Unit-1

Artificial Intelligence is composed of two words Artificial and Intelligence, where Artificial
defines "man-made," and intelligence defines "thinking power", hence AI means "a man-
made thinking power."

So, we can define AI as:

"It is a branch of computer science by which we can create intelligent machines which can
behave like a human, think like humans, and able to make decisions."

Artificial Intelligence exists when a machine can have human based skills such as learning,
reasoning, and solving problems

With Artificial Intelligence you do not need to preprogram a machine to do some work,
despite that you can create a machine with programmed algorithms which can work with own
intelligence, and that is the awesomeness of AI.

Why Artificial Intelligence?

o With the help of AI, you can create such software or devices which can solve real-
world problems very easily and with accuracy such as health issues, marketing, traffic
issues, etc.
o With the help of AI, you can create your personal virtual Assistant, such as Cortana,
Google Assistant, Siri, etc.
o With the help of AI, you can build such Robots which can work in an environment
where survival of humans can be at risk.
o AI opens a path for other new technologies, new devices, and new Opportunities.

Goals of Artificial Intelligence

Following are the main goals of Artificial Intelligence:

1. Replicate human intelligence

2. Solve Knowledge-intensive tasks
3. An intelligent connection of perception and action
4. Building a machine which can perform tasks that requires human intelligence such as:
o Proving a theorem
o Playing chess
o Plan some surgical operation
o Driving a car in traffic
5. Creating some system which can exhibit intelligent behavior, learn new things by
itself, demonstrate, explain, and can advise to its user.
 To create the AI first we should know that how intelligence is composed, so the Intelligence
is an intangible part of our brain which is a combination of Reasoning, learning, problem-
solving perception, language understanding, etc.

To achieve the above factors for a machine or software Artificial Intelligence requires the
following discipline:

o Mathematics
o Biology
o Psychology
o Sociology
o Computer Science
o Neurons Study
o Statistics

Advantages of Artificial Intelligence

Following are some main advantages of Artificial Intelligence:

o High Accuracy with less errors: AI machines or systems are prone to less errors and
high accuracy as it takes decisions as per pre-experience or information.
o High-Speed: AI systems can be of very high-speed and fast-decision making, because
of that AI systems can beat a chess champion in the Chess game.
o High reliability: AI machines are highly reliable and can perform the same action
multiple times with high accuracy.
o Useful for risky areas: AI machines can be helpful in situations such as defusing a
bomb, exploring the ocean floor, where to employ a human can be risky.
 o Digital Assistant: AI can be very useful to provide digital assistant to the users such
as AI technology is currently used by various E-commerce websites to show the
products as per customer requirement.
o Useful as a public utility: AI can be very useful for public utilities such as a self-
driving car which can make our journey safer and hassle-free, facial recognition for
security purpose, Natural language processing to communicate with the human in
human-language, etc.

Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence

Following are the disadvantages of AI:

o High Cost: The hardware and software requirement of AI is very costly as it requires
lots of maintenance to meet current world requirements.
o Can't think out of the box: Even we are making smarter machines with AI, but still
they cannot work out of the box, as the robot will only do that work for which they
are trained, or programmed.
o No feelings and emotions: AI machines can be an outstanding performer, but still it
does not have the feeling so it cannot make any kind of emotional attachment with
human, and may sometime be harmful for users if the proper care is not taken.
o Increase dependency on machines: With the increment of technology, people are
getting more dependent on devices and hence they are losing their mental capabilities.
o No Original Creativity: As humans are so creative and can imagine some new ideas
but still AI machines cannot beat this power of human intelligence and cannot be
creative and imaginative.

Application of AI

1. AI in Astronomy
o Artificial Intelligence can be very useful to solve complex universe problems. AI
technology can be helpful for understanding the universe such as how it works, origin,
etc.

2. AI in Healthcare
o In the last, five to ten years, AI becoming more advantageous for the healthcare
industry and going to have a significant impact on this industry.
o Healthcare Industries are applying AI to make a better and faster diagnosis than
humans. AI can help doctors with diagnoses and can inform when patients are
worsening so that medical help can reach to the patient before hospitalization.

3. AI in Gaming
o AI can be used for gaming purpose. The AI machines can play strategic games like
chess, where the machine needs to think of a large number of possible places.
4. AI in Finance
o AI and finance industries are the best matches for each other. The finance industry is
implementing automation, chatbot, adaptive intelligence, algorithm trading, and
machine learning into financial processes.

5. AI in Data Security
o The security of data is crucial for every company and cyber-attacks are growing very
rapidly in the digital world. AI can be used to make your data more safe and secure.
Some examples such as AEG bot, AI2 Platform,are used to determine software bug
and cyber-attacks in a better way.

6. AI in Social Media
o Social Media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, and Snapchat contain billions of user
profiles, which need to be stored and managed in a very efficient way. AI can
organize and manage massive amounts of data. AI can analyze lots of data to identify
the latest trends, hashtag, and requirement of different users.

7. AI in Travel & Transport

o AI is becoming highly demanding for travel industries. AI is capable of doing various
travel related works such as from making travel arrangement to suggesting the hotels,
flights, and best routes to the customers. Travel industries are using AI-powered
chatbots which can make human-like interaction with customers for better and fast
response.

8. AI in Automotive Industry
o Some Automotive industries are using AI to provide virtual assistant to their user for
better performance. Such as Tesla has introduced TeslaBot, an intelligent virtual
assistant.
o Various Industries are currently working for developing self-driven cars which can
make your journey more safe and secure.

9. AI in Robotics:
o Artificial Intelligence has a remarkable role in Robotics. Usually, general robots are
programmed such that they can perform some repetitive task, but with the help of AI,
we can create intelligent robots which can perform tasks with their own experiences
without pre-programmed.
o Humanoid Robots are best examples for AI in robotics, recently the intelligent
Humanoid robot named as Erica and Sophia has been developed which can talk and
behave like humans.

10. AI in Entertainment
o We are currently using some AI based applications in our daily life with some
entertainment services such as Netflix or Amazon. With the help of ML/AI
algorithms, these services show the recommendations for programs or shows.
11. AI in Agriculture
o Agriculture is an area which requires various resources, labor, money, and time for
best result. Now a day's agriculture is becoming digital, and AI is emerging in this
field. Agriculture is applying AI as agriculture robotics, solid and crop monitoring,
predictive analysis. AI in agriculture can be very helpful for farmers.

12. AI in E-commerce
o AI is providing a competitive edge to the e-commerce industry, and it is becoming
more demanding in the e-commerce business. AI is helping shoppers to discover
associated products with recommended size, color, or even brand.

13. AI in education:
o AI can automate grading so that the tutor can have more time to teach. AI chatbot can
communicate with students as a teaching assistant.
o AI in the future can be work as a personal virtual tutor for students, which will be
accessible easily at any time and any place.

History of Artificial Intelligence

Maturation of Artificial Intelligence (1943-1952)

o Year 1943: The first work which is now recognized as AI was done by Warren
McCulloch and Walter pits in 1943. They proposed a model of artificial neurons.
o Year 1949: Donald Hebb demonstrated an updating rule for modifying the
connection strength between neurons. His rule is now called Hebbian learning.
o Year 1950: The Alan Turing who was an English mathematician and pioneered
Machine learning in 1950. Alan Turing publishes "Computing Machinery and
Intelligence" in which he proposed a test. The test can check the machine's ability to
exhibit intelligent behavior equivalent to human intelligence, called a Turing test.

The birth of Artificial Intelligence (1952-1956)

o Year 1955: An Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon created the "first artificial
intelligence program "Which was named as "Logic Theorist". This program had
proved 38 of 52 Mathematics theorems, and find new and more elegant proofs for
some theorems.
o Year 1956: The word "Artificial Intelligence" first adopted by American Computer
scientist John McCarthy at the Dartmouth Conference. For the first time, AI coined as
an academic field.

At that time high-level computer languages such as FORTRAN, LISP, or COBOL were
invented. And the enthusiasm for AI was very high at that time.

The golden years-Early enthusiasm (1956-1974)

 o Year 1966: The researchers emphasized developing algorithms which can solve
mathematical problems. Joseph Weizenbaum created the first chatbot in 1966, which
was named as ELIZA.
o Year 1972: The first intelligent humanoid robot was built in Japan which was named
as WABOT-1.

The first AI winter (1974-1980)

o The duration between years 1974 to 1980 was the first AI winter duration. AI winter
refers to the time period where computer scientist dealt with a severe shortage of
funding from government for AI researches.
o During AI winters, an interest of publicity on artificial intelligence was decreased.

A boom of AI (1980-1987)

o Year 1980: After AI winter duration, AI came back with "Expert System". Expert
systems were programmed that emulate the decision-making ability of a human
expert.
o In the Year 1980, the first national conference of the American Association of
Artificial Intelligence was held at Stanford University.

The second AI winter (1987-1993)

o The duration between the years 1987 to 1993 was the second AI Winter duration.
o Again Investors and government stopped in funding for AI research as due to high
cost but not efficient result. The expert system such as XCON was very cost effective.

The emergence of intelligent agents (1993-2011)

o Year 1997: In the year 1997, IBM Deep Blue beats world chess champion, Gary
Kasparov, and became the first computer to beat a world chess champion.
o Year 2002: for the first time, AI entered the home in the form of Roomba, a vacuum
cleaner.
o Year 2006: AI came in the Business world till the year 2006. Companies like
Facebook, Twitter, and Netflix also started using AI.

Deep learning, big data and artificial general intelligence (2011-present)

o Year 2011: In the year 2011, IBM's Watson won jeopardy, a quiz show, where it had
to solve the complex questions as well as riddles. Watson had proved that it could
understand natural language and can solve tricky questions quickly.
o Year 2012: Google has launched an Android app feature "Google now", which was
able to provide information to the user as a prediction.
o Year 2014: In the year 2014, Chatbot "Eugene Goostman" won a competition in the
infamous "Turing test."
 o Year 2018: The "Project Debater" from IBM debated on complex topics with two
master debaters and also performed extremely well.
o Google has demonstrated an AI program "Duplex" which was a virtual assistant and
which had taken hairdresser appointment on call, and lady on other side didn't notice
that she was talking with the machine.

Now AI has developed to a remarkable level. The concept of Deep learning, big data, and
data science are now trending like a boom. Nowadays companies like Google, Facebook,
IBM, and Amazon are working with AI and creating amazing devices. The future of Artificial
Intelligence is inspiring and will come with high intelligence.

Turing Test in AI

In 1950, Alan Turing introduced a test to check whether a machine can think like a human or
not, this test is known as the Turing Test. In this test, Turing proposed that the computer can
be said to be an intelligent if it can mimic human response under specific conditions.

Turing Test was introduced by Turing in his 1950 paper, "Computing Machinery and
Intelligence," which considered the question, "Can Machine think?"

The Turing test is based on a party game "Imitation game," with some modifications. This
game involves three players in which one player is Computer, another player is human
responder, and the third player is a human Interrogator, who is isolated from other two
players and his job is to find that which player is machine among two of them.

Consider, Player A is a computer, Player B is human, and Player C is an interrogator.

Interrogator is aware that one of them is machine, but he needs to identify this on the basis of
questions and their responses.
The conversation between all players is via keyboard and screen so the result would not
depend on the machine's ability to convert words as speech.

The test result does not depend on each correct answer, but only how closely its responses
like a human answer. The computer is permitted to do everything possible to force a wrong
identification by the interrogator.

The questions and answers can be like:

Interrogator: Are you a computer?

PlayerA (Computer): No

Interrogator: Multiply two large numbers such as (256896489*456725896)

Player A: Long pause and give the wrong answer.

In this game, if an interrogator would not be able to identify which is a machine and which is
human, then the computer passes the test successfully, and the machine is said to be
intelligent and can think like a human.

"In 1991, the New York businessman Hugh Loebner announces the prize competition,
offering a $100,000 prize for the first computer to pass the Turing test. However, no AI
program to till date, come close to passing an undiluted Turing test".

Chatbots to attempt the Turing test:

ELIZA: ELIZA was a Natural language processing computer program created by Joseph
Weizenbaum. It was created to demonstrate the ability of communication between machine
and humans. It was one of the first chatterbots, which has attempted the Turing Test.

Parry: Parry was a chatterbot created by Kenneth Colby in 1972. Parry was designed to
simulate a person with Paranoid schizophrenia(most common chronic mental disorder).
Parry was described as "ELIZA with attitude." Parry was tested using a variation of the
Turing Test in the early 1970s.

Eugene Goostman: Eugene Goostman was a chatbot developed in Saint Petersburg in 2001.
This bot has competed in the various number of Turing Test. In June 2012, at an event,
Goostman won the competition promoted as largest-ever Turing test content, in which it has
convinced 29% of judges that it was a human.Goostman resembled as a 13-year old virtual
boy.

The Chinese Room Argument:

There were many philosophers who really disagreed with the complete concept of Artificial
Intelligence. The most famous argument in this list was "Chinese Room."

In the year 1980, John Searle presented "Chinese Room" thought experiment, in his paper
"Mind, Brains, and Program," which was against the validity of Turing's Test. According
to his argument, "Programming a computer may make it to understand a language, but
it will not produce a real understanding of language or consciousness in a computer."

He argued that Machine such as ELIZA and Parry could easily pass the Turing test by
manipulating keywords and symbol, but they had no real understanding of language. So it
cannot be described as "thinking" capability of a machine such as a human.

Features required for a machine to pass the Turing test:

o Natural language processing: NLP is required to communicate with Interrogator in

general human language like English.
o Knowledge representation: To store and retrieve information during the test.
o Automated reasoning: To use the previously stored information for answering the
questions.
o Machine learning: To adapt new changes and can detect generalized patterns.
o Vision (For total Turing test): To recognize the interrogator actions and other
objects during a test.
o Motor Control (For total Turing test): To act upon objects if requested3.

Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary, scientific study of the mind and its
processes with input from linguistics, psychology, neuroscience, philosophy, computer
science/artificial intelligence, and anthropology. It examines the nature, the tasks, and the
functions of cognition (in a broad sense).

The term "Artificial Intelligence" refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by
machines, especially computer systems. It also includes Expert systems, voice recognition,
machine vision, and natural language processing (NLP).

AI programming focuses on three cognitive aspects, such as learning, reasoning, and self-
correction.

o Learning Processes
o Reasoning Processes
o Self-correction Processes

Learning Processes

This part of AI programming is concerned with gathering data and creating rules for
transforming it into useful information. The rules, which are also called algorithms, offer
computing devices with step-by-step instructions for accomplishing a particular job.

Reasoning Processes

This part of AI programming is concerned with selecting the best algorithm to achieve the
desired result.
Self-Correction Processes

This part of AI programming aims to fine-tune algorithms regularly in order to ensure that
they offer the most reliable results possible.

We can define AI as, "Artificial Intelligence is a branch of computer science that deals with
developing intelligent machines which can behave like human, think like human, and has
ability to take decisions by their own."

Examples of AI-Artificial Intelligence

The following are the examples of AI-Artificial Intelligence:

1. Google Maps and Ride-Hailing Applications

2. Face Detection and recognition
3. Text Editors and Autocorrect
4. Chatbots
5. E-Payments
6. Search and Recommendation algorithms
7. Digital Assistant
8. Social media
9. Healthcare
10. Gaming
11. Online Ads-Network
12. Banking and Finance
13. Smart Home devices
 14. Security and Surveillance
15. Smart Keyboard App
16. Smart Speaker
17. E-Commerce
18. Smart Email Apps
19. Music and Media Streaming Service
20. Space Exploration

A syllogism is a form of deductive argument where the conclusion follows from the truth
of two (or more) premises. A deductive argument moves from the general to the specific
and opposes inductive arguments that move from the specific to the general:1. All mammals
are animals.

An example of a syllogism is "All mammals are animals. All elephants are mammals.
Therefore, all elephants are animals." In a syllogism, the more general premise is called the
major premise ("All mammals are animals").
Agents in Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence is defined as the study of rational agents. A rational agent could be
anything that makes decisions, as a person, firm, machine, or software. It carries out an action
with the best outcome after considering past and current percepts(agent’s perceptual inputs at
a given instance). An AI system is composed of an agent and its environment. The agents
act in their environment. The environment may contain other agents.
An agent is anything that can be viewed as :
 perceiving its environment through sensors and
 acting upon that environment through actuators

Agents in Artificial Intelligence

An AI system can be defined as the study of the rational agent and its environment. The
agents sense the environment through sensors and act on their environment through actuators.
An AI agent can have mental properties such as knowledge, belief, intention, etc.

What is an Agent?

An agent can be anything that perceive its environment through sensors and act upon that
environment through actuators. An Agent runs in the cycle of perceiving, thinking,
and acting. An agent can be:

o Human-Agent: A human agent has eyes, ears, and other organs which work for
sensors and hand, legs, vocal tract work for actuators.
o Robotic Agent: A robotic agent can have cameras, infrared range finder, NLP for
sensors and various motors for actuators.
o Software Agent: Software agent can have keystrokes, file contents as sensory input
and act on those inputs and display output on the screen.

Hence the world around us is full of agents such as thermostat, cellphone, camera, and even
we are also agents.

Before moving forward, we should first know about sensors, effectors, and actuators.

Sensor: Sensor is a device which detects the change in the environment and sends the
information to other electronic devices. An agent observes its environment through sensors.

Actuators: Actuators are the component of machines that converts energy into motion. The
actuators are only responsible for moving and controlling a system. An actuator can be an
electric motor, gears, rails, etc.

Effectors: Effectors are the devices which affect the environment. Effectors can be legs,
wheels, arms, fingers, wings, fins, and display screen.
Intelligent Agents:

An intelligent agent is an autonomous entity which act upon an environment using sensors
and actuators for achieving goals. An intelligent agent may learn from the environment to
achieve their goals. A thermostat is an example of an intelligent agent.

Following are the main four rules for an AI agent:

o Rule 1: An AI agent must have the ability to perceive the environment.

o Rule 2: The observation must be used to make decisions.
o Rule 3: Decision should result in an action.
o Rule 4: The action taken by an AI agent must be a rational action.

Rational Agent:

A rational agent is an agent which has clear preference, models uncertainty, and acts in a way
to maximize its performance measure with all possible actions.

A rational agent is said to perform the right things. AI is about creating rational agents to use
for game theory and decision theory for various real-world scenarios.

For an AI agent, the rational action is most important because in AI reinforcement learning
algorithm, for each best possible action, agent gets the positive reward and for each wrong
action, an agent gets a negative reward.

Rationality:

The rationality of an agent is measured by its performance measure. Rationality can be

judged on the basis of following points:

o Performance measure which defines the success criterion.

o Agent prior knowledge of its environment.
 o Best possible actions that an agent can perform.
o The sequence of percepts.

Note: Rationality differs from Omniscience because an Omniscient agent knows the actual
outcome of its action and act accordingly, which is not possible in reality.

Structure of an AI Agent

The task of AI is to design an agent program which implements the agent function. The
structure of an intelligent agent is a combination of architecture and agent program. It can be
viewed as:

1. Agent = Architecture + Agent program

Following are the main three terms involved in the structure of an AI agent:

Architecture: Architecture is machinery that an AI agent executes on.

Agent Function: Agent function is used to map a percept to an action.

1. f:P* → A

Agent program: Agent program is an implementation of agent function. An agent program

executes on the physical architecture to produce function f.

PEAS Representation

PEAS is a type of model on which an AI agent works upon. When we define an AI agent or
rational agent, then we can group its properties under PEAS representation model. It is made
up of four words:

o P: Performance measure
o E: Environment
o A: Actuators
o S: Sensors

Here performance measure is the objective for the success of an agent's behavior.

PEAS for self-driving cars:

Let's suppose a self-driving car then PEAS representation will be:

Performance: Safety, time, legal drive, comfort

Environment: Roads, other vehicles, road signs, pedestrian

Actuators: Steering, accelerator, brake, signal, horn

Sensors: Camera, GPS, speedometer, odometer, accelerometer, sonar.

Example of Agents with their PEAS representation

Agent Performance Environment Actuators Sensors

measure

1. o Healthy o Patient o Tests Keyboard

Medical (Entry of
patient o Hospital o Treatments
Diagnose symptoms)
o Minimized o Staff
cost

2. o Cleanness o Room o Wheels o Camera

Vacuum
o Efficiency o Table o Brushes o Dirt
Cleaner
o Battery life o Wood floor o Vacuum detection
o Security o Carpet Extractor sensor
o Cliff sensor
o Various
obstacles o Bump
Sensor
o Infrared
Wall
Sensor

3. Part - o Percentage of o Conveyor o Jointed Arms o Camera

picking
parts in belt with o Hand o Joint angle
Robot
correct bins. parts, sensors.
o Bins

Agent Environment in AI

An environment is everything in the world which surrounds the agent, but it is not a part of
an agent itself. An environment can be described as a situation in which an agent is present.

The environment is where agent lives, operate and provide the agent with something to sense
and act upon it. An environment is mostly said to be non-feministic.
Features of Environment

As per Russell and Norvig, an environment can have various features from the point of view
of an agent:

1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable

2. Static vs Dynamic

3. Discrete vs Continuous

4. Deterministic vs Stochastic

5. Single-agent vs Multi-agent

6. Episodic vs sequential

7. Known vs Unknown

8. Accessible vs Inaccessible

1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable:

o If an agent sensor can sense or access the complete state of an environment at each
point of time then it is a fully observable environment, else it is partially
observable.

o A fully observable environment is easy as there is no need to maintain the internal

state to keep track history of the world.

o An agent with no sensors in all environments then such an environment is called

as unobservable.

2. Deterministic vs Stochastic:

o If an agent's current state and selected action can completely determine the next state
of the environment, then such environment is called a deterministic environment.

o A stochastic environment is random in nature and cannot be determined completely

by an agent.

o In a deterministic, fully observable environment, agent does not need to worry about
uncertainty.

3. Episodic vs Sequential:
 o In an episodic environment, there is a series of one-shot actions, and only the current
percept is required for the action.

o However, in Sequential environment, an agent requires memory of past actions to

determine the next best actions.

4. Single-agent vs Multi-agent

o If only one agent is involved in an environment, and operating by itself then such an
environment is called single agent environment.

o However, if multiple agents are operating in an environment, then such an

environment is called a multi-agent environment.

o The agent design problems in the multi-agent environment are different from single
agent environment.

5. Static vs Dynamic:

o If the environment can change itself while an agent is deliberating then such
environment is called a dynamic environment else it is called a static environment.

o Static environments are easy to deal because an agent does not need to continue
looking at the world while deciding for an action.

o However for dynamic environment, agents need to keep looking at the world at each
action.

o Taxi driving is an example of a dynamic environment whereas Crossword puzzles are

an example of a static environment.

6. Discrete vs Continuous:

o If in an environment there are a finite number of percepts and actions that can be
performed within it, then such an environment is called a discrete environment else it
is called continuous environment.

o A chess gamecomes under discrete environment as there is a finite number of moves

that can be performed.

o A self-driving car is an example of a continuous environment.

7. Known vs Unknown
 o Known and unknown are not actually a feature of an environment, but it is an agent's
state of knowledge to perform an action.

o In a known environment, the results for all actions are known to the agent. While in
unknown environment, agent needs to learn how it works in order to perform an
action.

o It is quite possible that a known environment to be partially observable and an

Unknown environment to be fully observable.

8. Accessible vs Inaccessible

o If an agent can obtain complete and accurate information about the state's
environment, then such an environment is called an Accessible environment else it is
called inaccessible.

o An empty room whose state can be defined by its temperature is an example of an

accessible environment.

o Information about an event on earth is an example of Inaccessible environment.

Types of AI Agents

Agents can be grouped into five classes based on their degree of perceived intelligence and
capability. All these agents can improve their performance and generate better action over the
time. These are given below:

o Simple Reflex Agent

o Model-based reflex agent
o Goal-based agents
o Utility-based agent
o Learning agent

1. Simple Reflex agent:

o The Simple reflex agents are the simplest agents. These agents take decisions on the
basis of the current percepts and ignore the rest of the percept history.
o These agents only succeed in the fully observable environment.
o The Simple reflex agent does not consider any part of percepts history during their
decision and action process.
 o The Simple reflex agent works on Condition-action rule, which means it maps the
current state to action. Such as a Room Cleaner agent, it works only if there is dirt in
the room.
o Problems for the simple reflex agent design approach:
o They have very limited intelligence
o They do not have knowledge of non-perceptual parts of the current state
o Mostly too big to generate and to store.
o Not adaptive to changes in the environment.

