fault occurs near the synchronous
condenser
Except in sizes above 500kVA, the cost is
greater than that of capacitor method.
An additional equipment is required to start
the synchronous motor, as they has no self-
starting torque

4.3 PHASE ADVANCERS

This method is used to improve the power factor of induction motors. In induction
motor, the stator winding draws exciting current which lags behind the supply voltage by
90°. It leads to low power factor in induction motors. If the excitation is provided from
some other source, then the stator winding will be relieved of exciting current. So the
power factor of the induction motor can be increased. This additional excitation is done
by phase advancers. It is simply known as ac exciter. It is mounted on the same shaft as
the main motor and is connected in the rotor circuit of the motor. It provides the exciting
ampere turns to the rotor circuit at slip frequency. By providing more ampere turns than
required, the induction motor can be made to operate on leading power factor like an
over-excited synchronous motor. Table 3 shows Advantages and disadvantages of using
Phase advancers

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TABLE 3: Advantages and disadvantages of using phase advancers
Advantages Disadvantages
Lagging KVAR drawn by the motor is This method is conveniently used where
drastically reduced due to supply of the use of synchronous condensers are not
exciting ampere-turns at slip frequency possible
This method is conveniently used where
the use of synchronous condensers are not
possible

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 CHAPTER 5
BENEFITS OF POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
5.1 REDUCED DEMAND CHARGES
Most electric utility companies charge for maximum metered demand based on
either the highest registered demand in kilowatts (KW meter), or a percentage of the
highest registered demand in KVA (KVA meter), whichever is greater. If the power
factor is low, the percentage of the measured KVA will be significantly greater than the
KW demand. Improving the power factor through power factor correction will therefore
lower the demand charge, helping to reduce the electricity bill.
5.2 INCREASED LOAD CARRYING CAPABILITIES IN EXISTING
CIRCUITS
Loads drawing reactive power also demand reactive current. Installing power
factor correction capacitors at the end of existing circuits near the inductive loads reduces
the current carried by each circuit. The reduction in current flow resulting from improved
power factor may allow the circuit to carry new loads, saving the cost of upgrading the
distribution network when extra capacity is required for additional machinery or
equipment, saving thousands of dollars in unnecessary upgrade costs. In addition, the
reduced current flow reduces resistive losses in the circuit.
5.3 IMPROVED VOLTAGE
A lower power factor causes a higher current flow for a given load. As the line
current increases, the voltage drop in the conductor increases, which may result in a
lower voltage at the equipment. With an improved power factor, the voltage drop in the
conductor is reduced, improving the voltage at the equipment.
5.4 REDUCED POWER SYSTEM LOSSES
Although the financial return from conductor loss reduction alone is seldom
sufficient to justify the installation of capacitors, it is sometimes an attractive additional
benefit; especially in older plants with long feeders or in field pumping operations.
System conductor losses are proportional to the current squared and, since the current is
reduced in direct proportion to the power factor improvement, the losses are inversely
proportional to the square of the power factor.

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5.5 REDUCED CARBON FOOTPRINT
By reducing the power system’s demand charge through power factor correction,
the utility is putting less strain on the electricity grid, therefore reducing its carbon
footprint. Over time, this lowered demand on the electricity grid can account for
hundreds of tons of reduced carbon production, all thanks to the improvement of power
system’s electrical efficiency via power factor correction.

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 CONCLUSIONS
By observing all aspects of the power factor it is clear that power factor is the
most significant part for the utility company as well as for the consumer. Utility company
rid of from the power losses while the consumer free from low power factor penalty
charges. By installing suitably sized power capacitors into the circuit the power factor is
improved and improving the efficiency of a plant [3].

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 REFERENCES
[1] Osama A.Al-Naseem and Ahmad Kh,Adi, “Impact of Power factor Correction on the
Electrical Network of Kuwait-A case Study”, the online journal on Power and Energy
Engineering (O,JPEE).Vol(2)- no (1)
[2] Sapna Khanchi, Vijay Kumar Garg, “Power factor improvement of induction motor
by using capacitors”, International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology
(IJETT)- volume 4, issue 7- July 2013.
[3] Powerfactorasic.pdf
[4] Hossein Mahvash, Seyed Abbas Taher , Mohsen Rahimi, “A new approach for power
quality improvement of DFIG based wind farms connected to weak utility grid”, Ain
Shams Engineering Journal(September 2015).
[5] T. Izawa, K. Takashima, S. Konabe, T. Yamamoto, “Optimization of thermoelectric
power factor and deviation from Mott’s formula of edge-disordered semiconducting
grapheme”, Synthetic Metals 225 (2017) pg no.98–102 nanoribbons.
[6] Srinivasa Rao Gampa, D. Das , “Optimum placement of shunt capacitors in a radial
distribution system for substation power factor improvement using fuzzy GA method”
Electrical Power and Energy Systems 77 (2016) pg no .314–326.
[7] Ch. Jayasree and B.Sravan Kumar, “Krill Herd Algorithm based Real Power
Generation Reallocation for improvement of Voltage Profile”, 2nd International
Conference on Intelligent Computing, Communication & Convergence (ICCC-2016)
Procedia Computer Science 92 ( 2016 ) pg no. 36 – 41

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