2. Model-based reflex agent

o The Model-based agent can work in a partially observable environment, and track the
situation.
o A model-based agent has two important factors:
o Model: It is knowledge about "how things happen in the world," so it is called
a Model-based agent.
o Internal State: It is a representation of the current state based on percept
history.
o These agents have the model, "which is knowledge of the world" and based on the
model they perform actions.
o Updating the agent state requires information about:
a. How the world evolves
b. How the agent's action affects the world.
3. Goal-based agents

o The knowledge of the current state environment is not always sufficient to decide for
an agent to what to do.
o The agent needs to know its goal which describes desirable situations.
o Goal-based agents expand the capabilities of the model-based agent by having the
"goal" information.
o They choose an action, so that they can achieve the goal.
o These agents may have to consider a long sequence of possible actions before
deciding whether the goal is achieved or not. Such considerations of different scenario
are called searching and planning, which makes an agent proactive.
4. Utility-based agents

o These agents are similar to the goal-based agent but provide an extra component of
utility measurement which makes them different by providing a measure of success at
a given state.
o Utility-based agent act based not only goals but also the best way to achieve the goal.
o The Utility-based agent is useful when there are multiple possible alternatives, and an
agent has to choose in order to perform the best action.
o The utility function maps each state to a real number to check how efficiently each
action achieves the goals.

5. Learning Agents
 o A learning agent in AI is the type of agent which can learn from its past experiences,
or it has learning capabilities.
o It starts to act with basic knowledge and then able to act and adapt automatically
through learning.
o A learning agent has mainly four conceptual components, which are:
a. Learning element: It is responsible for making improvements by learning
from environment
b. Critic: Learning element takes feedback from critic which describes that how
well the agent is doing with respect to a fixed performance standard.
c. Performance element: It is responsible for selecting external action
d. Problem generator: This component is responsible for suggesting actions
that will lead to new and informative experiences.
Hence, learning agents are able to learn, analyze performance, and look for new ways
to improve the performance.

Unit-2

knowledge representation
Knowledge-Based Agent in Artificial intelligence
o An intelligent agent needs knowledge about the real world for taking decisions
and reasoning to act efficiently.
o Knowledge-based agents are those agents who have the capability of maintaining an
internal state of knowledge, reason over that knowledge, update their knowledge
after observations and take actions. These agents can represent the world with
some formal representation and act intelligently.
o Knowledge-based agents are composed of two main parts:
o Knowledge-base and
o Inference system.

A knowledge-based agent must able to do the following:

o An agent should be able to represent states, actions, etc.

o An agent Should be able to incorporate new percepts
o An agent can update the internal representation of the world
o An agent can deduce the internal representation of the world
o An agent can deduce appropriate actions.

The architecture of knowledge-based agent:

The above diagram is representing a generalized architecture for a knowledge-based agent.

The knowledge-based agent (KBA) take input from the environment by perceiving the
environment. The input is taken by the inference engine of the agent and which also
 communicate with KB to decide as per the knowledge store in KB. The learning element of
KBA regularly updates the KB by learning new knowledge.

Knowledge base: Knowledge-base is a central component of a knowledge-based agent, it is

also known as KB. It is a collection of sentences (here 'sentence' is a technical term and it is
not identical to sentence in English). These sentences are expressed in a language which is
called a knowledge representation language. The Knowledge-base of KBA stores fact about
the world.

Why use a knowledge base?

Knowledge-base is required for updating knowledge for an agent to learn with experiences
and take action as per the knowledge.

Inference system

Inference means deriving new sentences from old. Inference system allows us to add a new
sentence to the knowledge base. A sentence is a proposition about the world. Inference
system applies logical rules to the KB to deduce new information.

Inference system generates new facts so that an agent can update the KB. An inference
system works mainly in two rules which are given as:

o Forward chaining
o Backward chaining

Operations Performed by KBA

Following are three operations which are performed by KBA in order to show the
intelligent behavior:

1. TELL: This operation tells the knowledge base what it perceives from the
environment.
2. ASK: This operation asks the knowledge base what action it should perform.
3. Perform: It performs the selected action.

A generic knowledge-based agent:

Following is the structure outline of a generic knowledge-based agents program:

1. function KB-AGENT(percept):
2. persistent: KB, a knowledge base
3. t, a counter, initially 0, indicating time
4. TELL(KB, MAKE-PERCEPT-SENTENCE(percept, t))
5. Action = ASK(KB, MAKE-ACTION-QUERY(t))
6. TELL(KB, MAKE-ACTION-SENTENCE(action, t))
7. t=t+1
8. return action

The knowledge-based agent takes percept as input and returns an action as output. The agent
maintains the knowledge base, KB, and it initially has some background knowledge of the
real world. It also has a counter to indicate the time for the whole process, and this counter is
initialized with zero.

Each time when the function is called, it performs its three operations:

o Firstly it TELLs the KB what it perceives.

o Secondly, it asks KB what action it should take
o Third agent program TELLS the KB that which action was chosen.

The MAKE-PERCEPT-SENTENCE generates a sentence as setting that the agent perceived

the given percept at the given time.

The MAKE-ACTION-QUERY generates a sentence to ask which action should be done at

the current time.

MAKE-ACTION-SENTENCE generates a sentence which asserts that the chosen action was
executed.

Various levels of knowledge-based agent:

A knowledge-based agent can be viewed at different levels which are given below:

1. Knowledge level

Knowledge level is the first level of knowledge-based agent, and in this level, we need to
specify what the agent knows, and what the agent goals are. With these specifications, we can
fix its behavior. For example, suppose an automated taxi agent needs to go from a station A
to station B, and he knows the way from A to B, so this comes at the knowledge level.

2. Logical level:

At this level, we understand that how the knowledge representation of knowledge is stored.
At this level, sentences are encoded into different logics. At the logical level, an encoding of
knowledge into logical sentences occurs. At the logical level we can expect to the automated
taxi agent to reach to the destination B.

3. Implementation level:

This is the physical representation of logic and knowledge. At the implementation level agent
perform actions as per logical and knowledge level. At this level, an automated taxi agent
actually implement his knowledge and logic so that he can reach to the destination.

Approaches to designing a knowledge-based agent:

There are mainly two approaches to build a knowledge-based agent:

1. Declarative approach: We can create a knowledge-based agent by initializing with an

empty knowledge base and telling the agent all the sentences with which we want to start
with. This approach is called Declarative approach.

2. Procedural approach: In the procedural approach, we directly encode desired

behavior as a program code. Which means we just need to write a program that already
encodes the desired behavior or agent.

However, in the real world, a successful agent can be built by combining both declarative and
procedural approaches, and declarative knowledge can often be compiled into more efficient
procedural code.

What is knowledge representation?

Humans are best at understanding, reasoning, and interpreting knowledge. Human knows
things, which is knowledge and as per their knowledge they perform various actions in the
real world. But how machines do all these things comes under knowledge representation
and reasoning. Hence we can describe Knowledge representation as following:

o Knowledge representation and reasoning (KR, KRR) is the part of Artificial

intelligence which concerned with AI agents thinking and how thinking contributes to
intelligent behavior of agents.
o It is responsible for representing information about the real world so that a computer
can understand and can utilize this knowledge to solve the complex real world
problems such as diagnosis a medical condition or communicating with humans in
natural language.
o It is also a way which describes how we can represent knowledge in artificial
intelligence. Knowledge representation is not just storing data into some database, but
it also enables an intelligent machine to learn from that knowledge and experiences so
that it can behave intelligently like a human.

What to Represent:

Following are the kind of knowledge which needs to be represented in AI systems:

o Object: All the facts about objects in our world domain. E.g., Guitars contains
strings, trumpets are brass instruments.
o Events: Events are the actions which occur in our world.
o Performance: It describe behavior which involves knowledge about how to do
things.
 o Meta-knowledge: It is knowledge about what we know.
o Facts: Facts are the truths about the real world and what we represent.
o Knowledge-Base: The central component of the knowledge-based agents is the
knowledge base. It is represented as KB. The Knowledgebase is a group of the
Sentences (Here, sentences are used as a technical term and not identical with the
English language).

Knowledge: Knowledge is awareness or familiarity gained by experiences of facts, data, and

situations. Following are the types of knowledge in artificial intelligence:

Types of knowledge

Following are the various types of knowledge:

1. Declarative Knowledge:

o Declarative knowledge is to know about something.

o It includes concepts, facts, and objects.
o It is also called descriptive knowledge and expressed in declarative sentences.
o It is simpler than procedural language.

2. Procedural Knowledge

o It is also known as imperative knowledge.

 o Procedural knowledge is a type of knowledge which is responsible for knowing how
to do something.
o It can be directly applied to any task.
o It includes rules, strategies, procedures, agendas, etc.
o Procedural knowledge depends on the task on which it can be applied.

3. Meta-knowledge:

o Knowledge about the other types of knowledge is called Meta-knowledge.

4. Heuristic knowledge:

o Heuristic knowledge is representing knowledge of some experts in a filed or subject.

o Heuristic knowledge is rules of thumb based on previous experiences, awareness of
approaches, and which are good to work but not guaranteed.

5. Structural knowledge:

o Structural knowledge is basic knowledge to problem-solving.

o It describes relationships between various concepts such as kind of, part of, and
grouping of something.
o It describes the relationship that exists between concepts or objects.

The relation between knowledge and intelligence:

Knowledge of real-worlds plays a vital role in intelligence and same for creating artificial
intelligence. Knowledge plays an important role in demonstrating intelligent behavior in AI
agents. An agent is only able to accurately act on some input when he has some knowledge or
experience about that input.

Let's suppose if you met some person who is speaking in a language which you don't know,
then how you will able to act on that. The same thing applies to the intelligent behavior of the
agents.

As we can see in below diagram, there is one decision maker which act by sensing the
environment and using knowledge. But if the knowledge part will not present then, it cannot
display intelligent behavior.
AI knowledge cycle:

An Artificial intelligence system has the following components for displaying intelligent
behavior:

o Perception
o Learning
o Knowledge Representation and Reasoning
o Planning
o Execution

The above diagram is showing how an AI system can interact with the real world and what
components help it to show intelligence. AI system has Perception component by which it
retrieves information from its environment. It can be visual, audio or another form of sensory
input. The learning component is responsible for learning from data captured by Perception
comportment. In the complete cycle, the main components are knowledge representation and
Reasoning. These two components are involved in showing the intelligence in machine-like
humans. These two components are independent with each other but also coupled together.
The planning and execution depend on analysis of Knowledge representation and reasoning.

Approaches to knowledge representation:

There are mainly four approaches to knowledge representation, which are givenbelow:

1. Simple relational knowledge:

o It is the simplest way of storing facts which uses the relational method, and each fact
about a set of the object is set out systematically in columns.
o This approach of knowledge representation is famous in database systems where the
relationship between different entities is represented.
o This approach has little opportunity for inference.

Example: The following is the simple relational knowledge representation.

Player Weight Age

Player1 65 23

Player2 58 18

Player3 75 24

2. Inheritable knowledge:
o In the inheritable knowledge approach, all data must be stored into a hierarchy of
classes.
o All classes should be arranged in a generalized form or a hierarchal manner.
o In this approach, we apply inheritance property.
o Elements inherit values from other members of a class.
o This approach contains inheritable knowledge which shows a relation between
instance and class, and it is called instance relation.
o Every individual frame can represent the collection of attributes and its value.
o In this approach, objects and values are represented in Boxed nodes.
o We use Arrows which point from objects to their values.
o Example:
3. Inferential knowledge:
o Inferential knowledge approach represents knowledge in the form of formal logics.
o This approach can be used to derive more facts.
o It guaranteed correctness.
o Example: Let's suppose there are two statements:
a. Marcus is a man
b. All men are mortal
Then it can represent as;

man(Marcus)
∀x = man (x) ----------> mortal (x)s

4. Procedural knowledge:
o Procedural knowledge approach uses small programs and codes which describes how
to do specific things, and how to proceed.
o In this approach, one important rule is used which is If-Then rule.
o In this knowledge, we can use various coding languages such as LISP
language and Prolog language.
o We can easily represent heuristic or domain-specific knowledge using this approach.
o But it is not necessary that we can represent all cases in this approach.
 Propositional logic in Artificial intelligence

Propositional logic (PL) is the simplest form of logic where all the statements are made by
propositions. A proposition is a declarative statement which is either true or false. It is a
technique of knowledge representation in logical and mathematical form.

Example:
a) It is Sunday.
b) The Sun rises from West (False proposition)
c) 3+3= 7(False proposition)
d) 5 is a prime number.

Following are some basic facts about propositional logic:

o Propositional logic is also called Boolean logic as it works on 0 and 1.

o In propositional logic, we use symbolic variables to represent the logic, and we can
use any symbol for a representing a proposition, such A, B, C, P, Q, R, etc.
o Propositions can be either true or false, but it cannot be both.
o Propositional logic consists of an object, relations or function, and logical
connectives.
o These connectives are also called logical operators.
o The propositions and connectives are the basic elements of the propositional logic.
o Connectives can be said as a logical operator which connects two sentences.
o A proposition formula which is always true is called tautology, and it is also called a
valid sentence.
o A proposition formula which is always false is called Contradiction.
o A proposition formula which has both true and false values is called Statements which
are questions, commands, or opinions are not propositions such as "Where is
Rohini", "How are you", "What is your name", are not propositions.

Syntax of propositional logic:

The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable sentences for the knowledge
representation. There are two types of Propositions:

a. Atomic Propositions
b. Compound propositions

o Atomic Proposition: Atomic propositions are the simple propositions. It consists of a

single proposition symbol. These are the sentences which must be either true or false.

Example:
a) 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.
b) "The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact.
o Compound proposition: Compound propositions are constructed by combining
simpler or atomic propositions, using parenthesis and logical connectives.

Example:

1. a) "It is raining today, and street is wet."

2. b) "Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."

Logical Connectives:

Logical connectives are used to connect two simpler propositions or representing a sentence
logically. We can create compound propositions with the help of logical connectives. There
are mainly five connectives, which are given as follows:

1. Negation: A sentence such as ¬ P is called negation of P. A literal can be either

Positive literal or negative literal.
2. Conjunction: A sentence which has ∧ connective such as, P ∧ Q is called a
conjunction.
Example: Rohan is intelligent and hardworking. It can be written as,
P= Rohan is intelligent,
Q= Rohan is hardworking. → P∧ Q.
3. Disjunction: A sentence which has ∨ connective, such as P ∨ Q. is called disjunction,
where P and Q are the propositions.
Example: "Ritika is a doctor or Engineer",
Here P= Ritika is Doctor. Q= Ritika is Doctor, so we can write it as P ∨ Q.
4. Implication: A sentence such as P → Q, is called an implication. Implications are
also known as if-then rules. It can be represented as
If it is raining, then the street is wet.
Let P= It is raining, and Q= Street is wet, so it is represented as P → Q
5. Biconditional: A sentence such as P⇔ Q is a Biconditional sentence, example If I
am breathing, then I am alive
P= I am breathing, Q= I am alive, it can be represented as P ⇔ Q.

Following is the summarized table for Propositional Logic Connectives:

Truth Table:

In propositional logic, we need to know the truth values of propositions in all possible
scenarios. We can combine all the possible combination with logical connectives, and the
representation of these combinations in a tabular format is called Truth table. Following are
the truth table for all logical connectives:
Truth table with three propositions:

We can build a proposition composing three propositions P, Q, and R. This truth table is
made-up of 8n Tuples as we have taken three proposition symbols.

Precedence of connectives:

Just like arithmetic operators, there is a precedence order for propositional connectors or
logical operators. This order should be followed while evaluating a propositional problem.
Following is the list of the precedence order for operators:

Precedence Operators

First Precedence Parenthesis

Second Precedence Negation

Third Precedence Conjunction(AND)

Fourth Precedence Disjunction(OR)

Fifth Precedence Implication

Six Precedence Biconditional

Note: For better understanding use parenthesis to make sure of the correct interpretations.
Such as ¬R∨ Q, It can be interpreted as (¬R) ∨ Q.

Logical equivalence:

Logical equivalence is one of the features of propositional logic. Two propositions are said to
be logically equivalent if and only if the columns in the truth table are identical to each other.
Let's take two propositions A and B, so for logical equivalence, we can write it as A⇔B. In
below truth table we can see that column for ¬A∨ B and A→B, are identical hence A is
Equivalent to B

Properties of Operators:
o Commutativity:
o P∧ Q= Q ∧ P, or
o P ∨ Q = Q ∨ P.
o Associativity:
o (P ∧ Q) ∧ R= P ∧ (Q ∧ R),
o (P ∨ Q) ∨ R= P ∨ (Q ∨ R)
o Identity element:
o P ∧ True = P,
o P ∨ True= True.
o Distributive:
o P∧ (Q ∨ R) = (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R).
o P ∨ (Q ∧ R) = (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R).
o DE Morgan's Law:
o ¬ (P ∧ Q) = (¬P) ∨ (¬Q)
o ¬ (P ∨ Q) = (¬ P) ∧ (¬Q).
o Double-negation elimination:
o ¬ (¬P) = P.

Limitations of Propositional logic:

o We cannot represent relations like ALL, some, or none with propositional logic.
Example:
a. All the girls are intelligent.
b. Some apples are sweet.
Propositional logic has limited expressive power.
In propositional logic, we cannot describe statements in terms of their properties or
logical relationships.
Rules of Inference in Artificial intelligence

Inference:

In artificial intelligence, we need intelligent computers which can create new logic from old
logic or by evidence, so generating the conclusions from evidence and facts is termed as
Inference.

Inference rules:

Inference rules are the templates for generating valid arguments. Inference rules are applied
to derive proofs in artificial intelligence, and the proof is a sequence of the conclusion that
leads to the desired goal.

In inference rules, the implication among all the connectives plays an important role.
Following are some terminologies related to inference rules:

o Implication: It is one of the logical connectives which can be represented as P → Q.

It is a Boolean expression.
o Converse: The converse of implication, which means the right-hand side proposition
goes to the left-hand side and vice-versa. It can be written as Q → P.
o Contrapositive: The negation of converse is termed as contrapositive, and it can be
represented as ¬ Q → ¬ P.
o Inverse: The negation of implication is called inverse. It can be represented as ¬ P →
¬ Q.

From the above term some of the compound statements are equivalent to each other, which
we can prove using truth table:

Hence from the above truth table, we can prove that P → Q is equivalent to ¬ Q → ¬ P, and
Q→ P is equivalent to ¬ P → ¬ Q.

Types of Inference rules:

1. Modus Ponens:

The Modus Ponens rule is one of the most important rules of inference, and it states that if P
and P → Q is true, then we can infer that Q will be true. It can be represented as:
Example:

Statement-1: "If I am sleepy then I go to bed" ==> P→ Q

Statement-2: "I am sleepy" ==> P
Conclusion: "I go to bed." ==> Q.
Hence, we can say that, if P→ Q is true and P is true then Q will be true.

Proof by Truth table:

2. Modus Tollens:

The Modus Tollens rule state that if P→ Q is true and ¬ Q is true, then ¬ P will also true. It
can be represented as:

Statement-1: "If I am sleepy then I go to bed" ==> P→ Q

Statement-2: "I do not go to the bed."==> ~Q
Statement-3: Which infers that "I am not sleepy" => ~P

Proof by Truth table:

3. Hypothetical Syllogism:

The Hypothetical Syllogism rule state that if P→R is true whenever P→Q is true, and Q→R
is true. It can be represented as the following notation:

Example:
Statement-1: If you have my home key then you can unlock my home. P→Q
Statement-2: If you can unlock my home then you can take my money. Q→R
Conclusion: If you have my home key then you can take my money. P→R

Proof by truth table:

4. Disjunctive Syllogism:

The Disjunctive syllogism rule state that if P∨Q is true, and ¬P is true, then Q will be true. It
can be represented as:

Example:

Statement-1: Today is Sunday or Monday. ==>P∨Q

Statement-2: Today is not Sunday. ==> ¬P
Conclusion: Today is Monday. ==> Q

Proof by truth-table:

5. Addition:

The Addition rule is one the common inference rule, and it states that If P is true, then P∨Q
will be true.
Example:

Statement: I have a vanilla ice-cream. ==> P

Statement-2: I have Chocolate ice-cream.
Conclusion: I have vanilla or chocolate ice-cream. ==> (P∨Q)

Proof by Truth-Table:

6. Simplification:

The simplification rule state that if P∧ Q is true, then Q or P will also be true. It can be
represented as:

Proof by Truth-Table:

7. Resolution:

The Resolution rule state that if P∨Q and ¬ P∧R is true, then Q∨R will also be true. It can be
represented as

Proof by Truth-Table:
First-Order Logic in Artificial intelligence

In the topic of Propositional logic, we have seen that how to represent statements using
propositional logic. But unfortunately, in propositional logic, we can only represent the facts,
which are either true or false. PL is not sufficient to represent the complex sentences or
natural language statements. The propositional logic has very limited expressive power.
Consider the following sentence, which we cannot represent using PL logic.

o "Some humans are intelligent", or

o "Sachin likes cricket."

To represent the above statements, PL logic is not sufficient, so we required some more
powerful logic, such as first-order logic.

First-Order logic:

o First-order logic is another way of knowledge representation in artificial intelligence.

It is an extension to propositional logic.
o FOL is sufficiently expressive to represent the natural language statements in a
concise way.
o First-order logic is also known as Predicate logic or First-order predicate logic.
First-order logic is a powerful language that develops information about the objects in
a more easy way and can also express the relationship between those objects.
o First-order logic (like natural language) does not only assume that the world contains
facts like propositional logic but also assumes the following things in the world:
o Objects: A, B, people, numbers, colors, wars, theories, squares, pits, wumpus,
......
o Relations: It can be unary relation such as: red, round, is adjacent, or n-
any relation such as: the sister of, brother of, has color, comes between
o Function: Father of, best friend, third inning of, end of, ......
o As a natural language, first-order logic also has two main parts:
a. Syntax
b. Semantics
Syntax of First-Order logic:

The syntax of FOL determines which collection of symbols is a logical expression in first-
order logic. The basic syntactic elements of first-order logic are symbols. We write
statements in short-hand notation in FOL.

Basic Elements of First-order logic:

Following are the basic elements of FOL syntax:

Constant 1, 2, A, John, Mumbai, cat,....

Variables x, y, z, a, b,....

Predicates Brother, Father, >,....

Function sqrt, LeftLegOf, ....

Connectives ∧, ∨, ¬, ⇒, ⇔

Equality ==

Quantifier ∀, ∃

Atomic sentences:
o Atomic sentences are the most basic sentences of first-order logic. These sentences
are formed from a predicate symbol followed by a parenthesis with a sequence of
terms.
o We can represent atomic sentences as Predicate (term1, term2, ......, term n).

Example: Ravi and Ajay are brothers: => Brothers(Ravi, Ajay).

Chinky is a cat: => cat (Chinky).

Complex Sentences:
o Complex sentences are made by combining atomic sentences using connectives.

First-order logic statements can be divided into two parts:

o Subject: Subject is the main part of the statement.

o Predicate: A predicate can be defined as a relation, which binds two atoms together
in a statement.
Consider the statement: "x is an integer.", it consists of two parts, the first part x is the
subject of the statement and second part "is an integer," is known as a predicate.

Quantifiers in First-order logic:

o These are the symbols that permit to determine or identify the range and scope of the
variable in the logical expression. There are two types of quantifier:
a. Universal Quantifier, (for all, everyone, everything)
b. Existential quantifier, (for some, at least one).

Universal Quantifier:

Universal quantifier is a symbol of logical representation, which specifies that the statement
within its range is true for everything or every instance of a particular thing.

The Universal quantifier is represented by a symbol ∀, which resembles an inverted A.

Note: In universal quantifier we use implication "→".

If x is a variable, then ∀x is read as:

o For all x
o For each x
o For every x.

Example:

All man drink coffee.

Let a variable x which refers to a cat so all x can be represented in UOD as below:
∀x man(x) → drink (x, coffee).

It will be read as: There are all x where x is a man who drink coffee.

Existential Quantifier:

Existential quantifiers are the type of quantifiers, which express that the statement within its
scope is true for at least one instance of something.

It is denoted by the logical operator ∃, which resembles as inverted E. When it is used with a
predicate variable then it is called as an existential quantifier.

Note: In Existential quantifier we always use AND or Conjunction symbol (∧).

If x is a variable, then existential quantifier will be ∃x or ∃(x). And it will be read as:

o There exists a 'x.'

o For some 'x.'
o For at least one 'x.'

Example:

Some boys are intelligent.

∃x: boys(x) ∧ intelligent(x)

It will be read as: There are some x where x is a boy who is intelligent.

Points to remember:

o The main connective for universal quantifier ∀ is implication →.

o The main connective for existential quantifier ∃ is and ∧.

Properties of Quantifiers:

o In universal quantifier, ∀x∀y is similar to ∀y∀x.

o In Existential quantifier, ∃x∃y is similar to ∃y∃x.
o ∃x∀y is not similar to ∀y∃x.

Some Examples of FOL using quantifier:

1. All birds fly.

In this question the predicate is "fly(bird)."
And since there are all birds who fly so it will be represented as follows.
∀x bird(x) →fly(x).

2. Every man respects his parent.

In this question, the predicate is "respect(x, y)," where x=man, and y= parent.
Since there is every man so will use ∀, and it will be represented as follows:
∀x man(x) → respects (x, parent).
3. Some boys play cricket.
In this question, the predicate is "play(x, y)," where x= boys, and y= game. Since there are
some boys so we will use ∃, and it will be represented as:
∃x boys(x) → play(x, cricket).

4. Not all students like both Mathematics and Science.

In this question, the predicate is "like(x, y)," where x= student, and y= subject.
Since there are not all students, so we will use ∀ with negation, so following representation
for this:
¬∀ (x) [ student(x) → like(x, Mathematics) ∧ like(x, Science)].

Free and Bound Variables:

The quantifiers interact with variables which appear in a suitable way. There are two types of
variables in First-order logic which are given below:

Free Variable: A variable is said to be a free variable in a formula if it occurs outside the
scope of the quantifier.

Example: ∀x ∃(y)[P (x, y, z)], where z is a free variable.

Bound Variable: A variable is said to be a bound variable in a formula if it occurs within the
scope of the quantifier.

Example: ∀x [A (x) B( y)], here x and y are the bound variables.

Inference in First-Order Logic

Inference in First-Order Logic is used to deduce new facts or sentences from existing
sentences. Before understanding the FOL inference rule, let's understand some basic
terminologies used in FOL.

Substitution:

Substitution is a fundamental operation performed on terms and formulas. It occurs in all

inference systems in first-order logic. The substitution is complex in the presence of
quantifiers in FOL. If we write F[a/x], so it refers to substitute a constant "a" in place of
variable "x".

Note: First-order logic is capable of expressing facts about some or all objects in the
universe.

Equality:

First-Order logic does not only use predicate and terms for making atomic sentences but also
uses another way, which is equality in FOL. For this, we can use equality symbols which
specify that the two terms refer to the same object.

Example: Brother (John) = Smith.

As in the above example, the object referred by the Brother (John) is similar to the object
referred by Smith. The equality symbol can also be used with negation to represent that two
terms are not the same objects.

Example: ￢(x=y) which is equivalent to x ≠y.

FOL inference rules for quantifier:

As propositional logic we also have inference rules in first-order logic, so following are some
basic inference rules in FOL:

o Universal Generalization
o Universal Instantiation
o Existential Instantiation
o Existential introduction

1. Universal Generalization:

o Universal generalization is a valid inference rule which states that if premise P(c) is
true for any arbitrary element c in the universe of discourse, then we can have a
conclusion as ∀ x P(x).

o It can be represented as: .

o This rule can be used if we want to show that every element has a similar property.
o In this rule, x must not appear as a free variable.

Example: Let's represent, P(c): "A byte contains 8 bits", so for ∀ x P(x) "All bytes contain
8 bits.", it will also be true.

2. Universal Instantiation:

o Universal instantiation is also called as universal elimination or UI is a valid inference

rule. It can be applied multiple times to add new sentences.
o The new KB is logically equivalent to the previous KB.
o As per UI, we can infer any sentence obtained by substituting a ground term for
the variable.
o The UI rule state that we can infer any sentence P(c) by substituting a ground term c
(a constant within domain x) from ∀ x P(x) for any object in the universe of
discourse.

o It can be represented as: .

Example:1.
IF "Every person like ice-cream"=> ∀x P(x) so we can infer that
"John likes ice-cream" => P(c)

Example: 2.

Let's take a famous example,

"All kings who are greedy are Evil." So let our knowledge base contains this detail as in the
form of FOL:

∀x king(x) ∧ greedy (x) → Evil (x),

So from this information, we can infer any of the following statements using Universal
Instantiation:

o King(John) ∧ Greedy (John) → Evil (John),

o King(Richard) ∧ Greedy (Richard) → Evil (Richard),
o King(Father(John)) ∧ Greedy (Father(John)) → Evil (Father(John)),

3. Existential Instantiation:

o Existential instantiation is also called as Existential Elimination, which is a valid

inference rule in first-order logic.
o It can be applied only once to replace the existential sentence.
o The new KB is not logically equivalent to old KB, but it will be satisfiable if old KB
was satisfiable.
o This rule states that one can infer P(c) from the formula given in the form of ∃x P(x)
for a new constant symbol c.
o The restriction with this rule is that c used in the rule must be a new term for which
P(c ) is true.

o It can be represented as:

4. Existential introduction

o An existential introduction is also known as an existential generalization, which is a

valid inference rule in first-order logic.
o This rule states that if there is some element c in the universe of discourse which has a
property P, then we can infer that there exists something in the universe which has the
property P.

o It can be represented as:

 o Example: Let's say that,
"Priyanka got good marks in English."
"Therefore, someone got good marks in English."

What is Unification?
o Unification is a process of making two different logical atomic expressions identical
by finding a substitution. Unification depends on the substitution process.
o It takes two literals as input and makes them identical using substitution.
o Let L1 and L2 be two atomic sentences and be a unifier such that, L1 = L2 , then it
can be expressed as UNIFY(L1, L2).
o Example: Find the MGU for Unify{King(x), King(John)}

Let L1 = King(x), L2 = King(John),

Substitution θ = {John/x} is a unifier for these atoms and applying this substitution, and
both expressions will be identical.

o The UNIFY algorithm is used for unification, which takes two atomic sentences and
returns a unifier for those sentences (If any exist).
o Unification is a key component of all first-order inference algorithms.
o It returns fail if the expressions do not match with each other.
o The substitution variables are called Most General Unifier or MGU.

E.g. Let's say there are two different expressions, P(x, y), and P(a, f(z)).

In this example, we need to make both above statements identical to each other. For this, we
will perform the substitution.

P(x, y)......... (i)

P(a, f(z))......... (ii)

o Substitute x with a, and y with f(z) in the first expression, and it will be represented
as a/x and f(z)/y.
o With both the substitutions, the first expression will be identical to the second
expression and the substitution set will be: [a/x, f(z)/y].

Conditions for Unification:

Following are some basic conditions for unification:

o Predicate symbol must be same, atoms or expression with different predicate symbol
can never be unified.
o Number of Arguments in both expressions must be identical.
 o Unification will fail if there are two similar variables present in the same expression.

Unification Algorithm:

Algorithm: Unify(L1, L2)

Step. 1: If L1 or L2 is a variable or constant, then:

a) If L1 or L2 are identical, then return NIL.
b) Else if L1is a variable,
a. then if L1 occurs in L2, then return FAILURE
b. Else return {(L2/ L1)}.
c) Else if L2 is a variable,
a. If L2 occurs in L1 then return FAILURE,
b. Else return {(L1/ L2)}.
d) Else return FAILURE.
Step.2: If the initial Predicate symbol in L1 and L2 are not same, then return FAILURE.
Step. 3: IF L1 and L2 have a different number of arguments, then return FAILURE.
Step. 4: Set Substitution set(SUBST) to NIL.
Step. 5: For i=1 to the number of elements in L1.
a) Call Unify function with the ith element of L1 and ith element of L2, and put the
result into S.
b) If S = failure then returns Failure
c) If S ≠ NIL then do,
a. Apply S to the remainder of both L1 and L2.
b. SUBST= APPEND(S, SUBST).
Step.6: Return SUBST.

Implementation of the Algorithm

Step.1: Initialize the substitution set to be empty.

Step.2: Recursively unify atomic sentences:

a. Check for Identical expression match.

b. If one expression is a variable vi, and the other is a term ti which does not contain
variable vi, then:
a. Substitute ti / vi in the existing substitutions
b. Add ti /vi to the substitution setlist.
c. If both the expressions are functions, then function name must be similar, and
the number of arguments must be the same in both the expression.

For each pair of the following atomic sentences find the most general unifier (If exist).
1. Find the MGU of {p(f(a), g(Y)) and p(X, X)}

Sol: S0 => Here, L1 = p(f(a), g(Y)), and L2 = p(X, X)

SUBST θ= {f(a) / X}
S1 => L1 = p(f(a), g(Y)), and L2 = p(f(a), f(a))
SUBST θ= {f(a) / g(y)}, Unification failed.

Unification is not possible for these expressions.

2. Find the MGU of {p(b, X, f(g(Z))) and p(Z, f(Y), f(Y))}

Here, L1 = p(b, X, f(g(Z))) , and L2 = p(Z, f(Y), f(Y))

S0 => { p(b, X, f(g(Z))); p(Z, f(Y), f(Y))}
SUBST θ={b/Z}

S1 => { p(b, X, f(g(b))); p(b, f(Y), f(Y))}

SUBST θ={f(Y) /X}

S2 => { p(b, f(Y), f(g(b))); p(b, f(Y), f(Y))}

SUBST θ= {g(b) /Y}

S2 => { p(b, f(g(b)), f(g(b)); p(b, f(g(b)), f(g(b))} Unified Successfully.

And Unifier = { b/Z, f(Y) /X , g(b) /Y}.

3. Find the MGU of {p (X, X), and p (Z, f(Z))}

Here, L1 = {p (X, X), and L2 = p (Z, f(Z))

S0 => {p (X, X), p (Z, f(Z))}
SUBST θ= {X/Z}
S1 => {p (Z, Z), p (Z, f(Z))}
SUBST θ= {f(Z) / Z}, Unification Failed.

Hence, unification is not possible for these expressions.

4. Find the MGU of UNIFY(prime (11), prime(y))

Here, L1 = {prime(11) , and L2 = prime(y)}

S0 => {prime(11) , prime(y)}
SUBST θ= {11/y}

S1 => {prime(11) , prime(11)} , Successfully unified.

Unifier: {11/y}.

5. Find the MGU of Q(a, g(x, a), f(y)), Q(a, g(f(b), a), x)}

Here, L1 = Q(a, g(x, a), f(y)), and L2 = Q(a, g(f(b), a), x)

S0 => {Q(a, g(x, a), f(y)); Q(a, g(f(b), a), x)}
SUBST θ= {f(b)/x}
S1 => {Q(a, g(f(b), a), f(y)); Q(a, g(f(b), a), f(b))}
SUBST θ= {b/y}
S1 => {Q(a, g(f(b), a), f(b)); Q(a, g(f(b), a), f(b))}, Successfully Unified.

Unifier: [a/a, f(b)/x, b/y].

6. UNIFY(knows(Richard, x), knows(Richard, John))

Here, L1 = knows(Richard, x), and L2 = knows(Richard, John)

S0 => { knows(Richard, x); knows(Richard, John)}
SUBST θ= {John/x}
S1 => { knows(Richard, John); knows(Richard, John)}, Successfully Unified.
Unifier: {John/x}.

Clausal Form in Deductive Databases

In clausal form, the formula is made up of a number of clauses, where each clause is
composed of a number of literals connected by OR logical connectives only.
A formula can have the following quantifiers:
1. Universal quantifier –
It can be understood as – “For all x, P(x) holds”, meaning P(x) is true for every object x
in the universe.
Example: All trucks has wheels.

2. Existential quantifier –
It can be understood as – “There exists an x such that P(x)”, meaning P(x) is true for at
least one object x of the universe.
Example: Someone cares for you.

A clausal form formula must be transformed into another formula with the following
characteristics :

 All variables in the formula are universally quantified. Hence, it is not necessary to
include the universal quantifiers explicitly for all. The quantifiers are removed, and all
variables in the formula are implicitly quantified by the universal quantifier.

 As the formula is made up of a number of clauses, and each clause is composed of a

number of literals connected by OR logical connectives only. Hence, each clause is
a disjunction of literals.

 To form a formula, the clauses themselves are connected by AND logical connectives
only. Hence, clausal form of a formula is a conjunction of clauses.

Any formula can be converted into clausal form.

Example :
Literals can be positive literals or negative literals. For the forms of the individual clauses
where each of is a disjunction of literals. For the clause form:

NOT(P1) OR NOT(P2) OR ..... OR NOT(Pn) OR Q1 OR Q2 OR ..... OR Qm

The above clause has n negative literals and m positive literals. This clause can be
transformed into the following equivalent logical formula:

P1 AND P2 AND ..... AND Pn => Q1 OR Q2 OR ..... OR Qm

where ‘=>’ is the implies symbol.
If all the p literals (i = 1, 2, …, ) are true, the 2nd formula is true only if at least one of the
Q’s is true, which is the meaning of the (implies) symbol. For 1st formula, if all the P
literals (i = 1, 2, …, n) are true, their negations are all false; so in this case it is true only if
at least one of the Q’s is true.
Thus the above two formulas are equivalent, hence their truth values are always the same.

Resolution in FOL

Resolution

Resolution is a theorem proving technique that proceeds by building refutation proofs, i.e.,
proofs by contradictions. It was invented by a Mathematician John Alan Robinson in the year
1965.

Resolution is used, if there are various statements are given, and we need to prove a
conclusion of those statements. Unification is a key concept in proofs by resolutions.
Resolution is a single inference rule which can efficiently operate on the conjunctive normal
form or clausal form.

Clause: Disjunction of literals (an atomic sentence) is called a clause. It is also known as a
unit clause.

Conjunctive Normal Form: A sentence represented as a conjunction of clauses is said to

be conjunctive normal form or CNF.

The resolution inference rule:

The resolution rule for first-order logic is simply a lifted version of the propositional rule.
Resolution can resolve two clauses if they contain complementary literals, which are assumed
to be standardized apart so that they share no variables.

This rule is also called the binary resolution rule because it only resolves exactly two
literals.

Example:

We can resolve two clauses which are given below:

[Animal (g(x) V Loves (f(x), x)] and [￢ Loves(a, b) V ￢Kills(a, b)]

Where two complimentary literals are: Loves (f(x), x) and ￢ Loves (a, b)

These literals can be unified with unifier θ= [a/f(x), and b/x] , and it will generate a resolvent
clause:

[Animal (g(x) V ￢ Kills(f(x), x)].

Resolution is one kind of proof technique that works this way - (i) select two clauses that
contain conflicting terms (ii) combine those two clauses and (iii) cancel out the conflicting
terms.

Steps for Resolution:

1. Conversion of facts into first-order logic.

2. Convert FOL statements into CNF
3. Negate the statement which needs to prove (proof by contradiction)
4. Draw resolution graph (unification).

To better understand all the above steps, we will take an example in which we will apply
resolution.

Example:
a. John likes all kind of food.
b. Apple and vegetable are food
c. Anything anyone eats and not killed is food.
d. Anil eats peanuts and still alive
e. Harry eats everything that Anil eats.
Prove by resolution that:
f. John likes peanuts.

Step-1: Conversion of Facts into FOL

In the first step we will convert all the given statements into its first order logic.

John likes all kind of food.

Apple and vegetable are food

Anything(Y) anyone(X) eats and not

killed is food.
 Anil eats peanuts and still alive

Harry eats everything that Anil eats.

John likes peanuts.

Step-2: Conversion of FOL into CNF

In First order logic resolution, it is required to convert the FOL into CNF as CNF form makes
easier for resolution proofs.

o Eliminate all implication (→) and rewrite:

negate(a)V b
a. ∀x ¬ food(x) V likes(John, x)
b. food(Apple) Λ food(vegetables)
c. ∀x ∀y ¬ [eats(x, y) Λ ¬ killed(x)] V
food(y)
d. eats (Anil, Peanuts) Λ alive(Anil)
e. ∀x ¬ eats(Anil, x) V eats(Harry, x)
f. ∀x¬ [¬ killed(x) ] V alive(x)
g. ∀x ¬ alive(x) V ¬ killed(x)
 h. likes(John, Peanuts).
Move negation (¬)inwards and rewrite

a. ∀x ¬ food(x) V likes(John, x)
b. food(Apple) Λ food(vegetables)
c. ∀x ∀y ¬ eats(x, y) V killed(x) V food(y)
d. eats (Anil, Peanuts) Λ alive(Anil)
e. ∀x ¬ eats(Anil, x) V eats(Harry, x)
f. ∀x killed(x) V alive(x)
g. ∀x ¬ alive(x) V ¬ killed(x)
h. likes(John, Peanuts).

Rename variables or standardize variables

1. ∀x ¬ food(x) V likes(John, x)
2. food(Apple) Λ food(vegetables)
3. ∀y ∀z ¬ eats(y, z) V killed(y) V food(z)
4. eats (Anil, Peanuts) Λ alive(Anil)
5. ∀w¬ eats(Anil, w) V eats(Harry, w)
6. ∀g killed(g) ] V alive(g)
7. ∀k ¬ alive(k) V ¬ killed(k)
8. likes(John, Peanuts).

Eliminate existential instantiation quantifier by elimination.

In this step, we will eliminate existential quantifier ∃, and this process is known
as Skolemization. But in this example problem since there is no existential quantifier so all
the statements will remain same in this step.
Drop Universal quantifiers.
In this step we will drop all universal quantifier since all the statements are not implicitly
quantified so we don't need it.

a. ¬ food(x) V likes(John, x)
b. food(Apple)
c. food(vegetables)
d. ¬ eats(y, z) V killed(y) V food(z)
e. eats (Anil, Peanuts)
f. alive(Anil)
g. ¬ eats(Anil, w) V eats(Harry, w)
h. killed(g) V alive(g)
i. ¬ alive(k) V ¬ killed(k)
 j. likes(John, Peanuts).

Note: Statements "food(Apple) Λ food(vegetables)" and "eats (Anil, Peanuts) Λ alive(Anil)"

can be written in two separate statements.
o Distribute conjunction ∧ over disjunction ¬.
This step will not make any change in this problem.

Step-3: Negate the statement to be proved

In this statement, we will apply negation to the conclusion statements, which will be written
as ¬likes(John, Peanuts)

Step-4: Draw Resolution graph:

Now in this step, we will solve the problem by resolution tree using substitution. For the
above problem, it will be given as follow

s:
Hence the negation of the conclusion has been proved as a complete contradiction with the
given set of statements.

Explanation of Resolution graph:

o In the first step of resolution graph, ¬likes(John, Peanuts) , and likes(John, x) get
resolved(canceled) by substitution of {Peanuts/x}, and we are left with ¬
food(Peanuts)
o In the second step of the resolution graph, ¬ food(Peanuts) , and food(z) get resolved
(canceled) by substitution of { Peanuts/z}, and we are left with ¬ eats(y, Peanuts) V
killed(y) .
o In the third step of the resolution graph, ¬ eats(y, Peanuts) and eats (Anil,
Peanuts) get resolved by substitution {Anil/y}, and we are left with Killed(Anil) .
o In the fourth step of the resolution graph, Killed(Anil) and ¬ killed(k) get resolve by
substitution {Anil/k}, and we are left with ¬ alive(Anil) .
o In the last step of the resolution graph ¬ alive(Anil) and alive(Anil) get resolved.

Techniques of knowledge representation

There are mainly four ways of knowledge representation which are given as follows:

1. Logical Representation

2. Semantic Network Representation

3. Frame Representation

4. Production Rules
1. Logical Representation

Logical representation is a language with some concrete rules which deals with propositions
and has no ambiguity in representation. Logical representation means drawing a conclusion
based on various conditions. This representation lays down some important communication
rules. It consists of precisely defined syntax and semantics which supports the sound
inference. Each sentence can be translated into logics using syntax and semantics.

Syntax:

o Syntaxes are the rules which decide how we can construct legal sentences in the logic.

o It determines which symbol we can use in knowledge representation.

o How to write those symbols.

Semantics:

o Semantics are the rules by which we can interpret the sentence in the logic.

o Semantic also involves assigning a meaning to each sentence.

Logical representation can be categorised into mainly two logics:

a. Propositional Logics

b. Predicate logics

Advantages of logical representation:

1. Logical representation enables us to do logical reasoning.

 2. Logical representation is the basis for the programming languages.

Disadvantages of logical Representation:

1. Logical representations have some restrictions and are challenging to work with.

2. Logical representation technique may not be very natural, and inference may not be so
efficient.

2. Semantic Network Representation

Semantic networks are alternative of predicate logic for knowledge representation. In

Semantic networks, we can represent our knowledge in the form of graphical networks. This
network consists of nodes representing objects and arcs which describe the relationship
between those objects. Semantic networks can categorize the object in different forms and
can also link those objects. Semantic networks are easy to understand and can be easily
extended.

This representation consist of mainly two types of relations:

a. IS-A relation (Inheritance)

b. Kind-of-relation

Example: Following are some statements which we need to represent in the form of nodes
and arcs.

Statements:

a. Jerry is a cat.

b. Jerry is a mammal

c. Jerry is owned by Priya.

d. Jerry is brown colored.

e. All Mammals are animal.

In the above diagram, we have represented the different type of knowledge in the form of
nodes and arcs. Each object is connected with another object by some relation.

Drawbacks in Semantic representation:

1. Semantic networks take more computational time at runtime as we need to traverse

the complete network tree to answer some questions. It might be possible in the worst
case scenario that after traversing the entire tree, we find that the solution does not
exist in this network.

2. Semantic networks try to model human-like memory (Which has 1015 neurons and
links) to store the information, but in practice, it is not possible to build such a vast
semantic network.

3. These types of representations are inadequate as they do not have any equivalent
quantifier, e.g., for all, for some, none, etc.

4. Semantic networks do not have any standard definition for the link names.

5. These networks are not intelligent and depend on the creator of the system.

Advantages of Semantic network:

1. Semantic networks are a natural representation of knowledge.

2. Semantic networks convey meaning in a transparent manner.

3. These networks are simple and easily understandable.

3. Frame Representation
A frame is a record like structure which consists of a collection of attributes and its values to
describe an entity in the world. Frames are the AI data structure which divides knowledge
into substructures. It consists of a collection of slots and slot values. These slots may be of
any type and sizes. Slots have names and values which are called facets.

Facets: The various aspects of a slot is known as Facets. Facets are features of frames which
enable us to put constraints on the frames. Example: IF-NEEDED facts are called when data
of any particular slot is needed. A frame may consist of any number of slots, and a slot may
include any number of facets and facets may have any number of values. A frame is also
known as slot-filter knowledge representation in artificial intelligence.

Frames are derived from semantic networks and later evolved into our modern-day classes
and objects. A single frame is not much useful. Frames system consist of a collection of
frames which are connected. In the frame, knowledge about an object or event can be stored
together in the knowledge base. The frame is a type of technology which is widely used in
various applications including Natural language processing and machine visions.

Example: 1

Let's take an example of a frame for a book

Slots Filters

Title Artificial Intelligence

Genre Computer Science

Author Peter Norvig

Edition Third Edition

Year 1996

Page 1152

Example 2:

Let's suppose we are taking an entity, Peter. Peter is an engineer as a profession, and his age
is 25, he lives in city London, and the country is England. So following is the frame
representation for this:
Slots Filter

Name Peter

Profession Doctor

Age 25

Marital status Single

Weight 78

Advantages of frame representation:

1. The frame knowledge representation makes the programming easier by grouping the
related data.

2. The frame representation is comparably flexible and used by many applications in AI.

3. It is very easy to add slots for new attribute and relations.

4. It is easy to include default data and to search for missing values.

5. Frame representation is easy to understand and visualize.

Disadvantages of frame representation:

1. In frame system inference mechanism is not be easily processed.

2. Inference mechanism cannot be smoothly proceeded by frame representation.

3. Frame representation has a much generalized approach.

4. Production Rules

Production rules system consist of (condition, action) pairs which mean, "If condition then
action". It has mainly three parts:

o The set of production rules

o Working Memory

o The recognize-act-cycle
In production rules agent checks for the condition and if the condition exists then production
rule fires and corresponding action is carried out. The condition part of the rule determines
which rule may be applied to a problem. And the action part carries out the associated
problem-solving steps. This complete process is called a recognize-act cycle.

The working memory contains the description of the current state of problems-solving and
rule can write knowledge to the working memory. This knowledge match and may fire other
rules.

If there is a new situation (state) generates, then multiple production rules will be fired
together, this is called conflict set. In this situation, the agent needs to select a rule from these
sets, and it is called a conflict resolution.

Example:

o IF (at bus stop AND bus arrives) THEN action (get into the bus)

o IF (on the bus AND paid AND empty seat) THEN action (sit down).

o IF (on bus AND unpaid) THEN action (pay charges).

o IF (bus arrives at destination) THEN action (get down from the bus).

Advantages of Production rule:

1. The production rules are expressed in natural language.

2. The production rules are highly modular, so we can easily remove, add or modify an
individual rule.

Disadvantages of Production rule:

1. Production rule system does not exhibit any learning capabilities, as it does not store
the result of the problem for the future uses.

2. During the execution of the program, many rules may be active hence rule-based
production systems are inefficient.

Types of Knowledge Representation

Knowledge can be represented in different ways. The structuring of knowledge and how
designers might view it, as well as the type of structures used internally are considered.
Different knowledge representation techniques are
a. Logic

b. Semantic Network

c. Frame
d. Conceptual Graphs

e. Conceptual Dependency

f. Script

Logic

A logic is a formal language, with precisely defined syntax and semantics, which supports
sound inference. Different logics exist, which allow you to represent different kinds of things,
and which allow more or less efficient inference. The logic may be different types like
propositional logic, predicate logic, temporal logic, description logic etc. But representing
something in logic may not be very natural and inferences may not be efficient.

Semantic Network

A semantic network is a graphical knowledge representation technique. This knowledge

representation system is primarily on network structure. The semantic networks were
basically developed to model human memory. A semantic net consists of nodes connected by
arcs. The arcs are defined in a variety of ways, depending upon the kind of knowledge being
represented.

The main idea behind semantic net is that the meaning of a concept comes, from the ways in
which it is connected to other concepts. The semantic network consists of different nodes and
arcs. Each node should contain the information about objects and each arc should contain the
relationship between objects. Semantic nets are used to find relationships among objects by
spreading activation about from each of two nodes and seeing where the activation met this
process is called intersection search.

For example: Ram is a boy.

Semantic network by using Instances

The semantic network based knowledge representation mechanism is useful where an object
or concept is associated with many attributes and where relationships between objects are
important. Semantic nets have also been used in natural language research to represent
complex sentences expressed in English. The semantic representation is useful because it
provides a standard way of analyzing the meaning of sentence. It is a natural way to represent
relationships that would appear as ground instances of binary predicates in predicate logic. In
this case we can create one instance of each object. In instance based semantic net
representations some keywords are used like: IS A, INSTANCE, AGENT, HAS-PARTS etc.
Consider the following examples:

1. Suppose we have to represent the sentence “Sima is a girl”.

2. Ram is taller than Hari

3. “Mouse is a Rodent and Rodent is a mammal. Mouse ha s teeth and etas grass”. Check
whether the sentence mammal has teeth is valid or not. ]
Partitioned Semantic Network

Some complex sentences are there which cannot be represented by simple semantic nets and
for this we have to follow the technique partitioned semantic networks. Partitioned semantic
net allow for

1. Propositions to be made without commitment to truth.

2. Expressions to be quantified.

In partitioned semantic network, the network is broken into spaces which consist of groups of
nodes and arcs and regard each space as a node.

Let us consider few examples.

Draw the partitioned semantic network structure for the followings:

a) Sima is eating an apple.

b) All Sima are eating an apple.

c) All Sima are eating some apple.

d) All men are mortal

e) Every dog has bitten a shopkeeper

f) Every dog in town has bitten a shopkeeper.

NOTE: On the above semantic network structures, the instance “IS A” is used. Also two
terms like assailant and victim are used. Assailant means “by which the work is done” and
that of victim refers t o “on which the work is applied”. Another term namely GS, which
refers to General Statement. For GS, make a node g which is an instance of Gs. Every
element will have at least two attributes. Firstly, a form that states which a relation is being

universally quantifiable variables.

FRAME

A frame is a collection of attributes and associated values that describe some entity in the
world. Frames are general record like structures which consist of a collection of slots and slot
values. The slots may be of any size and type. Slots typically have names and values or
subfields called facets. Facets may also have names and any number of values. A frame may
have any number of slots, a slot may have any number of facets, each with any number of
values. A slot contains information such as attribute value pairs, default values, condition for
filling a slot, pointers to other related frames and procedures that are activated when needed
for different purposes. Sometimes a frame describes an entity in some absolute sense,
sometimes it represents the entity from a particular point of view. A single frame taken alone
is rarely useful. We build frame systems out of collection of frames that are connected to
each other by virtue of the fact that the value of an attribute of one frame may be another
frame. Each frame should start with an open parenthesis and closed with a closed parenthesis.
Syntax of a frame

Let us consider the below examples.

1) Create a frame of the person Ram who is a doctor. He is of 40. His wife name is Sita.
They have two children Babu and Gita. They live in 100 kps street in the city of Delhi in
India. The zip code is 756005.

(Ram

(PROFESSION (VALUE Doctor))

(AGE (VALUE 40))

(WIFE (VALUE Sita))

 (CHILDREN (VALUE Bubu, Gita))

(ADDRESS

(STREET (VALUE 100 kps))

(CITY(VALUE Delhi))

(COUNTRY(VALUE India))

(ZIP (VALUE 756005))))

2) Create a frame of the person Anand who is a chemistry professor in RD Women’s

College. His wife name is Sangita having two children Rupa and Shipa.

(Anand

(PROFESSION (VALUE Chemistry Professor))

(ADDRESS (VALUE RD Women’s College))

(WIFE (VALUE Sangita))

(CHILDREN(VALUE RupaShipa)))
 3) Create a frame of the person Akash who has a white maruti car of LX-400 Model.
It has 5 doors. Its weight is 225kg, capacity is 8, and mileage is 15 km /lit.

(Akash

(CAR (VALUE Maruti))

(COLOUR (VALUE White))

(MODEL (VALUE LX-400))

(DOOR (VALUE 5))

(WEIGHT (VALUE 225kg))

(CAPACITY (VALUE 8))

(MILAGE (VALUE 15km/lit)))

The frames can be attached with another frame and can create a network of frames. The main
task of action frame is to provide the facility for procedural attachment and help in reasoning
process. Reasoning using frames is done by instantiation. Instantiation process begins, when
the given situation is matched with frames that are already in existence. The reasoning
process tries to match the current problem state with the frame slot and assigns them
values.The values assigned to the slots depict a particular situation and by this, the reasoning
process moves towards a goal. The reasoning process can be defined as filling slot values in
frames.
Conceptual Graphs

It is a knowledge representation technique which consists of basic concepts and the

relationship between them. As the name indicates, it tries to capture the concepts about the
events and represents them in the form of a graph. A concept may be individual or generic.
An individual concept has a type field followed by a reference field. For example person :
Ram. Here person indicates type and Ram indicates reference.

An individual concept should be represented within a rectangle in graphical representation

and within a square bracket in linear representation. The generic concept should be
represented within an oval in graphical representation and within a parenthesis in linear
representation. Conceptual graph is a basic building block for associative network. Concepts
like AGENT, OBJECT, INSTRUMENT, PART are obtained from a collection of standard
concepts. New concepts and relations can be defined from these basic ones. These are also
basic building block for associative network. A linear conceptual graph is an elementary form
of this structure. A single conceptual graph is roughly equivalent to a graphical diagram of a
natural language sentence where the words are depicted as concepts and relationships.

Consider an example

“Ram is eating an apple “

Conceptual Dependency

It is an another knowledge representation technique in which we can represent any kind of

knowledge. It is based on the use of a limited number of primitive concepts and rules of
formation to represent any natural language statement. Conceptual dependency theory is
based on the use of knowledge representation methodology was primarily developed to
understand and represent natural language structures. The conceptual dependency structures
were originally developed by Roger C SChank in 1977.

If a computer program is to be developed that can understand wide phenomenon represented

by natural languages, the knowledge representation should be powerful enough to represent
these concepts. The conceptual dependency representation captures maximum concepts to
provide canonical form of meaning of sentences. Generally there are four primitives from
which the conceptual dependency structure can be described. They are
a. ACTS : Actions

b. PPs : Objects (Picture Producers)

c. AAs : Modifiers of Actions (Action Aiders)

d. Pas : Modifiers of PPs (Picture Aiders)

e. TS : Time of action

Conceptual dependency provides both a structure and a specific set of primitives at a

particular level of granularity, out of which representation of particular pieces of information
can be constructed.

For example
Where ←: Direction of dependency

Double arrow indicates two way link between actor and action.

P: Past Tense

ATRANS: One of the primitive acts used by the theory

O: The objective case relation

R: Recipient case Relation

In CD, representation of actions are built from a set of primitive acts.

1) ATRANS: Transfer of an abstract relationship (give, accept, take)

2) PTRANS: Transfer the physical location of an object ( Go, Come, Run,

Walk)

3) MTRANS: Transfer the mental information (Tell)

4) PROPEL: Application of physical force to an object (push, pull, throw)

 5) MOVE: Movement of a body part by its owner (kick).

6) GRASP: Grasping of an object by an action (clutch)

7) INGEST: Ingestion of an object by an animal (eat)

8)

EXPEL: Expel from an animal body (cry)

9) MBUILD: Building new information out of old (decide)

10) SPEAK: Production of sounds (say)

ATTEND: Focusing of a sense organ towards a stimulus (Listen)

The main goal of CD representation is to capture the implicit concept of a sentence and make
it explicit. In normal representation of the concepts, besides actor and object, other concepts
of time, location, source and destination are also mentioned. Following conceptual tenses are
used in CD representation.

1) O: Object case relationship

2) R: Recipient case relationship

3) P : Past

4) F : Future

5) Nil : Present

6) T : Transition

7) Ts : Start Transition

8) Tf : Finisher Transition
9) K : Continuing

10) ? : Interrogative

11) / : Negative

12) C : Conditional
SCRIPT

It is an another knowledge representation technique. Scripts are frame like structures used to
represent commonly occurring experiences such as going to restaurant, visiting a doctor. A
script is a structure that describes a stereotyped sequence of events in a particular context. A
script consist of a set of slots. Associated with each slot may be some information about what
kinds of values it may contain as well as a default value to be used if no other information is
available. Scripts are useful because in the real world, there are no patterns to the occurrence
of events. These patterns arise because of clausal relationships between events. The events
described in a script form a giant casual chain. The beginning of the chain is the set of entry
conditions which enable the first events of the script to occur. The end of the chain is the set
of results which may enable later events to occur. The headers of a script can all serve as
indicators that the script should be activated.

Once a script has been activated, there are a variety of ways in which it can be useful in
interpreting a particular situation. A script has the ability to predict events that has not
explicitly been observed. An important use of scripts is to provide a way of building a single
coherent interpretation from a collection of observation. Scripts are less general structures
than are frames and so are not suitable for representing all kinds of knowledge. Scripts are
very useful for representing the specific kinds of knowledge for which they were designed.

A script has various components like:

1) Entry condition: It must be true before the events described in the script can occur.
E.g. in a restaurant script the entry condition must be the customer should be hungry
and the customer has money.

2) Tracks: It specifies particular position of the script e.g. In a supermarket script the
tracks may be cloth gallery, cosmetics gallery etc.

3) Result: It must be satisfied or true after the events described in the script have
occurred. e.g. In a restaurant script the result must be true if the customer is pleased.
The customer has less money.

4) Probs: It describes the inactive or dead participants in the script e.g. In a

supermarket script, the probes may be clothes, sticks, doors, tables, bills etc.

5) Roles: It specifies the various stages of the script. E.g. In a restaurant script the scenes
may be entering, ordering etc.

Now let us look on a movie script description according to the above component.

a) Script name : Movie

b) Track : CINEMA HALL

c) Roles : Customer(c), Ticket seller(TS), Ticket Checker(TC), Snacks

Sellers (SS)

d) Probes : Ticket, snacks, chair, money, Ticket, chart

e) Entry condition : The customer has money

The customer has interest to watch movie.

6) Scenes:

a. SCENE-1 (Entering into the cinema hall)

CPTRANS C into the cinema hall

C ATTEND eyes towards the ticket counter C PTRANS C towards the ticket counters C
ATTEND eyes to the ticket chart

C MBUILD to take which class ticket C MTRANS TS for ticket

C ATRANS money to TS

TS ATRANS ticket to C

b. SCENE-2 (Entering into the main ticket check gate)

C PTRANS C into the queue of the gate C ATRANS ticket to TC

TC ATTEND eyes onto the ticket

TC MBUILD to give permission to C for entering into the hall

TC ATRANS ticket to C

C PTRANS C into the picture hall.

c. SCENE-3 (Entering into the picture hall)

 CATTEND eyes into the chair

TC SPEAK where to sit

C PTRANS C towards the sitting position

C ATTEND eyes onto the screen

d. SCENE-4 (Ordering snacks)

C MTRANS SS for snacks

SS ATRANS snacks to C

C ATRANS money to SS

C INGEST snacks e. SCENE-5 (Exit)

C ATTEND eyes onto the screen till the end of picture

C MBUILD when to go out of the hall

C PTRANS C out of the hall

7) Result:
 The customer is happy

The customer has less money

Example 2: Write a script of visiting a doctor in a hospital

1) SCRIPT_NAME : Visiting a doctor

2) TRACKS : Ent specialist

3) ROLES : Attendant (A), Nurse(N), Chemist (C), Gatekeeper(G), Counter clerk(CC),

Receptionist(R), Patient(P), Ent specialist Doctor (D), Medicine Seller (M).

4) PROBES : Money, Prescription, Medicine, Sitting chair, Doctor’s table, Thermometer,

Stetho scope, writing pad, pen, torch, stature.

5) ENTRY CONDITION: The patient need consultation. Doctor’s visiting time on.

6) SCENES:

a. SCENE-1 (Entering into the hospital)

PPTRANS P into hospital

P ATTEND eyes towards ENT department

P PTRANS P into ENT department

P PTRANS P towards the sitting chair

b. SCENE-2 (Entering into the Doctor’s Room)

 P PTRANS P into doctor’s room

P MTRANS P about the diseases

P SPEAK D about the disease

D MTRANS P for blood test, urine test

D ATRANS prescription to P

P PTRANS prescription to P.

P PTRANS P for blood and urine test

c. SCENE-3 (Entering into the Test Lab)

P PTRANS P into the test room

P ATRANS blood sample at collection room

P ATRANS urine sample at collection room

P ATRANS the examination reports

d. SCENE-4 (Entering to the Doctor’s room with Test reports)

P ATRANS the report to D

D ATTEND eyes into the report

 D MBUILD to give the medicines

D SPEAK details about the medicine to P

P ATRANS doctor’s fee

P PTRANS from doctor’s room

e. SCENE-5 (Entering towards medicine shop)

P PTRANS P towards medicine counter

P ATRANS Prescription to M

M ATTEND eyes into the prescription

M MBUILD which medicine to give

M ATRANS medicines to P

P ATRANS money to M

P PTRANS P from the medicine shop

7) RESULT:
 The patient has less money

Patient has prescription and medicine.

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Different Knowledge Representation

Unit-3

Uncertainty:

Till now, we have learned knowledge representation using first-order logic and propositional
logic with certainty, which means we were sure about the predicates. With this knowledge
representation, we might write A→B, which means if A is true then B is true, but consider a
situation where we are not sure about whether A is true or not then we cannot express this
statement, this situation is called uncertainty.

So to represent uncertain knowledge, where we are not sure about the predicates, we need
uncertain reasoning or probabilistic reasoning.

Causes of uncertainty:

Following are some leading causes of uncertainty to occur in the real world.

1. Information occurred from unreliable sources.

2. Experimental Errors

3. Equipment fault

4. Temperature variation

5. Climate change.

Reasoning in Artificial intelligence

In previous topics, we have learned various ways of knowledge representation in artificial

intelligence. Now we will learn the various ways to reason on this knowledge using different
logical schemes.

Reasoning:

The reasoning is the mental process of deriving logical conclusion and making predictions
from available knowledge, facts, and beliefs. Or we can say, "Reasoning is a way to infer
facts from existing data." It is a general process of thinking rationally, to find valid
conclusions.

In artificial intelligence, the reasoning is essential so that the machine can also think
rationally as a human brain, and can perform like a human.

Types of Reasoning

In artificial intelligence, reasoning can be divided into the following categories:

o Deductive reasoning

o Inductive reasoning

o Abductive reasoning
 o Common Sense Reasoning

o Monotonic Reasoning

o Non-monotonic Reasoning

1. Deductive reasoning:

Deductive reasoning is deducing new information from logically related known information.
It is the form of valid reasoning, which means the argument's conclusion must be true when
the premises are true.

Deductive reasoning is a type of propositional logic in AI, and it requires various rules and
facts. It is sometimes referred to as top-down reasoning, and contradictory to inductive
reasoning.

In deductive reasoning, the truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion.

Deductive reasoning mostly starts from the general premises to the specific conclusion,
which can be explained as below example.

Example:

Premise-1: All the human eats veggies

Premise-2: Suresh is human.

Conclusion: Suresh eats veggies.

The general process of deductive reasoning is given below:

2. Inductive Reasoning:

Inductive reasoning is a form of reasoning to arrive at a conclusion using limited sets of facts
by the process of generalization. It starts with the series of specific facts or data and reaches
to a general statement or conclusion.

Inductive reasoning is a type of propositional logic, which is also known as cause-effect

reasoning or bottom-up reasoning.
In inductive reasoning, we use historical data or various premises to generate a generic rule,
for which premises support the conclusion.

In inductive reasoning, premises provide probable supports to the conclusion, so the truth of
premises does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion.

Example:

Premise: All of the pigeons we have seen in the zoo are white.

Conclusion: Therefore, we can expect all the pigeons to be white.

3. Abductive reasoning:

Abductive reasoning is a form of logical reasoning which starts with single or multiple
observations then seeks to find the most likely explanation or conclusion for the observation.

Abductive reasoning is an extension of deductive reasoning, but in abductive reasoning, the

premises do not guarantee the conclusion.

Example:

Implication: Cricket ground is wet if it is raining

Axiom: Cricket ground is wet.

Conclusion It is raining.

4. Common Sense Reasoning

Common sense reasoning is an informal form of reasoning, which can be gained through
experiences.

Common Sense reasoning simulates the human ability to make presumptions about events
which occurs on every day.

It relies on good judgment rather than exact logic and operates on heuristic
knowledge and heuristic rules.

Example:

1. One person can be at one place at a time.

 2. If I put my hand in a fire, then it will burn.

The above two statements are the examples of common sense reasoning which a human mind
can easily understand and assume.

5. Monotonic Reasoning:

In monotonic reasoning, once the conclusion is taken, then it will remain the same even if we
add some other information to existing information in our knowledge base. In monotonic
reasoning, adding knowledge does not decrease the set of prepositions that can be derived.

To solve monotonic problems, we can derive the valid conclusion from the available facts
only, and it will not be affected by new facts.

Monotonic reasoning is not useful for the real-time systems, as in real time, facts get
changed, so we cannot use monotonic reasoning.

Monotonic reasoning is used in conventional reasoning systems, and a logic-based system is

monotonic.

Any theorem proving is an example of monotonic reasoning.

Example:

o Earth revolves around the Sun.

It is a true fact, and it cannot be changed even if we add another sentence in knowledge base
like, "The moon revolves around the earth" Or "Earth is not round," etc.

Advantages of Monotonic Reasoning:

o In monotonic reasoning, each old proof will always remain valid.

o If we deduce some facts from available facts, then it will remain valid for always.

Disadvantages of Monotonic Reasoning:

o We cannot represent the real world scenarios using Monotonic reasoning.

o Hypothesis knowledge cannot be expressed with monotonic reasoning, which means

facts should be true.

o Since we can only derive conclusions from the old proofs, so new knowledge from
the real world cannot be added.
6. Non-monotonic Reasoning

In Non-monotonic reasoning, some conclusions may be invalidated if we add some more

information to our knowledge base.

Logic will be said as non-monotonic if some conclusions can be invalidated by adding more
knowledge into our knowledge base.

Non-monotonic reasoning deals with incomplete and uncertain models.

"Human perceptions for various things in daily life, "is a general example of non-monotonic
reasoning.

Example: Let suppose the knowledge base contains the following knowledge:

o Birds can fly

o Penguins cannot fly

o Pitty is a bird

So from the above sentences, we can conclude that Pitty can fly.

However, if we add one another sentence into knowledge base "Pitty is a penguin", which
concludes "Pitty cannot fly", so it invalidates the above conclusion.

Advantages of Non-monotonic reasoning:

o For real-world systems such as Robot navigation, we can use non-monotonic

reasoning.

o In Non-monotonic reasoning, we can choose probabilistic facts or can make

assumptions.

Disadvantages of Non-monotonic Reasoning:

o In non-monotonic reasoning, the old facts may be invalidated by adding new

sentences.

o It cannot be used for theorem proving.

Difference between Inductive and Deductive reasoning

Reasoning in artificial intelligence has two important forms, Inductive reasoning, and
Deductive reasoning. Both reasoning forms have premises and conclusions, but both
reasoning are contradictory to each other. Following is a list for comparison between
inductive and deductive reasoning:
 o Deductive reasoning uses available facts, information, or knowledge to deduce a valid
conclusion, whereas inductive reasoning involves making a generalization from
specific facts, and observations.

o Deductive reasoning uses a top-down approach, whereas inductive reasoning uses a

bottom-up approach.

o Deductive reasoning moves from generalized statement to a valid conclusion, whereas

Inductive reasoning moves from specific observation to a generalization.

o In deductive reasoning, the conclusions are certain, whereas, in Inductive reasoning,

the conclusions are probabilistic.

o Deductive arguments can be valid or invalid, which means if premises are true, the
conclusion must be true, whereas inductive argument can be strong or weak, which
means conclusion may be false even if premises are true.

Comparison Chart:

Basis for Deductive Reasoning Inductive Reasoning

comparison

Definition Deductive reasoning is the Inductive reasoning arrives at a

form of valid reasoning, to conclusion by the process of
deduce new information or generalization using specific facts or
conclusion from known data.
related facts and information.

Approach Deductive reasoning follows a Inductive reasoning follows a bottom-

top-down approach. up approach.

Starts from Deductive reasoning starts Inductive reasoning starts from the
from Premises. Conclusion.
Validity In deductive reasoning In inductive reasoning, the truth of
conclusion must be true if the premises does not guarantee the truth
premises are true. of conclusions.

Usage Use of deductive reasoning is Use of inductive reasoning is fast and

difficult, as we need facts easy, as we need evidence instead of
which must be true. true facts. We often use it in our daily
life.

Process Theory→ hypothesis→ Observations-

patterns→confirmation. →patterns→hypothesis→Theory.

Argument In deductive reasoning, In inductive reasoning, arguments may

arguments may be valid or be weak or strong.
invalid.

Structure Deductive reasoning reaches Inductive reasoning reaches from

from general facts to specific specific facts to general facts.
facts.

Truth Maintenance System (TMS):

The logics are known as monotonic logics. The conclusions derived using such logics are
valid deductions, and they remain so for all times. Adding new axioms increases the amount
of knowledge contained in the knowledge base. Therefore, the set of facts and inferences in
such systems can only grow larger; they cannot be reduced; that is, they increase
monotonically.

The form of reasoning referred to above, on the other hand, is non-monotonic. New facts
become known which can contradict and can invalidate the old knowledge. The old
knowledge is retracted causing other dependent knowledge to become invalid, thereby
requiring further retractions. The retractions lead to a shrinkage or growth of knowledge base,
called non-monotonic growth in the knowledge, at times.

This can be illustrated by a real-life situation. Suppose a young boy Sahu enjoys seeing
movie in a cinema hall on the first day of its release. He insists upon his grand father, Mr.
Girish in accompanying him. Mr. Girish has agreed to accompany Sahu there on the
following Friday evening. On the Thursday, when forecasts predicted heavy snow.

Now, believing the weather would discourage most senior citizens, Girish changed his mind
of joining Mr. Sahu. But, unexpectedly, on the given Friday, the forecasts proved to be false;
so Mr. Girish once again went to see movie. This is the case of non-monotonic reasoning.

It is not reasonable to expect that all the knowledge needed for a set of tasks could be
acquired, validated, and loaded into the system at the outset. More typically, the initial
knowledge will be incomplete, contain redundancies, inconsistencies, and other sources of
uncertainty. Even if it were possible to assemble complete, valid knowledge initially, it
probably would not remain valid forever, more so in a continually changing environment.

In an attempt to model real-world, commonsense reasoning, researchers have proposed

extensions and alternatives to traditional logics such as Predicate Logic and First Order
Predicate Logic. The extensions accommodate such real time forms of uncertainty and non-
monotony as experienced by our subject, Mr. Girish.

We now give a description of Truth maintenance systems (TMS), which have been
implemented to permit a form of non-monotonic reasoning by permitting the addition of
changing (even contradictory) statements to a knowledge base. Truth maintenance system
(also known as belief revision system) is a companion component to inference system.

The main object of the TMS is the maintenance of the knowledge base used by the problem
solving system and not to perform any inference. As such, it frees the problem solver from
any concerns of knowledge consistency check when new knowledge gets added or deleted
and allows it to concentrate on the problem solution aspects.

The TMS also gives the inference component the latitude to perform non-monotonic
inferences. When new discoveries are made, this more recent information can displace the
previous conclusions which are no longer valid.

In this way, the set of beliefs available to the problem solver will continue to be current and
consistent.

Fig. 7.1 illustrates the role played by the TMS as a part of the problem solving system. The
Inference Engine (IE) from the expert system or decision support system solves domain
specific problems based on its current belief set, maintained by the TMS. The updating
process is incremental. After each inference, information is exchanged between the two
components the IE and the TMS.
The IE tells the TMS what deductions it has made. The TMS, in turn, asks questions about
current beliefs and reasons for failure of earlier statements. It maintains a consistent set of
beliefs for the IE to work with when the new knowledge is added or removed.

For example, suppose the knowledge base (KB) contained only the propositions P and
P → Q, and modus ponens. From this, the IE would rightfully conclude Q and add this
conclusion to the KB. Later, if it was learned that ∼P become true it would be added to the
KB resulting in P becoming false leading to a contradiction. Consequently, it would be
necessary to remove P to eliminate the inconsistency. But, with P now removed, Q is no
longer a justified belief. It too should be removed. This type of belief revision is the job of the
TMS.
Actually, the TMS does not discard conclusions like Q as suggested. That could be wasteful,
since P may again become valid, which would require that Q and facts justified by Q be re-
derived. Instead, the TMS maintains dependency records for all such conclusions.

These records determine which set of beliefs are current and are to be used by the IE. Thus, Q
would be removed from the current belief set by making appropriate updates to the records
and not by erasing Q. Since Q would not be lost, its re-derivation would not be necessary if
and when P became valid once again.

The TMS maintains complete records of reasons or justifications for beliefs. Each proposition
or statement having at least one valid justification is made a part of the current belief set.
Statements lacking acceptable justifications are excluded from this set.

When a contradiction is discovered, the statements responsible for the contradiction are
identified and an appropriate one is retracted. This in turn may result in other reactions and
additions. The procedure used to perform this process is called dependency directed back
tracking which will be explained shortly.
The TMS maintains records to show retractions and additions so that the IE will always know
its current belief set. The records are maintained in the form of a dependency network. The
nodes in the network represent KB entries such as premises, conclusions, inference rules etc.

To the nodes are also attached justifications which represent the inference steps from which
the node was derived. Nodes in the belief set must have valid justifications. A premise is a
fundamental belief which is assumed to be always true and need no justifications. In fact,
they form a base from which all other currently active nodes can be explained in terms of
valid justification.

There are two types of justification records maintained for nodes:

1. Support Lists (SL) and

2. Conceptual Dependencies (CP).

SLs are more common. They provide the supporting justifications for nodes. The SL contains
two lists of other dependent node names, an in-list and an out-list. It has the form.

SL <in-list> <out-list>

For a node to be active (labeled as IN the belief set), its SL must have at least one valid node
in its in-list, and all nodes named in its out-list, if any, must be marked OUT of the belief set.
For example, a current belief set which represents that Oosho is a non-flying bird (an ostrich)
might have the nodes and justifications listed in Table 7.1.

Each IN-node given in Table 7.1, is part of the current belief set. Nodesn 1 and n5 are
premises. They have empty support lists since they do not require justifications. Node n2, the
belief that Oosho can fly is out because n3; a valid node, is in the out-list of n2.

Suppose later on it is discovered that Oosho is not an ostrich, thereby causing n 5 to be

retraced as OUT. Then n3, which depends on n5, must be also retracted. This, in turn,
changes the status of n2 to be a justified node. The resultant belief set is now that the bird
Oosho can fly.

For representation of a belief network the symbol conventions shown in Fig. 7.2 are quite
often used.

The meaning of the nodes shown in the figure are:

(1) A premise is a true proposition requiring no justification,

(2) An assumption is a proposition which is held true because there is no evidence against
that,

(3) A datum is either a currently assumed or IE derived belief, and

(4) Justifications are the belief nodes consisting of supporting antecedent node links and a
consequent node link.

An example of a typical network representation is given in Fig. 7.3. Nodes T, U, and W are
OUT since they lack needed support from P. If the node labeled P is made IN for some
reason, the TMS would update the network by propagating the “in ness” support provided by
node P to make T, U, and WIN.
When a contradiction is discovered, the TMS locates the source of the contradiction and
corrects it by retracting one of the contributing sources. It does this by checking the support
lists of the contradictory node and going directly to the source of the contradiction.

It goes directly to the source by examining the dependency structure supporting the
justification and fixing the annoying nodes, (‘guilty’ premises), thereby dismantling the
justification for the contradiction.

This is in contrast to the chronological backtracking approach mentioned many times, which
would search a deduction tree sequentially, node-by-node until the contradictory node is
reached. Backtracking directly to the node causing the contradiction is known as
Dependency-Directed Backtracking (DDB). This is clearly a more efficient search strategy
than chronological backtracking. By backtracking directly to the source of a contradiction
extra search time is saved.

TMS discussed above concentrates on maintaining a single, consistent world, model.

However, sometimes it is convenient to perform reasoning in the context of different
hypothetical worlds, which may or may not resemble the way the world actually is. For
example, in doing diagnosis, it is often worthwhile to assume that a certain fault has occurred
and then make predictions on the basis of this assumption and see if they are backed up by
evidence.

This strategy is particularly useful if there are a large number of hypothesis competing to
account for the observations, with the possibility that a composite hypothesis may be required
to cover all of them. Another domain of application might be arrangement problems/where
the hypothetical worlds represent different ways of arranging objects to satisfy a set of
constraints.

To maintain multiple contexts more sophisticated systems are Logic-based TSM and
assumption based TMS among others. Other more sophisticated systems are Logic-based
TMS (LTMS), assumption-based TMS (ATMS) among others.
Default Logic

For example, if x is an adult and it is consistent to assume that x can drive, then infer that x
can drive. Formula:
Here, M is the consistency operator.
Probabilistic reasoning:

Probabilistic reasoning is a way of knowledge representation where we apply the concept of

probability to indicate the uncertainty in knowledge. In probabilistic reasoning, we combine
probability theory with logic to handle the uncertainty.

We use probability in probabilistic reasoning because it provides a way to handle the

uncertainty that is the result of someone's laziness and ignorance.

In the real world, there are lots of scenarios, where the certainty of something is not
confirmed, such as "It will rain today," "behavior of someone for some situations," "A match
between two teams or two players." These are probable sentences for which we can assume
that it will happen but not sure about it, so here we use probabilistic reasoning.

Need of probabilistic reasoning in AI:

o When there are unpredictable outcomes.

o When specifications or possibilities of predicates becomes too large to handle.
 o When an unknown error occurs during an experiment.

In probabilistic reasoning, there are two ways to solve problems with uncertain knowledge:

o Bayes' rule
o Bayesian Statistics

As probabilistic reasoning uses probability and related terms, so before understanding

probabilistic reasoning, let's understand some common terms:

Probability: Probability can be defined as a chance that an uncertain event will occur. It is
the numerical measure of the likelihood that an event will occur. The value of probability
always remains between 0 and 1 that represent ideal uncertainties.

1. 0 ≤ P(A) ≤ 1, where P(A) is the probability of an event A.

1. P(A) = 0, indicates total uncertainty in an event A.

1. P(A) =1, indicates total certainty in an event A.

We can find the probability of an uncertain event by using the below formula.

o P(¬A) = probability of a not happening event.

o P(¬A) + P(A) = 1.

Event: Each possible outcome of a variable is called an event.

Sample space: The collection of all possible events is called sample space.

Random variables: Random variables are used to represent the events and objects in the real
world.

Prior probability: The prior probability of an event is probability computed before

observing new information.

Posterior Probability: The probability that is calculated after all evidence or information has
taken into account. It is a combination of prior probability and new information.

Conditional probability:

Conditional probability is a probability of occurring an event when another event has already
happened.
Let's suppose, we want to calculate the event A when event B has already occurred, "the
probability of A under the conditions of B", it can be written as:

Where P(A⋀B)= Joint probability of a and B

P(B)= Marginal probability of B.

If the probability of A is given and we need to find the probability of B, then it will be given
as:

It can be explained by using the below Venn diagram, where B is occurred event, so sample
space will be reduced to set B, and now we can only calculate event A when event B is
already occurred by dividing the probability of P(A⋀B) by P( B ).

Example:

In a class, there are 70% of the students who like English and 40% of the students who likes
English and mathematics, and then what is the percent of students those who like English also
like mathematics?

Solution:

Let, A is an event that a student likes Mathematics

B is an event that a student likes English.

 Hence, 57% are the students who like English also like Mathematics.

Bayes' theorem in Artificial intelligence

Bayes' theorem:

Bayes' theorem is also known as Bayes' rule, Bayes' law, or Bayesian reasoning, which
determines the probability of an event with uncertain knowledge.

In probability theory, it relates the conditional probability and marginal probabilities of two
random events.

Bayes' theorem was named after the British mathematician Thomas Bayes. The Bayesian
inference is an application of Bayes' theorem, which is fundamental to Bayesian statistics.

It is a way to calculate the value of P(B|A) with the knowledge of P(A|B).

Bayes' theorem allows updating the probability prediction of an event by observing new
information of the real world.

Example: If cancer corresponds to one's age then by using Bayes' theorem, we can determine
the probability of cancer more accurately with the help of age.

Bayes' theorem can be derived using product rule and conditional probability of event A with
known event B:

As from product rule we can write:

1. P(A ⋀ B)= P(A|B) P(B) or

Similarly, the probability of event B with known event A:

1. P(A ⋀ B)= P(B|A) P(A)

Equating right hand side of both the equations, we will get:

The above equation (a) is called as Bayes' rule or Bayes' theorem. This equation is basic of
most modern AI systems for probabilistic inference.

It shows the simple relationship between joint and conditional probabilities. Here,
P(A|B) is known as posterior, which we need to calculate, and it will be read as Probability
of hypothesis A when we have occurred an evidence B.

P(B|A) is called the likelihood, in which we consider that hypothesis is true, then we calculate
the probability of evidence.

P(A) is called the prior probability, probability of hypothesis before considering the
evidence

P(B) is called marginal probability, pure probability of an evidence.

In the equation (a), in general, we can write P (B) = P(A)*P(B|Ai), hence the Bayes' rule can
be written as:

Where A1, A2, A3,........, An is a set of mutually exclusive and exhaustive events.

Applying Bayes' rule:

Bayes' rule allows us to compute the single term P(B|A) in terms of P(A|B), P(B), and P(A).
This is very useful in cases where we have a good probability of these three terms and want
to determine the fourth one. Suppose we want to perceive the effect of some unknown cause,
and want to compute that cause, then the Bayes' rule becomes:

Example-1:

Question: what is the probability that a patient has diseases meningitis with a stiff
neck?

Given Data:

A doctor is aware that disease meningitis causes a patient to have a stiff neck, and it occurs
80% of the time. He is also aware of some more facts, which are given as follows:

o The Known probability that a patient has meningitis disease is 1/30,000.

o The Known probability that a patient has a stiff neck is 2%.

Let a be the proposition that patient has stiff neck and b be the proposition that patient has
meningitis. , so we can calculate the following as:
P(a|b) = 0.8

P(b) = 1/30000

P(a)= .02

Hence, we can assume that 1 patient out of 750 patients has meningitis disease with a stiff
neck.

Example-2:

Question: From a standard deck of playing cards, a single card is drawn. The
probability that the card is king is 4/52, then calculate posterior probability
P(King|Face), which means the drawn face card is a king card.

Solution:

P(king): probability that the card is King= 4/52= 1/13

P(face): probability that a card is a face card= 3/13

P(Face|King): probability of face card when we assume it is a king = 1

Putting all values in equation (i) we will get:

Application of Bayes' theorem in Artificial intelligence:

Following are some applications of Bayes' theorem:

o It is used to calculate the next step of the robot when the already executed step is
given.
o Bayes' theorem is helpful in weather forecasting.
o It can solve the Monty Hall problem.
Bayesian Belief Network in artificial intelligence

Bayesian belief network is key computer technology for dealing with probabilistic events and
to solve a problem which has uncertainty. We can define a Bayesian network as:

"A Bayesian network is a probabilistic graphical model which represents a set of variables
and their conditional dependencies using a directed acyclic graph."

It is also called a Bayes network, belief network, decision network, or Bayesian model.

Bayesian networks are probabilistic, because these networks are built from a probability
distribution, and also use probability theory for prediction and anomaly detection.

Real world applications are probabilistic in nature, and to represent the relationship between
multiple events, we need a Bayesian network. It can also be used in various tasks
including prediction, anomaly detection, diagnostics, automated insight, reasoning, time
series prediction, and decision making under uncertainty.

Bayesian Network can be used for building models from data and experts opinions, and it
consists of two parts:

o Directed Acyclic Graph

o Table of conditional probabilities.

The generalized form of Bayesian network that represents and solve decision problems under
uncertain knowledge is known as an Influence diagram.

A Bayesian network graph is made up of nodes and Arcs (directed links), where:
 o Each node corresponds to the random variables, and a variable can
be continuous or discrete.

o Arc or directed arrows represent the causal relationship or conditional probabilities

between random variables. These directed links or arrows connect the pair of nodes in
the graph.
These links represent that one node directly influence the other node, and if there is no
directed link that means that nodes are independent with each other

o In the above diagram, A, B, C, and D are random variables represented

by the nodes of the network graph.

o If we are considering node B, which is connected with node A by a

directed arrow, then node A is called the parent of Node B.

o Node C is independent of node A.

Note: The Bayesian network graph does not contain any cyclic graph. Hence, it is known as
a directed acyclic graph or DAG.

The Bayesian network has mainly two components:

o Causal Component
 o Actual numbers

Each node in the Bayesian network has condition probability distribution P(Xi |Parent(Xi) ),
which determines the effect of the parent on that node.

Bayesian network is based on Joint probability distribution and conditional probability. So

let's first understand the joint probability distribution:

Joint probability distribution:

If we have variables x1, x2, x3,....., xn, then the probabilities of a different combination of x1,
x2, x3.. xn, are known as Joint probability distribution.

P[x1, x2, x3,....., xn], it can be written as the following way in terms of the joint probability
distribution.

= P[x1| x2, x3,....., xn]P[x2, x3,....., xn]

= P[x1| x2, x3,....., xn]P[x2|x3,....., xn]....P[xn-1|xn]P[xn].

In general for each variable Xi, we can write the equation as:

P(Xi|Xi-1,........., X1) = P(Xi |Parents(Xi ))

Explanation of Bayesian network:

Let's understand the Bayesian network through an example by creating a directed acyclic
graph:

Example: Harry installed a new burglar alarm at his home to detect burglary. The alarm
reliably responds at detecting a burglary but also responds for minor earthquakes. Harry has
two neighbors David and Sophia, who have taken a responsibility to inform Harry at work
when they hear the alarm. David always calls Harry when he hears the alarm, but sometimes
he got confused with the phone ringing and calls at that time too. On the other hand, Sophia
likes to listen to high music, so sometimes she misses to hear the alarm. Here we would like
to compute the probability of Burglary Alarm.

Problem:

Calculate the probability that alarm has sounded, but there is neither a burglary, nor
an earthquake occurred, and David and Sophia both called the Harry.

Solution:

o The Bayesian network for the above problem is given below. The network structure is
showing that burglary and earthquake is the parent node of the alarm and directly
 affecting the probability of alarm's going off, but David and Sophia's calls depend on
alarm probability.

o The network is representing that our assumptions do not directly perceive the burglary
and also do not notice the minor earthquake, and they also not confer before calling.

o The conditional distributions for each node are given as conditional probabilities table
or CPT.

o Each row in the CPT must be sum to 1 because all the entries in the table represent an
exhaustive set of cases for the variable.

o In CPT, a boolean variable with k boolean parents contains 2K probabilities. Hence, if

there are two parents, then CPT will contain 4 probability values

List of all events occurring in this network:

o Burglary (B)

o Earthquake(E)

o Alarm(A)

o David Calls(D)

o Sophia calls(S)

We can write the events of problem statement in the form of probability: P[D, S, A, B, E],
can rewrite the above probability statement using joint probability distribution:

P[D, S, A, B, E]= P[D | S, A, B, E]. P[S, A, B, E]

=P[D | S, A, B, E]. P[S | A, B, E]. P[A, B, E]

= P [D| A]. P [ S| A, B, E]. P[ A, B, E]

= P[D | A]. P[ S | A]. P[A| B, E]. P[B, E]

= P[D | A ]. P[S | A]. P[A| B, E]. P[B |E]. P[E]

Let's take the observed probability for the Burglary and earthquake component:

P(B= True) = 0.002, which is the probability of burglary.

P(B= False)= 0.998, which is the probability of no burglary.

P(E= True)= 0.001, which is the probability of a minor earthquake

P(E= False)= 0.999, Which is the probability that an earthquake not occurred.

We can provide the conditional probabilities as per the below tables:

Conditional probability table for Alarm A:

The Conditional probability of Alarm A depends on Burglar and earthquake:

B E P(A= True) P(A= False)

True True 0.94 0.06

True False 0.95 0.04

False True 0.31 0.69

False False 0.001 0.999

Conditional probability table for David Calls:

The Conditional probability of David that he will call depends on the probability of Alarm.

A P(D= True) P(D= False)

True 0.91 0.09

False 0.05 0.95

Conditional probability table for Sophia Calls:

The Conditional probability of Sophia that she calls is depending on its Parent Node "Alarm."

A P(S= True) P(S= False)

True 0.75 0.25

False 0.02 0.98

From the formula of joint distribution, we can write the problem statement in the form of
probability distribution:

P(S, D, A, ¬B, ¬E) = P (S|A) *P (D|A)*P (A|¬B ^ ¬E) *P (¬B) *P (¬E).

= 0.75* 0.91* 0.001* 0.998*0.999

= 0.00068045.

Hence, a Bayesian network can answer any query about the domain by using Joint
distribution.

The semantics of Bayesian Network:

There are two ways to understand the semantics of the Bayesian network, which is given
below:

1. To understand the network as the representation of the Joint probability distribution.

It is helpful to understand how to construct the network.

2. To understand the network as an encoding of a collection of conditional independence

statements.

It is helpful in designing inference procedure.

What is Fuzzy Logic?

The 'Fuzzy' word means the things that are not clear or are vague. Sometimes, we cannot
decide in real life that the given problem or statement is either true or false. At that time, this
concept provides many values between the true and false and gives the flexibility to find the
best solution to that problem.

Example of Fuzzy Logic as comparing to Boolean Logic

Fuzzy logic contains the multiple logical values and these values are the truth values of a
variable or problem between 0 and 1. This concept was introduced by Lotfi
Zadeh in 1965 based on the Fuzzy Set Theory. This concept provides the possibilities which
are not given by computers, but similar to the range of possibilities generated by humans.

In the Boolean system, only two possibilities (0 and 1) exist, where 1 denotes the absolute
truth value and 0 denotes the absolute false value. But in the fuzzy system, there are multiple
possibilities present between the 0 and 1, which are partially false and partially true.

CERTAINLY YES
POSSIBLY YES
CANNOT SAY
POSSIBLY NO
 CERTAINLY NO

Implementation
 It can be implemented in systems with various sizes and capabilities ranging from
small micro-controllers to large, networked, workstation-based control systems.
 It can be implemented in hardware, software, or a combination of both.
Why do we use Fuzzy Logic?

Generally, we use the fuzzy logic system for both commercial and practical purposes such as:

 It controls machines and consumer products

 If not accurate reasoning, it at least provides acceptable reasoning
 This helps in dealing with the uncertainty in engineering

Architecture of a Fuzzy Logic System

In the architecture of the Fuzzy Logic system, each component plays an important role. The
architecture consists of the different four components which are given below.

1. Rule Base

2. Fuzzification

3. Inference Engine

4. Defuzzification

Following diagram shows the architecture or process of a Fuzzy Logic system:

1. Rule Base

Rule Base is a component used for storing the set of rules and the If-Then conditions given
by the experts are used for controlling the decision-making systems. There are so many
updates that come in the Fuzzy theory recently, which offers effective methods for designing
and tuning of fuzzy controllers. These updates or developments decreases the number of
fuzzy set of rules.

2. Fuzzification

Fuzzification is a module or component for transforming the system inputs, i.e., it converts
the crisp number into fuzzy steps. The crisp numbers are those inputs which are measured by
the sensors and then fuzzification passed them into the control systems for further processing.
This component divides the input signals into following five states in any Fuzzy Logic
system:

o Large Positive (LP)

o Medium Positive (MP)

o Small (S)

o Medium Negative (MN)

o Large negative (LN)

3. Inference Engine

This component is a main component in any Fuzzy Logic system (FLS), because all the
information is processed in the Inference Engine. It allows users to find the matching degree
between the current fuzzy input and the rules. After the matching degree, this system
determines which rule is to be added according to the given input field. When all rules are
fired, then they are combined for developing the control actions.

4. Defuzzification

Defuzzification is a module or component, which takes the fuzzy set inputs generated by
the Inference Engine, and then transforms them into a crisp value. It is the last step in the
process of a fuzzy logic system. The crisp value is a type of value which is acceptable by the
user. Various techniques are present to do this, but the user has to select the best one for
reducing the errors.

Membership Function

The membership function is a function which represents the graph of fuzzy sets, and allows
users to quantify the linguistic term. It is a graph which is used for mapping each element of
x to the value between 0 and 1.

This function is also known as indicator or characteristics function.

This function of Membership was introduced in the first papers of fuzzy set by Zadeh. For
the Fuzzy set B, the membership function for X is defined as: μB:X → [0,1]. In this function
X, each element of set B is mapped to the value between 0 and 1. This is called a degree of
membership or membership value.

The triangular membership function shapes are most common among various other
membership function shapes such as trapezoidal, singleton, and Gaussian.
Here, the input to 5-level fuzzifier varies from -10 volts to +10 volts. Hence the
corresponding output also changes.

Example of a Fuzzy Logic System

Let us consider an air conditioning system with 5-level fuzzy logic system. This system
adjusts the temperature of air conditioner by comparing the room temperature and the target
temperature value.
Algorithm

 Define linguistic Variables and terms (start)

 Construct membership functions for them. (start)
 Construct knowledge base of rules (start)
 Convert crisp data into fuzzy data sets using membership functions. (fuzzification)
 Evaluate rules in the rule base. (Inference Engine)
 Combine results from each rule. (Inference Engine)
 Convert output data into non-fuzzy values. (defuzzification)
Development
Step 1 − Define linguistic variables and terms
Linguistic variables are input and output variables in the form of simple words or sentences.
For room temperature, cold, warm, hot, etc., are linguistic terms.
Temperature (t) = {very-cold, cold, warm, very-warm, hot}
Every member of this set is a linguistic term and it can cover some portion of overall
temperature values.
Step 2 − Construct membership functions for them
The membership functions of temperature variable are as shown −
Step3 − Construct knowledge base rules
Create a matrix of room temperature values versus target temperature values that an air
conditioning system is expected to provide.

RoomTemp.
Very_Cold Cold Warm Hot Very_Hot
/Target

Very_Cold No_Change Heat Heat Heat Heat

Cold Cool No_Change Heat Heat Heat

Warm Cool Cool No_Change Heat Heat

Hot Cool Cool Cool No_Change Heat

Very_Hot Cool Cool Cool Cool No_Change

Build a set of rules into the knowledge base in the form of IF-THEN-ELSE structures.

Sr. No. Condition Action

 1 IF temperature=(Cold OR Very_Cold) AND target=Warm THEN Heat

2 IF temperature=(Hot OR Very_Hot) AND target=Warm THEN Cool

3 IF (temperature=Warm) AND (target=Warm) THEN No_Change

Step 4 − Obtain fuzzy value

Fuzzy set operations perform evaluation of rules. The operations used for OR and AND are
Max and Min respectively. Combine all results of evaluation to form a final result. This
result is a fuzzy value.
Step 5 − Perform defuzzification
Defuzzification is then performed according to membership function for output variable.

Application Areas of Fuzzy Logic

The key application areas of fuzzy logic are as given −

Automotive Systems

 Automatic Gearboxes
 Four-Wheel Steering
 Vehicle environment control
Consumer Electronic Goods

 Hi-Fi Systems
 Photocopiers
 Still and Video Cameras
  Television
Domestic Goods

 Microwave Ovens
 Refrigerators
 Toasters
 Vacuum Cleaners
 Washing Machines
Environment Control

 Air Conditioners/Dryers/Heaters
 Humidifiers

Classical and Fuzzy Set Theory

To learn about classical and Fuzzy set theory, firstly you have to know about what is set.

Set

A set is a term, which is a collection of unordered or ordered elements. Following are the
various examples of a set:

1. A set of all-natural numbers

2. A set of students in a class.

3. A set of all cities in a state.

4. A set of upper-case letters of the alphabet.

Types of Set:

There are following various categories of set:

1. Finite

2. Empty

3. Infinite

4. Proper

5. Universal
 6. Subset

7. Singleton

8. Equivalent Set

9. Disjoint Set

Classical Set

It is a type of set which collects the distinct objects in a group. The sets with the crisp
boundaries are classical sets. In any set, each single entity is called an element or member of
that set.

Mathematical Representation of Sets

Any set can be easily denoted in the following two different ways:

1. Roaster Form: This is also called as a tabular form. In this form, the set is represented in
the following way:

Set_name = { element1, element2, element3, ......, element N}

The elements in the set are enclosed within the brackets and separated by the commas.

Following are the two examples which describes the set in Roaster or Tabular form:

Example 1:

Set of Natural Numbers: N={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, ......,n).

Example 2:

Set of Prime Numbers less than 50: X={2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47}.

2. Set Builder Form: Set Builder form defines a set with the common properties of an
element in a set. In this form, the set is represented in the following way:

A = {x:p(x)}

The following example describes the set in the builder form:

The set {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18} is written as:
B = {x:2 ≤ x < 20 and (x%2) = 0}
Operations on Classical Set

Following are the various operations which are performed on the classical sets:

1. Union Operation

2. Intersection Operation

3. Difference Operation

4. Complement Operation

1. Union:

This operation is denoted by (A U B). A U B is the set of those elements which exist in two
different sets A and B. This operation combines all the elements from both the sets and make
a new set. It is also called a Logical OR operation.

It can be described as:

A ∪ B = { x | x ∈ A OR x ∈ B }.

Example:

Set A = {10, 11, 12, 13}, Set B = {11, 12, 13, 14, 15}, then A ∪ B = {10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15}

2. Intersection

This operation is denoted by (A ∩ B). A ∩ B is the set of those elements which are common
in both set A and B. It is also called a Logical OR operation.

It can be described as:

A ∩ B = { x | x ∈ A AND x ∈ B }.

Example:

Set A = {10, 11, 12, 13}, Set B = {11, 12, 14} then A ∩ B = {11, 12}

3. Difference Operation

This operation is denoted by (A - B). A-B is the set of only those elements which exist only
in set A but not in set B.

It can be described as:

A - B = { x | x ∈ A AND x ∉ B }.
4. Complement Operation: This operation is denoted by (A`). It is applied on a single set.
A` is the set of elements which do not exist in set A.

It can be described as:

A′ = {x|x ∉ A}.

Properties of Classical Set

There are following various properties which play an essential role for finding the solution of
a fuzzy logic problem.

1. Commutative Property:

This property provides the following two states which are obtained by two finite sets A and
B:

A∪B=B∪A
A∩B=B∩A

2. Associative Property:

This property also provides the following two states but these are obtained by three different
finite sets A, B, and C:

A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C
A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C

3. Idempotency Property:

This property also provides the following two states but for a single finite set A:

A∪A=A
A∩A=A

4. Absorption Property

This property also provides the following two states for any two finite sets A and B:

A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A
A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A

5. Distributive Property:

This property also provides the following two states for any three finite sets A, B, and C:
A∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B)∩ (A ∪ C)
A∩ (B ∪ C) = (A∩B) ∪ (A∩C)

6. Identity Property:

This property provides the following four states for any finite set A and Universal set X:

A ∪ φ =A
A∩X=A
A∩φ=φ
A∪X=X

7. Transitive property

This property provides the following state for the finite sets A, B, and C:

If A ⊆ B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C

8. Ivolution property

This property provides following state for any finite set A:

9. De Morgan's Law

This law gives the following rules for providing the contradiction and tautologies:

Fuzzy Set

The set theory of classical is the subset of Fuzzy set theory. Fuzzy logic is based on this
theory, which is a generalisation of the classical theory of set (i.e., crisp set) introduced by
Zadeh in 1965.

A fuzzy set is a collection of values which exist between 0 and 1. Fuzzy sets are denoted or
represented by the tilde (~) character. The sets of Fuzzy theory were introduced in 1965 by
Lofti A. Zadeh and Dieter Klaua. In the fuzzy set, the partial membership also exists. This
theory released as an extension of classical set theory.
This theory is denoted mathematically as A fuzzy set (Ã) is a pair of U and M, where U is the
Universe of discourse and M is the membership function which takes on values in the interval
[ 0, 1 ]. The universe of discourse (U) is also denoted by Ω or X.

Operations on Fuzzy Set

Given à and B are the two fuzzy sets, and X be the universe of discourse with the following
respective member functions:

The operations of Fuzzy set are as follows:

1. Union Operation: The union operation of a fuzzy set is defined by:

μA∪B(x) = max (μA(x), μB(x))

Example:

Let's suppose A is a set which contains following elements:

A = {( X1, 0.6 ), (X2, 0.2), (X3, 1), (X4, 0.4)}

And, B is a set which contains following elements:

B = {( X1, 0.1), (X2, 0.8), (X3, 0), (X4, 0.9)}

then,

AUB = {( X1, 0.6), (X2, 0.8), (X3, 1), (X4, 0.9)}

Because, according to this operation

For X1

μA∪B(X1) = max (μA(X1), μB(X1))

μA∪B(X1) = max (0.6, 0.1)
μA∪B(X1) = 0.6

For X2
μA∪B(X2) = max (μA(X2), μB(X2))
μA∪B(X2) = max (0.2, 0.8)
μA∪B(X2) = 0.8

For X3

μA∪B(X3) = max (μA(X3), μB(X3))

μA∪B(X3) = max (1, 0)
μA∪B(X3) = 1

For X4

μA∪B(X4) = max (μA(X4), μB(X4))

μA∪B(X4) = max (0.4, 0.9)
μA∪B(X4) = 0.9

2. Intersection Operation:The intersection operation of fuzzy set is defined by:

μA∩B(x) = min (μA(x), μB(x))

Example:

Let's suppose A is a set which contains following elements:

A = {( X1, 0.3 ), (X2, 0.7), (X3, 0.5), (X4, 0.1)}

And, B is a set which contains following elements:

B = {( X1, 0.8), (X2, 0.2), (X3, 0.4), (X4, 0.9)}

then,

A∩B = {( X1, 0.3), (X2, 0.2), (X3, 0.4), (X4, 0.1)}

Because, according to this operation

For X1

μA∩B(X1) = min (μA(X1), μB(X1))

μA∩B(X1) = min (0.3, 0.8)
μA∩B(X1) = 0.3

For X2
μA∩B(X2) = min (μA(X2), μB(X2))
μA∩B(X2) = min (0.7, 0.2)
μA∩B(X2) = 0.2

For X3

μA∩B(X3) = min (μA(X3), μB(X3))

μA∩B(X3) = min (0.5, 0.4)
μA∩B(X3) = 0.4

For X4

μA∩B(X4) = min (μA(X4), μB(X4))

μA∩B(X4) = min (0.1, 0.9)
μA∩B(X4) = 0.1

3. Complement Operation: The complement operation of fuzzy set is defined by:

μĀ(x) = 1-μA(x),

Example:

Let's suppose A is a set which contains following elements:

A = {( X1, 0.3 ), (X2, 0.8), (X3, 0.5), (X4, 0.1)}

then,

Ā= {( X1, 0.7 ), (X2, 0.2), (X3, 0.5), (X4, 0.9)}

Because, according to this operation

For X1

μĀ(X1) = 1-μA(X1)
μĀ(X1) = 1 - 0.3
μĀ(X1) = 0.7

For X2
μĀ(X2) = 1-μA(X2)
μĀ(X2) = 1 - 0.8
μĀ(X2) = 0.2

For X3

μĀ(X3) = 1-μA(X3)
μĀ(X3) = 1 - 0.5
μĀ(X3) = 0.5

For X4

μĀ(X4) = 1-μA(X4)
μĀ(X4) = 1 - 0.1
μĀ(X4) = 0.9

Classical Set Theory Fuzzy Set Theory

1. This theory is a class of those sets having 1. This theory is a class of those sets having un-sharp
sharp boundaries. boundaries.

2. This set theory is defined by exact boundaries 2. This set theory is defined by ambiguous
only 0 and 1. boundaries.

3. In this theory, there is no uncertainty about 3. In this theory, there always exists uncertainty
the boundary's location of a set. about the boundary's location of a set.

4. This theory is widely used in the design of 4. It is mainly used for fuzzy controllers.
digital systems.

Applications of Fuzzy Logic

Following are the different application areas where the Fuzzy Logic concept is widely used:

1. It is used in Businesses for decision-making support system.

 2. It is used in Automative systems for controlling the traffic and speed, and for
improving the efficiency of automatic transmissions. Automative systems also use
the shift scheduling method for automatic transmissions.

3. This concept is also used in the Defence in various areas. Defence mainly uses the
Fuzzy logic systems for underwater target recognition and the automatic target
recognition of thermal infrared images.

4. It is also widely used in the Pattern Recognition and Classification in the form of
Fuzzy logic-based recognition and handwriting recognition. It is also used in the
searching of fuzzy images.

5. Fuzzy logic systems also used in Securities.

6. It is also used in microwave oven for setting the lunes power and cooking strategy.

7. This technique is also used in the area of modern control systems such as expert
systems.

8. Finance is also another application where this concept is used for predicting the stock
market, and for managing the funds.

9. It is also used for controlling the brakes.

10. It is also used in the industries of chemicals for controlling the ph, and chemical
distillation process.

11. It is also used in the industries of manufacturing for the optimization of milk and
cheese production.

12. It is also used in the vacuum cleaners, and the timings of washing machines.

13. It is also used in heaters, air conditioners, and humidifiers.

Advantages of Fuzzy Logic

Fuzzy Logic has various advantages or benefits. Some of them are as follows:

1. The methodology of this concept works similarly as the human reasoning.

2. Any user can easily understand the structure of Fuzzy Logic.

3. It does not need a large memory, because the algorithms can be easily described with
fewer data.
 4. It is widely used in all fields of life and easily provides effective solutions to the
problems which have high complexity.

5. This concept is based on the set theory of mathematics, so that's why it is simple.

6. It allows users for controlling the control machines and consumer products.

7. The development time of fuzzy logic is short as compared to conventional methods.

8. Due to its flexibility, any user can easily add and delete rules in the FLS system.

Disadvantages of Fuzzy Logic

Fuzzy Logic has various disadvantages or limitations. Some of them are as follows:

1. The run time of fuzzy logic systems is slow and takes a long time to produce outputs.
2. It cannot recognize machine learning as-well-as neural network type patterns

3. The possibilities produced by the fuzzy logic system are not always accurate.

4. Fuzzy logics are not suitable for those problems that require high accuracy.

5. The systems of a Fuzzy logic need a lot of testing for verification and validation.
6. Setting exact, fuzzy rules and, membership functions is a difficult task

Unit-4

PROBLEM CHARACTERISTICS

A problem may have different aspects of representation and explanation. In order to choose
the most appropriate method for a particular problem, it is necessary to analyze the problem
along several key dimensions. Some of the main key features of a problem are given below.

Is the problem decomposable into set of sub problems?

Can the solution step be ignored or undone?

Is the problem universally predictable?

Is a good solution to the problem obvious without comparison to all the possible solutions? Is
the desire solution a state of world or a path to a state?

Is a large amount of knowledge absolutely required to solve the problem?

Will the solution of the problem required interaction between the computer and the person?

The above characteristics of a problem are called as 7-problem characteristics under which
the solution must take place.

What is Production System in Artificial Intelligence?

A production system is based on a set of rules about behavior. These rules are a basic
representation found helpful in expert systems, automated planning, and action
selection.

Production system or production rule system is a computer program typically used to

provide some form of artificial intelligence, which consists primarily of a set of rules
about behavior but it also includes the mechanism necessary to follow those rules as the
system responds to states of the world.

Components of Production System

The major components of Production System in Artificial Intelligence are:

 Global Database: The global database is the central data structure used by the
production system in Artificial Intelligence.
 Set of Production Rules: The production rules operate on the global database. Each
rule usually has a precondition that is either satisfied or not by the global database. If
the precondition is satisfied, the rule is usually be applied. The application of the rule
changes the database.
 A Control System: The control system then chooses which applicable rule should be
applied and ceases computation when a termination condition on the database is
satisfied. If multiple rules are to fire at the same time, the control system resolves the
conflicts.

Features of Production System in Artificial Intelligence

The main features of the production system include:

1. Simplicity: The structure of each sentence in a production system is unique and uniform as
they use the “IF-THEN” structure. This structure provides simplicity in knowledge
representation. This feature of the production system improves the readability of production
rules.

2. Modularity: This means the production rule code the knowledge available in discrete
pieces. Information can be treated as a collection of independent facts which may be added or
deleted from the system with essentially no deleterious side effects.

3. Modifiability: This means the facility for modifying rules. It allows the development of
production rules in a skeletal form first and then it is accurate to suit a specific application.

4. Knowledge-intensive: The knowledge base of the production system stores pure

knowledge. This part does not contain any type of control or programming information. Each
production rule is normally written as an English sentence; the problem of semantics is
solved by the very structure of the representation.

Control/Search Strategies

How would you decide which rule to apply while searching for a solution for any problem?
There are certain requirements for a good control strategy that you need to keep in mind, such
as:

 The first requirement for a good control strategy is that it should cause motion.
 The second requirement for a good control strategy is that it should be systematic.
 Finally, it must be efficient in order to find a good answer.

Production System Rules

Production System rules can be classified as:

 Deductive Inference Rules

 Abductive Inference Rules

You can represent the knowledge in a production system as a set of rules along with a control
system and database. It can be written as:

If(Condition) Then (Condition)

The production rules are also known as condition-action, antecedent-consequent, pattern-

action, situation-response, feedback-result pairs.
Classes of Production System in Artificial Intelligence

There are four major classes of Production System in Artificial Intelligence:

 Monotonic Production System: It’s a production system in which the application of

a rule never prevents the later application of another rule, that could have also been
applied at the time the first rule was selected.
 Partially Commutative Production System: It’s a type of production system in
which the application of a sequence of rules transforms state X into state Y, then any
permutation of those rules that is allowable also transforms state x into state Y.
Theorem proving falls under the monotonic partially communicative system.
 Non-Monotonic Production Systems: These are useful for solving ignorable
problems. These systems are important from an implementation standpoint because
they can be implemented without the ability to backtrack to previous states when it is
discovered that an incorrect path was followed. This production system increases
efficiency since it is not necessary to keep track of the changes made in the search
process.
 Commutative Systems: These are usually useful for problems in which changes
occur but can be reversed and in which the order of operation is not critical.
Production systems that are not usually not partially commutative are useful for many
problems in which irreversible changes occur, such as chemical analysis. When
dealing with such systems, the order in which operations are performed is very
important and hence correct decisions must be made at the first attempt itself.

 A search problem consists of:

 A State Space. Set of all possible states where you can be.
 A Start State. The state from where the search begins.
 A Goal Test. A function that looks at the current state returns whether or
not it is the goal state.
 The Solution to a search problem is a sequence of actions, called the plan that
transforms the start state to the goal state.
 This plan is achieved through search algorithms.

Types of search algorithms:

There are far too many powerful search algorithms out there to fit in a single article.
Instead, this article will discuss six of the fundamental search algorithms, divided
into two categories, as shown below.
Uninformed Search Algorithms

Uninformed search is a class of general-purpose search algorithms which operates in

brute force-way. Uninformed search algorithms do not have additional information
about state or search space other than how to traverse the tree, so it is also called blind
search.

Following are the various types of uninformed search algorithms:

1. Breadth-first Search

2. Depth-first Search

1. Breadth-first Search:

o Breadth-first search is the most common search strategy for traversing a tree or graph.
This algorithm searches breadthwise in a tree or graph, so it is called breadth-first
search.

o BFS algorithm starts searching from the root node of the tree and expands all
successor node at the current level before moving to nodes of next level.

o The breadth-first search algorithm is an example of a general-graph search algorithm.

o Breadth-first search implemented using FIFO queue data structure.

Advantages:
 o BFS will provide a solution if any solution exists.

o If there are more than one solutions for a given problem, then BFS will provide the
minimal solution which requires the least number of steps.

Disadvantages:

o It requires lots of memory since each level of the tree must be saved into memory to
expand the next level.

o BFS needs lots of time if the solution is far away from the root node.

Example:

In the below tree structure, we have shown the traversing of the tree using BFS algorithm
from the root node S to goal node K. BFS search algorithm traverse in layers, so it will follow
the path which is shown by the dotted arrow, and the traversed path will be:

1. S---> A--->B---->C--->D---->G--->H--->E---->F---->I---->K

Time Complexity: Time Complexity of BFS algorithm can be obtained by the number of
nodes traversed in BFS until the shallowest Node. Where the d= depth of shallowest solution
and b is a node at every state.

T (b) = 1+b2+b3+.......+ bd= O (bd)

Space Complexity: Space complexity of BFS algorithm is given by the Memory size of
frontier which is O(bd).

Completeness: BFS is complete, which means if the shallowest goal node is at some finite
depth, then BFS will find a solution.

Optimality: BFS is optimal if path cost is a non-decreasing function of the depth of the node.

2. Depth-first Search

o Depth-first search isa recursive algorithm for traversing a tree or graph data structure.

o It is called the depth-first search because it starts from the root node and follows each
path to its greatest depth node before moving to the next path.

o DFS uses a stack data structure for its implementation.

o The process of the DFS algorithm is similar to the BFS algorithm.

Note: Backtracking is an algorithm technique for finding all possible solutions using
recursion.

Advantage:

o DFS requires very less memory as it only needs to store a stack of the nodes on the
path from root node to the current node.

o It takes less time to reach to the goal node than BFS algorithm (if it traverses in the
right path).

Disadvantage:

o There is the possibility that many states keep re-occurring, and there is no guarantee
of finding the solution.

o DFS algorithm goes for deep down searching and sometime it may go to the infinite
loop.

Example:

In the below search tree, we have shown the flow of depth-first search, and it will follow the
order as:

Root node--->Left node ----> right node.

It will start searching from root node S, and traverse A, then B, then D and E, after traversing
E, it will backtrack the tree as E has no other successor and still goal node is not found. After
backtracking it will traverse node C and then G, and here it will terminate as it found goal
node.

Completeness: DFS search algorithm is complete within finite state space as it will expand
every node within a limited search tree.

Time Complexity: Time complexity of DFS will be equivalent to the node traversed by the
algorithm. It is given by:

T(n)= 1+ n2+ n3 +.........+ nm=O(nm)

Where, m= maximum depth of any node and this can be much larger than d (Shallowest
solution depth)

Space Complexity: DFS algorithm needs to store only single path from the root node, hence
space complexity of DFS is equivalent to the size of the fringe set, which is O(bm).

Optimal: DFS search algorithm is non-optimal, as it may generate a large number of steps or
high cost to reach to the goal node.
 Informed Search Algorithms

So far we have talked about the uninformed search algorithms which looked through search
space for all possible solutions of the problem without having any additional knowledge
about search space. But informed search algorithm contains an array of knowledge such as
how far we are from the goal, path cost, how to reach to goal node, etc. This knowledge help
agents to explore less to the search space and find more efficiently the goal node.

The informed search algorithm is more useful for large search space. Informed search
algorithm uses the idea of heuristic, so it is also called Heuristic search.

Heuristics function: Heuristic is a function which is used in Informed Search, and it finds
the most promising path. It takes the current state of the agent as its input and produces the
estimation of how close agent is from the goal. The heuristic method, however, might not
always give the best solution, but it guaranteed to find a good solution in reasonable time.
Heuristic function estimates how close a state is to the goal. It is represented by h(n), and it
calculates the cost of an optimal path between the pair of states. The value of the heuristic
function is always positive.

Admissibility of the heuristic function is given as:

1. h(n) <= h*(n)

Here h(n) is heuristic cost, and h*(n) is the estimated cost. Hence heuristic cost should
be less than or equal to the estimated cost.

Pure Heuristic Search:

Pure heuristic search is the simplest form of heuristic search algorithms. It expands nodes
based on their heuristic value h(n). It maintains two lists, OPEN and CLOSED list. In the
CLOSED list, it places those nodes which have already expanded and in the OPEN list, it
places nodes which have yet not been expanded.

On each iteration, each node n with the lowest heuristic value is expanded and generates all
its successors and n is placed to the closed list. The algorithm continues unit a goal state is
found.

In the informed search we will discuss two main algorithms which are given below:

o Best First Search Algorithm(Greedy search)

o A* Search Algorithm

1.) Best-first Search Algorithm (Greedy Search):

Greedy best-first search algorithm always selects the path which appears best at that moment.
It is the combination of depth-first search and breadth-first search algorithms. It uses the
heuristic function and search. Best-first search allows us to take the advantages of both
algorithms. With the help of best-first search, at each step, we can choose the most promising
 node. In the best first search algorithm, we expand the node which is closest to the goal node
and the closest cost is estimated by heuristic function, i.e.

1. f(n)= g(n).

Were, h(n)= estimated cost from node n to the goal.

The greedy best first algorithm is implemented by the priority queue.

Best first search algorithm:

o Step 1: Place the starting node into the OPEN list.

o Step 2: If the OPEN list is empty, Stop and return failure.

o Step 3: Remove the node n, from the OPEN list which has the lowest value of h(n),
and places it in the CLOSED list.

o Step 4: Expand the node n, and generate the successors of node n.

o Step 5: Check each successor of node n, and find whether any node is a goal node or
not. If any successor node is goal node, then return success and terminate the search,
else proceed to Step 6.

o Step 6: For each successor node, algorithm checks for evaluation function f(n), and
then check if the node has been in either OPEN or CLOSED list. If the node has not
been in both list, then add it to the OPEN list.

o Step 7: Return to Step 2.

Advantages:

o Best first search can switch between BFS and DFS by gaining the advantages of both
the algorithms.

o This algorithm is more efficient than BFS and DFS algorithms.

Disadvantages:

o It can behave as an unguided depth-first search in the worst case scenario.

o It can get stuck in a loop as DFS.

o This algorithm is not optimal.

Example:

Consider the below search problem, and we will traverse it using greedy best-first search. At
each iteration, each node is expanded using evaluation function f(n)=h(n) , which is given in
the below table.

In this search example, we are using two lists which are OPEN and CLOSED Lists.
Following are the iteration for traversing the above example.
Expand the nodes of S and put in the CLOSED list

Initialization: Open [A, B], Closed [S]

Iteration 1: Open [A], Closed [S, B]

Iteration 2: Open [E, F, A], Closed [S, B]

: Open [E, A], Closed [S, B, F]

Iteration 3: Open [I, G, E, A], Closed [S, B, F]

: Open [I, E, A], Closed [S, B, F, G]

Hence the final solution path will be: S----> B----->F----> G

Time Complexity: The worst case time complexity of Greedy best first search is O(bm).

Space Complexity: The worst case space complexity of Greedy best first search is O(bm).
Where, m is the maximum depth of the search space.

Complete: Greedy best-first search is also incomplete, even if the given state space is finite.

Optimal: Greedy best first search algorithm is not optimal.

2.) A* Search Algorithm:

A* search is the most commonly known form of best-first search. It uses heuristic function
h(n), and cost to reach the node n from the start state g(n). It has combined features of UCS
and greedy best-first search, by which it solve the problem efficiently. A* search algorithm
finds the shortest path through the search space using the heuristic function. This search
algorithm expands less search tree and provides optimal result faster. A* algorithm is similar
to UCS except that it uses g(n)+h(n) instead of g(n).

In A* search algorithm, we use search heuristic as well as the cost to reach the node. Hence
we can combine both costs as following, and this sum is called as a fitness number.

At each point in the search space, only those node is expanded which have the lowest value
of f(n), and the algorithm terminates when the goal node is found.

Algorithm of A* search:

Step1: Place the starting node in the OPEN list.

Step 2: Check if the OPEN list is empty or not, if the list is empty then return failure and
stops.

Step 3: Select the node from the OPEN list which has the smallest value of evaluation
function (g+h), if node n is goal node then return success and stop, otherwise

Step 4: Expand node n and generate all of its successors, and put n into the closed list. For
each successor n', check whether n' is already in the OPEN or CLOSED list, if not then
compute evaluation function for n' and place into Open list.

Step 5: Else if node n' is already in OPEN and CLOSED, then it should be attached to the
back pointer which reflects the lowest g(n') value.

Step 6: Return to Step 2.

Advantages:

o A* search algorithm is the best algorithm than other search algorithms.

o A* search algorithm is optimal and complete.

o This algorithm can solve very complex problems.

Disadvantages:

o It does not always produce the shortest path as it mostly based on heuristics and
approximation.
 o A* search algorithm has some complexity issues.

o The main drawback of A* is memory requirement as it keeps all generated nodes in

the memory, so it is not practical for various large-scale problems.

Example:
In this example, we will traverse the given graph using the A* algorithm. The heuristic value
of all states is given in the below table so we will calculate the f(n) of each state using the
formula f(n)= g(n) + h(n), where g(n) is the cost to reach any node from start state.

Here we will use OPEN and CLOSED list.

Solution:
Initialization: {(S, 5)}

Iteration1: {(S--> A, 4), (S-->G, 10)}

Iteration2: {(S--> A-->C, 4), (S--> A-->B, 7), (S-->G, 10)}

Iteration3: {(S--> A-->C--->G, 6), (S--> A-->C--->D, 11), (S--> A-->B, 7), (S-->G, 10)}

Iteration 4 will give the final result, as S--->A--->C--->G it provides the optimal path with
cost 6.

Points to remember:

o A* algorithm returns the path which occurred first, and it does not search for all
remaining paths.

o The efficiency of A* algorithm depends on the quality of heuristic.

o A* algorithm expands all nodes which satisfy the condition f(n)<="" li="">

Complete: A* algorithm is complete as long as:

o Branching factor is finite.

o Cost at every action is fixed.

Optimal: A* search algorithm is optimal if it follows below two conditions:

 o Admissible: the first condition requires for optimality is that h(n) should be an
admissible heuristic for A* tree search. An admissible heuristic is optimistic in nature.

o Consistency: Second required condition is consistency for only A* graph-search.

If the heuristic function is admissible, then A* tree search will always find the least cost path.

Time Complexity: The time complexity of A* search algorithm depends on heuristic

function, and the number of nodes expanded is exponential to the depth of solution d. So the
time complexity is O(b^d), where b is the branching factor.

Space Complexity: The space complexity of A* search algorithm is O(b^d)

Hill Climbing Algorithm in Artificial Intelligence

o Hill climbing algorithm is a local search algorithm which continuously moves in the
direction of increasing elevation/value to find the peak of the mountain or best
solution to the problem. It terminates when it reaches a peak value where no neighbor
has a higher value.

o Hill climbing algorithm is a technique which is used for optimizing the mathematical
problems. One of the widely discussed examples of Hill climbing algorithm is
Traveling-salesman Problem in which we need to minimize the distance traveled by
the salesman.

o It is also called greedy local search as it only looks to its good immediate neighbor
state and not beyond that.

o A node of hill climbing algorithm has two components which are state and value.

o Hill Climbing is mostly used when a good heuristic is available.

o In this algorithm, we don't need to maintain and handle the search tree or graph as it
only keeps a single current state.

Features of Hill Climbing:

Following are some main features of Hill Climbing Algorithm:

o Generate and Test variant: Hill Climbing is the variant of Generate and Test
method. The Generate and Test method produce feedback which helps to decide
which direction to move in the search space.
 o Greedy approach: Hill-climbing algorithm search moves in the direction which
optimizes the cost.

o No backtracking: It does not backtrack the search space, as it does not remember the
previous states.

State-space Diagram for Hill Climbing:

The state-space landscape is a graphical representation of the hill-climbing algorithm which

is showing a graph between various states of algorithm and Objective function/Cost.

On Y-axis we have taken the function which can be an objective function or cost function,
and state-space on the x-axis. If the function on Y-axis is cost then, the goal of search is to
find the global minimum and local minimum. If the function of Y-axis is Objective function,
then the goal of the search is to find the global maximum and local maximum.

Different regions in the state space landscape:

Local Maximum: Local maximum is a state which is better than its neighbor states, but there
is also another state which is higher than it.

Global Maximum: Global maximum is the best possible state of state space landscape. It has
the highest value of objective function.

Current state: It is a state in a landscape diagram where an agent is currently present.

Flat local maximum: It is a flat space in the landscape where all the neighbor states of
current states have the same value.

Shoulder: It is a plateau region which has an uphill edge.

Types of Hill Climbing Algorithm:

o Simple hill Climbing:

o Steepest-Ascent hill-climbing:

o Stochastic hill Climbing:

1. Simple Hill Climbing:

Simple hill climbing is the simplest way to implement a hill climbing algorithm. It only
evaluates the neighbor node state at a time and selects the first one which optimizes
current cost and set it as a current state. It only checks it's one successor state, and if it
finds better than the current state, then move else be in the same state. This algorithm has the
following features:

o Less time consuming

o Less optimal solution and the solution is not guaranteed

Algorithm for Simple Hill Climbing:

o Step 1: Evaluate the initial state, if it is goal state then return success and Stop.

o Step 2: Loop Until a solution is found or there is no new operator left to apply.

o Step 3: Select and apply an operator to the current state.

o Step 4: Check new state:

a. If it is goal state, then return success and quit.

b. Else if it is better than the current state then assign new state as a current state.

c. Else if not better than the current state, then return to step2.

Step 5: Exit.

2. Steepest-Ascent hill climbing:

The steepest-Ascent algorithm is a variation of simple hill climbing algorithm. This algorithm
examines all the neighboring nodes of the current state and selects one neighbor node which
is closest to the goal state. This algorithm consumes more time as it searches for multiple
neighbors

Algorithm for Steepest-Ascent hill climbing:

o Step 1: Evaluate the initial state, if it is goal state then return success and stop, else
make current state as initial state.

o Step 2: Loop until a solution is found or the current state does not change.
 a. Let SUCC be a state such that any successor of the current state will be better
than it.

b. For each operator that applies to the current state:

a. Apply the new operator and generate a new state.

b. Evaluate the new state.

c. If it is goal state, then return it and quit, else compare it to the SUCC.

d. If it is better than SUCC, then set new state as SUCC.

e. If the SUCC is better than the current state, then set current state to
SUCC.

Step 5: Exit.

3. Stochastic hill climbing:

Stochastic hill climbing does not examine for all its neighbor before moving. Rather, this
search algorithm selects one neighbor node at random and decides whether to choose it as a
current state or examine another state.

Problems in Hill Climbing Algorithm:

1. Local Maximum: A local maximum is a peak state in the landscape which is better than
each of its neighboring states, but there is another state also present which is higher than the
local maximum.

Solution: Backtracking technique can be a solution of the local maximum in state space
landscape. Create a list of the promising path so that the algorithm can backtrack the search
space and explore other paths as well.

2. Plateau: A plateau is the flat area of the search space in which all the neighbor states of
the current state contains the same value, because of this algorithm does not find any best
direction to move. A hill-climbing search might be lost in the plateau area.
Solution: The solution for the plateau is to take big steps or very little steps while searching,
to solve the problem. Randomly select a state which is far away from the current state so it is
possible that the algorithm could find non-plateau region.

3. Ridges: A ridge is a special form of the local maximum. It has an area which is higher than
its surrounding areas, but itself has a slope, and cannot be reached in a single move.

Solution: With the use of bidirectional search, or by moving in different directions, we can
improve this problem.

Simulated Annealing:

A hill-climbing algorithm which never makes a move towards a lower value guaranteed to be
incomplete because it can get stuck on a local maximum. And if algorithm applies a random
walk, by moving a successor, then it may complete but not efficient. Simulated Annealing is
an algorithm which yields both efficiency and completeness.

In mechanical term Annealing is a process of hardening a metal or glass to a high

temperature then cooling gradually, so this allows the metal to reach a low-energy crystalline
state. The same process is used in simulated annealing in which the algorithm picks a random
move, instead of picking the best move. If the random move improves the state, then it
follows the same path. Otherwise, the algorithm follows the path which has a probability of
less than 1 or it moves downhill and chooses another path.
Means-Ends Analysis in Artificial Intelligence

o We have studied the strategies which can reason either in forward or backward, but a
mixture of the two directions is appropriate for solving a complex and large problem.
Such a mixed strategy, make it possible that first to solve the major part of a problem
and then go back and solve the small problems arise during combining the big parts of
the problem. Such a technique is called Means-Ends Analysis.

o Means-Ends Analysis is problem-solving techniques used in Artificial intelligence for

limiting search in AI programs.

o It is a mixture of Backward and forward search technique.

o The MEA technique was first introduced in 1961 by Allen Newell, and Herbert A.
Simon in their problem-solving computer program, which was named as General
Problem Solver (GPS).

o The MEA analysis process centered on the evaluation of the difference between the
current state and goal state.

How means-ends analysis Works:

The means-ends analysis process can be applied recursively for a problem. It is a strategy to
control search in problem-solving. Following are the main Steps which describes the working
of MEA technique for solving a problem.

a. First, evaluate the difference between Initial State and final State.

b. Select the various operators which can be applied for each difference.

c. Apply the operator at each difference, which reduces the difference between the
current state and goal state.

Operator Subgoaling

In the MEA process, we detect the differences between the current state and goal state. Once
these differences occur, then we can apply an operator to reduce the differences. But
sometimes it is possible that an operator cannot be applied to the current state. So we create
the subproblem of the current state, in which operator can be applied, such type of backward
chaining in which operators are selected, and then sub goals are set up to establish the
preconditions of the operator is called Operator Subgoaling.

Algorithm for Means-Ends Analysis:

Let's we take Current state as CURRENT and Goal State as GOAL, then following are the
steps for the MEA algorithm.

o Step 1: Compare CURRENT to GOAL, if there are no differences between both then
return Success and Exit.

o Step 2: Else, select the most significant difference and reduce it by doing the
following steps until the success or failure occurs.

a. Select a new operator O which is applicable for the current difference, and if there is
no such operator, then signal failure.

b. Attempt to apply operator O to CURRENT. Make a description of two states.

i) O-Start, a state in which O?s preconditions are satisfied.
ii) O-Result, the state that would result if O were applied In O-start.

c. If
(First-Part <------ MEA (CURRENT, O-START)
And
(LAST-Part <----- MEA (O-Result, GOAL), are successful, then signal
Success and return the result of combining FIRST-PART, O, and LAST-
PART.

The above-discussed algorithm is more suitable for a simple problem and not adequate for
solving complex problems.

Example of Mean-Ends Analysis:

Let's take an example where we know the initial state and goal state as given below. In this
problem, we need to get the goal state by finding differences between the initial state and
goal state and applying operators.
Solution:

To solve the above problem, we will first find the differences between initial states and goal
states, and for each difference, we will generate a new state and will apply the operators. The
operators we have for this problem are:

o Move

o Delete

o Expand

1. Evaluating the initial state: In the first step, we will evaluate the initial state and will
compare the initial and Goal state to find the differences between both states.

2. Applying Delete operator: As we can check the first difference is that in goal state there
is no dot symbol which is present in the initial state, so, first we will apply the Delete
operator to remove this dot.

3. Applying Move Operator: After applying the Delete operator, the new state occurs which
we will again compare with goal state. After comparing these states, there is another
difference that is the square is outside the circle, so, we will apply the Move Operator.
4. Applying Expand Operator: Now a new state is generated in the third step, and we will
compare this state with the goal state. After comparing the states there is still one difference
which is the size of the square, so, we will apply Expand operator, and finally, it will
generate the goal state.

Water jug problem in Artificial Intelligence

In the water jug problem in Artificial Intelligence, we are provided with two jugs: one
having the capacity to hold 3 gallons of water and the other has the capacity to hold 4 gallons
of water. There is no other measuring equipment available and the jugs also do not have any
kind of marking on them. So, the agent’s task here is to fill the 4-gallon jug with 2 gallons of
water by using only these two jugs and no other material. Initially, both our jugs are empty.

So, to solve this problem, following set of rules were proposed:

Production rules for solving the water jug problem

Here, let x denote the 4-gallon jug and y denote the 3-gallon jug.

Initial Final
S.No. Condition Description of action taken
State state

1. (x,y) If x<4 (4,y) Fill the 4 gallon jug completely

2. (x,y) if y<3 (x,3) Fill the 3 gallon jug completely
3. (x,y) If x>0 (x-d,y) Pour some part from the 4 gallon jug
4. (x,y) If y>0 (x,y-d) Pour some part from the 3 gallon jug
5. (x,y) If x>0 (0,y) Empty the 4 gallon jug
6. (x,y) If y>0 (x,0) Empty the 3 gallon jug

(4, y-[4- Pour some water from the 3 gallon jug to fill the four gallon
7. (x,y) If (x+y)<7
x]) jug

Pour some water from the 4 gallon jug to fill the 3 gallon
8. (x,y) If (x+y)<7 (x-[3-y],y)
jug.

9. (x,y) If (x+y)<4 (x+y,0) Pour all water from 3 gallon jug to the 4 gallon jug
10. (x,y) if (x+y)<3 (0, x+y) Pour all water from the 4 gallon jug to the 3 gallon jug

The listed production rules contain all the actions that could be performed by the agent in
transferring the contents of jugs. But, to solve the water jug problem in a minimum number of
moves, following set of rules in the given sequence should be performed:

Solution of water jug problem according to the production rules:

S.No. 4 gallon jug contents 3 gallon jug contents Rule followed

1. 0 gallon 0 gallon Initial state

2. 0 gallon 3 gallons Rule no.2

3. 3 gallons 0 gallon Rule no. 9

4. 3 gallons 3 gallons Rule no. 2

5. 4 gallons 2 gallons Rule no. 7

6. 0 gallon 2 gallons Rule no. 5

7. 2 gallons 0 gallon Rule no. 9

On reaching the 7th attempt, we reach a state which is our goal state. Therefore, at this state,
our problem is solved.

Eight Puzzle problem

We also know the eight puzzle problem by the name of N puzzle problem or sliding puzzle
problem.

N-puzzle that consists of N tiles (N+1 titles with an empty tile) where N can be 8, 15, 24 and
so on.

In our example N = 8. (that is square root of (8+1) = 3 rows and 3 columns).

In the same way, if we have N = 15, 24 in this way, then they have Row and columns as
follow (square root of (N+1) rows and square root of (N+1) columns).
That is if N=15 than number of rows and columns= 4, and if N= 24 number of rows and
columns= 5.

So, basically in these types of problems we have given a initial state or initial configuration
(Start state) and a Goal state or Goal Configuration.

Here We are solving a problem of 8 puzzle that is a 3x3 matrix.

Initial state Goal state

1 2 3 1 2 3

4 6 4 5 6

7 5 8 7 8

Solution:
The puzzle can be solved by moving the tiles one by one in the single empty space and thus
achieving the Goal state.

Rules of solving puzzle

Instead of moving the tiles in the empty space we can visualize moving the empty space in
place of the tile.

The empty space can only move in four directions (Movement of empty space)

1. Up
2. Down
3. Right or
4. Left

The empty space cannot move diagonally and can take only one step at a time.

All possible move of a Empty tile

o- Position total possible moves are (2), x - position total possible moves are (3) and

#-position total possible moves are (4)

Let's solve the problem with Heuristic Search that is Informed Search (A* , Best First
Search (Greedy Search))
To solve the problem with Heuristic search or informed search we have to calculate Heuristic
values of each node to calculate cost function. (f=g+h)

Initial state Goal state

Note: See the initial state and goal state carefully all values except (4,5 and 8) are at their
respective places. so, the heuristic value for first node is 3.(Three values are misplaced to
reach the goal). And let's take actual cost (g) according to depth.

Note: Because of quick solution time complexity is less than that of Uninformed search
but optimal solution not possible.
Unit- 5
Game Playing in Artificial Intelligence

Game Playing is an important domain of artificial intelligence. Games don’t require much
knowledge; the only knowledge we need to provide is the rules, legal moves and the
conditions of winning or losing the game.
Both players try to win the game. So, both of them try to make the best move possible at each
turn. Searching techniques like BFS(Breadth First Search) are not accurate for this as the
branching factor is very high, so searching will take a lot of time. So, we need another search
procedures that improve –

 Generate procedure so that only good moves are generated.

 Test procedure so that the best move can be explored first.
The most common search technique in game playing is Minimax search procedure. It is
depth-first depth-limited search procedure. It is used for games like chess and tic-tac-toe.

Minimax algorithm uses two functions –

MOVEGEN : It generates all the possible moves that can be generated from the current
position.

STATICEVALUATION : It returns a value depending upon the goodness from the

viewpoint otwo-player
This algorithm is a two player game, so we call the first player as PLAYER1 and second
player as PLAYER2. The value of each node is backed-up from its children. For PLAYER1
the backed-up value is the maximum value of its children and for PLAYER2 the backed-up
value is the minimum value of its children. It provides most promising move to PLAYER1,
assuming that the PLAYER2 has make the best move. It is a recursive algorithm, as same
procedure occurs at each level.

Figure 1: Before backing-up of

values
Figure 2: After backing-up of values
We assume that PLAYER1 will start the game. 4 levels are generated. The value to nodes H,
I, J, K, L, M, N, O is provided by STATICEVALUATION function. Level 3 is maximizing
level, so all nodes of level 3 will take maximum values of their children. Level 2 is
minimizing level, so all its nodes will take minimum values of their children. This process
continues. The value of A is 23. That means A should choose C move to win.

Mini-Max Algorithm in Artificial Intelligence

o Mini-max algorithm is a recursive or backtracking algorithm which is used in
decision-making and game theory. It provides an optimal move for the player
assuming that opponent is also playing optimally.
o Mini-Max algorithm uses recursion to search through the game-tree.
o Min-Max algorithm is mostly used for game playing in AI. Such as Chess, Checkers,
tic-tac-toe, go, and various tow-players game. This Algorithm computes the minimax
decision for the current state.
o In this algorithm two players play the game, one is called MAX and other is called
MIN.
o Both the players fight it as the opponent player gets the minimum benefit while they
get the maximum benefit.
o Both Players of the game are opponent of each other, where MAX will select the
maximized value and MIN will select the minimized value.
o The minimax algorithm performs a depth-first search algorithm for the exploration of
the complete game tree.
o The minimax algorithm proceeds all the way down to the terminal node of the tree,
then backtrack the tree as the recursion.

Pseudo-code for MinMax Algorithm:

1. function minimax(node, depth, maximizingPlayer) is
2. if depth ==0 or node is a terminal node then
3. return static evaluation of node
4.
5. if MaximizingPlayer then // for Maximizer Player
6. maxEva= -infinity
7. for each child of node do
8. eva= minimax(child, depth-1, false)
9. maxEva= max(maxEva,eva) //gives Maximum of the values
10. return maxEva
11.
12. else // for Minimizer player
13. minEva= +infinity
14. for each child of node do
15. eva= minimax(child, depth-1, true)
16. minEva= min(minEva, eva) //gives minimum of the values
17. return minEva

Initial call:

Minimax(node, 3, true)

Working of Min-Max Algorithm:

o The working of the minimax algorithm can be easily described using an example.
Below we have taken an example of game-tree which is representing the two-player
game.
o In this example, there are two players one is called Maximizer and other is called
Minimizer.
o Maximizer will try to get the Maximum possible score, and Minimizer will try to get
the minimum possible score.
o This algorithm applies DFS, so in this game-tree, we have to go all the way through
the leaves to reach the terminal nodes.
o At the terminal node, the terminal values are given so we will compare those value
and backtrack the tree until the initial state occurs. Following are the main steps
involved in solving the two-player game tree:

Step-1: In the first step, the algorithm generates the entire game-tree and apply the utility
function to get the utility values for the terminal states. In the below tree diagram, let's take A
is the initial state of the tree. Suppose maximizer takes first turn which has worst-case initial
value =- infinity, and minimizer will take next turn which has worst-case initial value =
+infinity.

Step 2: Now, first we find the utilities value for the Maximizer, its initial value is -∞, so we
will compare each value in terminal state with initial value of Maximizer and determines the
higher nodes values. It will find the maximum among the all.

o For node D max(-1,- -∞) => max(-1,4)= 4

o For Node E max(2, -∞) => max(2, 6)= 6
o For Node F max(-3, -∞) => max(-3,-5) = -3
o For node G max(0, -∞) = max(0, 7) = 7
Step 3: In the next step, it's a turn for minimizer, so it will compare all nodes value with +∞,
and will find the 3rd layer node values.

o For node B= min(4,6) = 4

o For node C= min (-3, 7) = -3
Step 4: Now it's a turn for Maximizer, and it will again choose the maximum of all nodes
value and find the maximum value for the root node. In this game tree, there are only 4
layers, hence we reach immediately to the root node, but in real games, there will be more
than 4 layers.

o For node A max(4, -3)= 4

That was the complete workflow of the minimax two player game.

Properties of Mini-Max algorithm:

o Complete- Min-Max algorithm is Complete. It will definitely find a solution (if

exist), in the finite search tree.
o Optimal- Min-Max algorithm is optimal if both opponents are playing optimally.
o Time complexity- As it performs DFS for the game-tree, so the time complexity of
Min-Max algorithm is O(bm), where b is branching factor of the game-tree, and m is
the maximum depth of the tree.
o Space Complexity- Space complexity of Mini-max algorithm is also similar to DFS
which is O(bm).

Limitation of the minimax Algorithm:

The main drawback of the minimax algorithm is that it gets really slow for complex games
such as Chess, go, etc. This type of games has a huge branching factor, and the player has lots
of choices to decide. This limitation of the minimax algorithm can be improved from alpha-
beta pruning.
 Alpha-Beta Pruning
o Alpha-beta pruning is a modified version of the minimax algorithm. It is an
optimization technique for the minimax algorithm.
o As we have seen in the minimax search algorithm that the number of game states it
has to examine are exponential in depth of the tree. Since we cannot eliminate the
exponent, but we can cut it to half. Hence there is a technique by which without
checking each node of the game tree we can compute the correct minimax decision,
and this technique is called pruning. This involves two threshold parameter Alpha
and beta for future expansion, so it is called alpha-beta pruning. It is also called
as Alpha-Beta Algorithm.
o Alpha-beta pruning can be applied at any depth of a tree, and sometimes it not only
prune the tree leaves but also entire sub-tree.
o The two-parameter can be defined as:
a. Alpha: The best (highest-value) choice we have found so far at any point
along the path of Maximizer. The initial value of alpha is -∞.
b. Beta: The best (lowest-value) choice we have found so far at any point along
the path of Minimizer. The initial value of beta is +∞.
The Alpha-beta pruning to a standard minimax algorithm returns the same move as
the standard algorithm does, but it removes all the nodes which are not really affecting the
final decision but making algorithm slow. Hence by pruning these nodes, it makes the
algorithm fast.

Condition for Alpha-beta pruning:

The main condition which required for alpha-beta pruning is:

1. α>=β

Key points about alpha-beta pruning:

o The Max player will only update the value of alpha.

o The Min player will only update the value of beta.
o While backtracking the tree, the node values will be passed to upper nodes instead of
values of alpha and beta.
o We will only pass the alpha, beta values to the child nodes.

Pseudo-code for Alpha-beta Pruning:

1. function minimax(node, depth, alpha, beta, maximizingPlayer) is

2. if depth ==0 or node is a terminal node then
3. return static evaluation of node
4.
5. if MaximizingPlayer then // for Maximizer Player
6. maxEva= -infinity
7. for each child of node do
8. eva= minimax(child, depth-1, alpha, beta, False)
9. maxEva= max(maxEva, eva)
10. alpha= max(alpha, maxEva)
11. if beta<=alpha
12. break
13. return maxEva
14.
15. else // for Minimizer player
16. minEva= +infinity
17. for each child of node do
18. eva= minimax(child, depth-1, alpha, beta, true)
19. minEva= min(minEva, eva)
20. beta= min(beta, eva)
21. if beta<=alpha
22. break
23. return minEva

Working of Alpha-Beta Pruning:

Let's take an example of two-player search tree to understand the working of Alpha-beta
pruning

Step 1: At the first step the, Max player will start first move from node A where α= -∞ and
β= +∞, these value of alpha and beta passed down to node B where again α= -∞ and β= +∞,
and Node B passes the same value to its child D.
Step 2: At Node D, the value of α will be calculated as its turn for Max. The value of α is
compared with firstly 2 and then 3, and the max (2, 3) = 3 will be the value of α at node D
and node value will also 3.

Step 3: Now algorithm backtrack to node B, where the value of β will change as this is a turn
of Min, Now β= +∞, will compare with the available subsequent nodes value, i.e. min (∞, 3)
= 3, hence at node B now α= -∞, and β= 3.
In the next step, algorithm traverse the next successor of Node B which is node E, and the
values of α= -∞, and β= 3 will also be passed.

Step 4: At node E, Max will take its turn, and the value of alpha will change. The current
value of alpha will be compared with 5, so max (-∞, 5) = 5, hence at node E α= 5 and β= 3,
where α>=β, so the right successor of E will be pruned, and algorithm will not traverse it, and
the value at node E will be 5.
Step 5: At next step, algorithm again backtrack the tree, from node B to node A. At node A,
the value of alpha will be changed the maximum available value is 3 as max (-∞, 3)= 3, and
β= +∞, these two values now passes to right successor of A which is Node C.

At node C, α=3 and β= +∞, and the same values will be passed on to node F.

Step 6: At node F, again the value of α will be compared with left child which is 0, and
max(3,0)= 3, and then compared with right child which is 1, and max(3,1)= 3 still α remains
3, but the node value of F will become 1.
Step 7: Node F returns the node value 1 to node C, at C α= 3 and β= +∞, here the value of
beta will be changed, it will compare with 1 so min (∞, 1) = 1. Now at C, α=3 and β= 1, and
again it satisfies the condition α>=β, so the next child of C which is G will be pruned, and the
algorithm will not compute the entire sub-tree G.
Step 8: C now returns the value of 1 to A here the best value for A is max (3, 1) = 3.
Following is the final game tree which is the showing the nodes which are computed and
nodes which has never computed. Hence the optimal value for the maximizer is 3 for this
example.
Move Ordering in Alpha-Beta pruning:

The effectiveness of alpha-beta pruning is highly dependent on the order in which each node
is examined. Move order is an important aspect of alpha-beta pruning.

It can be of two types:

o Worst ordering: In some cases, alpha-beta pruning algorithm does not prune any of
the leaves of the tree, and works exactly as minimax algorithm. In this case, it also
consumes more time because of alpha-beta factors, such a move of pruning is called
worst ordering. In this case, the best move occurs on the right side of the tree. The
time complexity for such an order is O(bm).
o Ideal ordering: The ideal ordering for alpha-beta pruning occurs when lots of
pruning happens in the tree, and best moves occur at the left side of the tree. We apply
DFS hence it first search left of the tree and go deep twice as minimax algorithm in
the same amount of time. Complexity in ideal ordering is O(bm/2).

Rules to find good ordering:

Following are some rules to find good ordering in alpha-beta pruning:

o Occur the best move from the shallowest node.

 o Order the nodes in the tree such that the best nodes are checked first.
o Use domain knowledge while finding the best move. Ex: for Chess, try order:
captures first, then threats, then forward moves, backward moves.
o We can bookkeep the states, as there is a possibility that states may repeat.

Unit- 6

AI - Natural Language Processing

Natural Language Processing (NLP) refers to AI method of communicating with an
intelligent systems using a natural language such as English.
Processing of Natural Language is required when you want an intelligent system like robot
to perform as per your instructions, when you want to hear decision from a dialogue based
clinical expert system, etc.
The field of NLP involves making computers to perform useful tasks with the natural
languages humans use. The input and output of an NLP system can be −

 Speech
 Written Text

Components of NLP

There are two components of NLP as given −

Natural Language Understanding (NLU)
Understanding involves the following tasks −

 Mapping the given input in natural language into useful representations.

 Analyzing different aspects of the language.
Natural Language Generation (NLG)
It is the process of producing meaningful phrases and sentences in the form of natural
language from some internal representation.
It involves −
 Text planning − It includes retrieving the relevant content from knowledge base.
 Sentence planning − It includes choosing required words, forming meaningful
phrases, setting tone of the sentence.
 Text Realization − It is mapping sentence plan into sentence structure.
The NLU is harder than NLG.

Difficulties in NLU
NL has an extremely rich form and structure.
It is very ambiguous. There can be different levels of ambiguity −
 Lexical ambiguity − It is at very primitive level such as word-level.
 For example, treating the word “board” as noun or verb?
 Syntax Level ambiguity − A sentence can be parsed in different ways.
 For example, “He lifted the beetle with red cap.” − Did he use cap to lift the beetle or
he lifted a beetle that had red cap?
 Referential ambiguity − Referring to something using pronouns. For example, Rima
went to Gauri. She said, “I am tired.” − Exactly who is tired?
 One input can mean different meanings.
 Many inputs can mean the same thing.

NLP Terminology

 Phonology − It is study of organizing sound systematically.

 Morphology − It is a study of construction of words from primitive meaningful units.
 Morpheme − It is primitive unit of meaning in a language.
 Syntax − It refers to arranging words to make a sentence. It also involves
determining the structural role of words in the sentence and in phrases.
 Semantics − It is concerned with the meaning of words and how to combine words
into meaningful phrases and sentences.
 Pragmatics − It deals with using and understanding sentences in different situations
and how the interpretation of the sentence is affected.
 Discourse − It deals with how the immediately preceding sentence can affect the
interpretation of the next sentence.
 World Knowledge − It includes the general knowledge about the world.

Steps in NLP

There are general five steps −

 Lexical Analysis − It involves identifying and analyzing the structure of words.
Lexicon of a language means the collection of words and phrases in a language.
Lexical analysis is dividing the whole chunk of txt into paragraphs, sentences, and
words.
 Syntactic Analysis (Parsing) − It involves analysis of words in the sentence for
grammar and arranging words in a manner that shows the relationship among the
words. The sentence such as “The school goes to boy” is rejected by English
syntactic analyzer.
  Semantic Analysis − It draws the exact meaning or the dictionary meaning from the
text. The text is checked for meaningfulness. It is done by mapping syntactic
structures and objects in the task domain. The semantic analyzer disregards sentence
such as “hot ice-cream”.
 Discourse Integration − The meaning of any sentence depends upon the meaning of
the sentence just before it. In addition, it also brings about the meaning of
immediately succeeding sentence.
 Pragmatic Analysis − During this, what was said is re-interpreted on what it actually
meant. It involves deriving those aspects of language which require real world
knowledge.

Applications of NLP

There are the following applications of NLP -

1. Question Answering

Question Answering focuses on building systems that automatically answer the questions
asked by humans in a natural language.
2. Spam Detection

Spam detection is used to detect unwanted e-mails getting to a user's inbox.

3. Sentiment Analysis

Sentiment Analysis is also known as opinion mining. It is used on the web to analyse the
attitude, behaviour, and emotional state of the sender. This application is implemented
through a combination of NLP (Natural Language Processing) and statistics by assigning the
values to the text (positive, negative, or natural), identify the mood of the context (happy, sad,
angry, etc.)

4. Machine Translation

Machine translation is used to translate text or speech from one natural language to another
natural language.

Example: Google Translator

5. Spelling correction
Microsoft Corporation provides word processor software like MS-word, PowerPoint for the
spelling correction.

6. Speech Recognition

Speech recognition is used for converting spoken words into text. It is used in applications,
such as mobile, home automation, video recovery, dictating to Microsoft Word, voice
biometrics, voice user interface, and so on.

7. Chatbot

Implementing the Chatbot is one of the important applications of NLP. It is used by many
companies to provide the customer's chat services.

8. Information extraction

Information extraction is one of the most important applications of NLP. It is used for
extracting structured information from unstructured or semi-structured machine-readable
documents.

9. Natural Language Understanding (NLU)

It converts a large set of text into more formal representations such as first-order logic
structures that are easier for the computer programs to manipulate notations of the natural
language processing.

Advantages of NLP

o NLP helps users to ask questions about any subject and get a direct response within
seconds.
o NLP offers exact answers to the question means it does not offer unnecessary and
unwanted information.
o NLP helps computers to communicate with humans in their languages.
 o It is very time efficient.
o Most of the companies use NLP to improve the efficiency of documentation
processes, accuracy of documentation, and identify the information from large
databases.

Disadvantages of NLP

A list of disadvantages of NLP is given below:

o NLP may not show context.

o NLP is unpredictable
o NLP may require more keystrokes.
o NLP is unable to adapt to the new domain, and it has a limited function that's why
NLP is built for a single and specific task only.

Artificial Intelligence: Grammars and Languages

The types of grammars that exist are Noam Chomsky invented a hierarchy of grammars.
The hierarchy consists of four main types of grammars.

Chomsky Hierarchy

Chomsky Hierarchy represents the class of languages that are accepted by the different
machine. The category of language in Chomsky's Hierarchy is as given below:

1. Type 0 known as Unrestricted Grammar.

2. Type 1 known as Context Sensitive Grammar.
3. Type 2 known as Context Free Grammar.
4. Type 3 Regular Grammar.

Type 0 Grammar:

Type 0 grammar is known as Unrestricted grammar. There is no restriction on the grammar

rules of these types of languages. These languages can be efficiently modeled by Turing
machines.

For example:

1. bAa → aa
2. S → s
 Type 1 Grammar:

Type 1 grammar is known as Context Sensitive Grammar. The context sensitive grammar is
used to represent context sensitive language. The context sensitive grammar follows the
following rules:

o The context sensitive grammar may have more than one symbol on the left hand side
of their production rules.
o The number of symbols on the left-hand side must not exceed the number of symbols
on the right-hand side.
o The rule of the form A → ε is not allowed unless A is a start symbol. It does not occur
on the right-hand side of any rule.
o The Type 1 grammar should be Type 0. In type 1, Production is in the form of V → T

Where the count of symbol in V is less than or equal to T.

For example:

1. S → AT
2. T → xy
3. A → a

Type 2 Grammar:

Type 2 Grammar is known as Context Free Grammar. Context free languages are the
languages which can be represented by the context free grammar (CFG). Type 2 should be
type 1. The production rule is of the form

1. A → α

Where A is any single non-terminal and is any combination of terminals and non-terminals.

For example:

1. A → aBb
2. A → b
3. B → a

Type 3 Grammar:

Type 3 Grammar is known as Regular Grammar. Regular languages are those languages
which can be described using regular expressions. These languages can be modeled by NFA
or DFA.

Type 3 is most restricted form of grammar. The Type 3 grammar should be Type 2 and Type
1. Type 3 should be in the form of
1. V → T*V / T*

For example:

1. A → xy

The simplest grammars are used to define regular languages.

A regular language is one that can be described or understood by a finite state automaton.
Such languages are very simplistic and allow sentences such as “aaaaabbbbbb.” Recall
that a finite state automaton consists of a finite number of states, and rules that define
how the automaton can transition from one state to another.

A finite state automaton could be designed that defined the language that consisted of a
string of one or more occurrences of the letter a. Hence, the following strings would be
valid strings in this language:

aaa

aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa

Regular languages are of interest to computer scientists, but are not of great interest to the
field of natural language processing because they are not powerful enough to represent
even simple formal languages, let alone the more complex natural languages.
Sentences defined by a regular grammar are often known as regular expressions. The
grammar that we defined above using rewrite rules is a context-free grammar.
It is context free because it defines the grammar simply in terms of which word types can
go together—it does not specify the way that words should agree with each.

A stale dog climbs Mount Rushmore.

It also, allows the following sentence, which is not grammatically correct:

Chickens eats.
 A context-free grammar can have only at most one terminal symbol on the right-hand side
of its rewrite rules.
Rewrite rules for a context-sensitive grammar, in contrast, can have more than one
terminal symbol on the right-hand side. This enables the grammar to specify number,
case, tense, and gender agreement.

Each context-sensitive rewrite rule must have at least as many symbols on the right-hand
side as it does on the left-hand side.
Rewrite rules for context-sensitive grammars have the following form:

A X B→A Y B

which means that in the context of A and B, X can be rewritten as Y.

Each of A, B, X, and Y can be either a terminal or a nonterminal symbol.

Context-sensitive grammars are most usually used for natural language processing
because they are powerful enough to define the kinds of grammars that natural languages
use. Unfortunately, they tend to involve a much larger number of rules and are a much
less natural way to describe language, making them harder for human developers to
design than context free grammars.
The final class of grammars in Chomsky’s hierarchy consists of recursively enumerable
grammars (also known as unrestricted grammars).
A recursively enumerable grammar can define any language and has no restrictions on the
structure of its rewrite rules. Such grammars are of interest to computer scientists but are
not of great use in the study of natural language processing.

PARSING PROCESS

Parsing is the term used to describe the process of automatically building syntactic analysis of
a sentence in terms of a given grammar and lexicon. The resulting syntactic analysis may be
used as input to a process of semantic interpretation. Occasionally, parsing is also used to
include both syntactic and semantic analysis. The parsing process is done by the parser. The
parsing performs grouping and labeling of parts of a sentence in a way that displays their
relationships to each other in a proper way.

The parser is a computer program which accepts the natural language sentence as input and
generates an output structure suitable for analysis. The lexicon is a dictionary of words where
each word contains some syntactic, some semantic and possibly some pragmatic information.
The entry in the lexicon will contain a root word and its various derivatives. The information
in the lexicon is needed to help determine the function and meanings of the words in a
sentence. The basic parsing technique is shown in figure .

Generally in computational linguistics the lexicon supplies paradigmatic information about

words including part of speech labels, irregular plurals and sub categorization information for
verbs. Traditionally, lexicons were quite small and were constructed largely by hand. The
additional information being added to the lexicon increase the complexity of the lexicon. The
organization and entries of a lexicon will vary from one implementation to another but they
are usually made up of variable length data structures such as lists or records arranged in
alphabetical order. The word order may also be given in terms of usage frequency so that
frequently used words like “a”, “the” and “an” will appear at the beginning of the list
facilitating the search. The entries in a lexicon could be grouped and given word category (by
articles, nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and so on) and all words contained
within the lexicon listed within the categories to which they belong. The entries are like a, an
(determiner), be (verb), boy, stick, glass (noun), green, yellow, red (adjectives), I, we, you,
he, she, they (pronouns) etc.

In most contemporary grammatical formalisms, the output of parsing is something logically

equivalent to a tree, displaying dominance and precedence relations between constituents of a
sentence. Parsing algorithms are usually designed for classes of grammar rather than tailored
towards individual grammars.

Types of Parsing

The parsing technique can be categorized into two types such as

 1. Top down Parsing

2. Bottom up Parsing

Let us discuss about these two parsing techniques and how they will work for input
sentences.

1 Top down Parsing

Top down parsing starts with the starting symbol and proceeds towards the goal. We can say
it is the process of construction the parse tree starting at the root and proceeds towards the
leaves. It is a strategy of analyzing unknown data relationships by hypothesizing general
parse tree structures and then considering whether the known fundamental structures are
compatible with the hypothesis. In top down parsing words of the sentence are replaced by
their categories like verb phrase (VP), Noun phrase (NP), Preposition phrase (PP), Pronoun
(PRO) etc. Let us consider some examples to illustrate top down parsing. We will consider
both the symbolical representation and the graphical representation. We will take the words
of the sentences and reach at the complete sentence. For parsing we will consider the
previous symbols like PP, NP, VP, ART, N, V and so on. Examples of top down parsing are
LL (Left-to-right, left most derivation), recursive descent parser etc.

Example 1: Rahul is eating an apple.

2. Bottom up Parsing

In this parsing technique the process begins with the sentence and the words of the sentence
is replaced by their relevant symbols. This process was first suggested by Yngve (1955). It is
also called shift reducing parsing. In bottom up parsing the construction of parse tree starts at
the leaves and proceeds towards the root. Bottom up parsing is a strategy for analyzing
unknown data relationships that attempts to identify the most fundamental units first and then
to infer higher order structures for them. This process occurs in the analysis of both natural
languages and computer languages. It is common for bottom up parsers to take the form of
general parsing engines that can wither parse or generate a parser for a specific programming
language given a specific of its grammar.
A generalization of this type of algorithm is familiar from computer science LR (k) family
can be seen as shift reduce algorithms with a certain amount (“K” words) of look ahead to
determine for a set of possible states of the parser which action to take. The sequence of
actions from a given grammar can be pre-computed to give a ‘parsing table’ saying whether a
shift or reduce is to be performed and which state to go next. Generally bottom up algorithms
are more efficient than top down algorithms, one particular phenomenon that they deal with
only clumsily are “e mpty rules”: rules in which the right hand side is the empty string.
Bottom up parsers find instances of such rules applying at every possible point in the input
which can lead to much wasted effort. Let us see some examples to illustrate the bottom up
parsing.
Example-2:
The small tree shades the new house by the stream
ART small tree shades the new house by the stream

ART ADJ tree shades the new house by the stream

ART ADJ N shades the new house by the stream

ART ADJ N V the new house by the stream

ART ADJ N V ART new house by the stream

ART ADJ N V ART ADJ house by the stream

ART ADJ N V ART ADJ N by the stream

ART ADJ N V ART ADJ N PREP the stream

ART ADJ N V ART ADJ N PREP ART stream

ART ADJ N V ART ADJ N PREP ART N

ART ADJ N V ART ADJ N PREP NP

ART ADJ N V ART ADJ N PP

ART ADJ N V ART ADJ NP

ART ADJ N V ART NP

ART ADJ N V NP

ART ADJ N VP

ART NP VP

NP VP

Deterministic Parsing
A deterministic parser is one which permits only one choice for each word category. That
means there is only one replacement possibility for every word category. Thus, each word has
a different test conditions. At each stage of parsing always the correct choice is to be taken.
In deterministic parsing back tracking to some previous positions is not possible. Always the
parser has to move forward. Suppose the parser some form of incorrect choice, then the
parser will not proceed forward. This situation arises when one word satisfies more than one
word categories, such as noun and verb or adjective and verb. The deterministic parsing
network is shown in figure.

Non-Deterministic Parsing

The non deterministic parsing allows different arcs to be labeled with the some test. Thus,
they can uniquely make the choice about the next arc to be taken. In non deterministic
parsing, the back tracking procedure can be possible. Suppose at some extent of point, the
parser does not find the correct word, then at that stage it may backtracks to some of its
previous nodes and then start parsing. But the parser has to guess about the proper constituent
and then backtrack if the guess is later proven to be wrong. So comparative to deterministic
parsing, this procedure may be helpful for a number of sentences as it can backtrack at any
point of state. A non deterministic parsing network is shown in figure.
TRANSITION NETWORK

It is a method to represent the natural languages. It is based on applications of directed graphs

and finite
state automata. The transition network can be constructed by the help of some inputs, states
and outputs. A transition network may consist of some states or nodes, some labeled arcs
from one state to the next state through which it will move. The arc represents the rule or
some conditions upon which the transition is made from one state to another state. For
example, a transition network is used to recognize a sentence consisting of an article, a noun,
an auxiliary, a verb, an article, a noun would be represented by the transition network as
follows.

The transition from N1 to N2 will be made if an article is the first input symbol. If successful,
state N2 is entered. The transition from N2 to N3 can be made if a noun is found next. If
successful, state N3 is entered. The transition from N3 to N4 can be made if an auxiliary is
found and so on. Suppose consider a sentence “A boy is eating a banana”. So if the sent ence
is parsed in the above transition network then, first ‘A’ is an article. So successful transition t
o the node N1 to N2. Then boy is a noun (so N2 to N3), “is” is an auxiliary (N5 to N6) and
finally “banana” is a noun (N 6 to N7) is done successfully. So the above sentence is
successfully parsed in the transition network.

TYPES OF TRANSITION NETWORK

There are generally two types of transition networks like

1. Recursive Transition networks (RTN)

2. Augmented Transition networks (ATN)

Let us focus on these two transition networks and their structure for parsing a sentence.

1. Recursive Transition Networks (RTN)

RTNs are considered as development for finite state automata with some essential conditions
to take the recursive complexion for some definitions in consideration. A recursive transition
network consists of nodes (states) and labeled arcs (transitions). It permits arc labels to refer
to other networks and they in turn may refer back to the referring network rather than just
permitting word categories. It is a modified version of transition network. It allows arc labels
that refer to other networks rather than word category. A recursive transition network can
have 5 types of arcs (Allen’s, JM’s) like

1) CAT: Current word must belong to category.

2) WORD: Current word must match label exactly.

3) PUSH: Named network must be successfully traversed.

4) JUMP: Can always be traversed.

5) POP: Can always be traversed and indicates that input string has been accepted by
the network. In RTN, one state is specified as a start state. A string is accepted by an RTN if
a POP arc is reached and all the input has been consumed. Let us consider a sentence “The
stone was dark black”.

Here The: ART

Stone: ADJ NOUN

 Was: VERB

Dark: ADJ
Black: ADJ NOUN

The RTN structure is given in figure

Finally as there are no words left so the parse is successful.

Also there is an another structure of RTN is described by William Woods (1970) is illustrated
in figure. He described the total RTN structure into three parts like sentence (S), Noun Phrase
(NP), Preposition Phrase (PP).
The number of sentences accepted by an RTN can be extended if backtracking is permitted
when a failure occurs. This requires that states having alternative transitions be remembered
until the parse progresses past possible failure points. In this way, if a failure occurs at some
point, the interpreter can backtrack and try alternative paths. The disadvantage with this
approach is that parts of a sentence may be parsed more than time resulting in excessive
computations. During the traversal of an RTN, a record must be maintained of the word
position in the input sentence and the current state and return nodes to be used as return
points when control has been transformed to a lower level network.

2. Augmented Transition Network (ATN)

An ATN is a modified transition network. It is an extension of RTN. The ATN uses a top
down parsing procedure to gather various types of information to be later used for
understanding system. It produces the data structure suitable for further processing and
capable of storing semantic details. An augmented transition network (ATN) is a recursive
transition network that can perform tests and take actions during arc transitions. An ATN
uses a set of registers to store information. A set of actions is defined for each arc and the
actions can look at and modify the registers. An arc may have a test associated with it. The
arc is traversed (and its action) is taken only if the test succeeds. When a lexical arc is
traversed, it is put in a special variable (*) that keeps track of the current word. The ATN was
first used in LUNAR system. In ATN, the arc can have a further arbitrary test and an
arbitrary action. The structure of ATN is illustrated in figure. Like RTN, the structure of ATN
is also consisting of the substructures of S, NP and PP.

The ATN collects the sentence features for further analysis. The additional features that can
be captured by the ATN are; subject NP, the object NP, the subject verb agreement, the
declarative or interrogative mood, tense and so on. So we can conclude that ATN requires
some more analysis steps compared to that of RTN. If these extra analysis tests are not
performed, then there must some ambiguity in ATN. The ATN represents sentence structure
by using a slot filter representation, which reflects more of the functional role of phrases in a
sentence. For example, one noun phrase may be identified as “subject” (SUBJ) and another as
the “object” of the verb. Wit hin noun phrases, parsing will also identify the determiner
structure, adjectives, the noun etc. For the sentence “Ram ate an apple”, we can represent as
in figure.
The ATN maintains the information by having various registers like DET, ADJ and HEAD
etc. Registers are set by actions that can be specified on the arcs. When the arc is followed,
the specified action associated with it is executed. An ATN can recognize any language that a
general purpose computer can recognize. The ATNs have been used successfully in a number
of natural language systems as well as front ends for databases and expert systems.

Unit -7

https://interestingengineering.com/ethics-of-ai-benefits-and-risks-ofartificial-
intelligence-systems
2. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsta.2018.0080
3. https://law-campbell.libguides.com/ld.php?content_id=58542260