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Oil and Gas:

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The Production Story

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The University of Texas at Austin • Petroleum Extension Service

 Contents

in
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Figures v

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Acknowledgments xi
Introduction 1

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1 Where Do Oil and Gas Come From? 3
Characteristics of Rocks 3

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Origin of Oil and Gas 5

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Traps 8
Reservoir Fluids 11

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Summary 12
2 Exploring and Drilling for Oil and Gas 13

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Exploration 13
Leasing 18

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Drilling 18
Summary 26
3 Drilling Wells Offshore rs
27
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Platforms 27
Deepwater Drilling 31
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Summary 31
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4 Testing and Completing Wells 33

Formation Testing 33
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Perforated Completions 34
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Open-Hole Completions 36
Perforated Liner Completions 36
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Wire-Wrapped Screen Completions 37

Tubing and Packers 38
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Tubingless Completions 40
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Multiple Completions 40
Summary 41
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5 Stimulating Reservoirs 43
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Fracturing 44
Acidizing 44
Summary 46
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6 Driving Reservoir Production 47

Dissolved-Gas Drives 47
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Gas-Cap Drive 48
Water Drive 49
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Combination Drive 50
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Summary 51
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7 What Controls the Well? 53

Casinghead 53
Tubing Head 55
Christmas Tree 56
Summary 58

iii
 Contents OIL AND GAS: THE PRODUCTION STORY

8 Lifting More Oil and Gas 59

Beam Pumping 59
Subsurface Hydraulic Pumping 65
Electric Submersible Pumping 67

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Gas Lift 68

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Summary 69

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9 Recovering the Rest of the Oil 71
Waterflooding 73
Miscible Processes 74

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Thermal Processes 76
Summary 78

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10 Separating and Treating Reservoir Fluids 79

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Separation 80
Treating Oilfield Emulsions 86

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Field Handling of Natural Gas 89
Offshore Production 93

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Summary 94
11 Understanding Well Performance 95

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Potential Tests 95
Bottomhole Pressure Tests 98

Special Tests rs
Productivity Tests 99
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Summary 100
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12 Storing and Measuring Oil and Gas 101

Storage 101
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Measurement 103
LACT Units 104
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Computers 106
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Summary 106
13 When Special Problems Occur 107
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Corrosion 107
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Scale 109
Water Disposal 110
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Paraffin 110
Hydrogen Sulfide 112
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Summary 113
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The Short Story 115

Appendix: Figure Credits 117
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Glossary 125
Index 155
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iv
 Introduction

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Almost everyone depends on oil and gas—for our cars, in our homes,

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and at work. Because oil and gas are so integrated in our lives, we
should know more about where they come from.
Becoming better informed might sound difficult to do because

at
the oil industry has its own language, technical people, and mys-
tique. With oil and gas thousands of feet beneath the surface of land

s
or water, they are far out of sight and mind of the average person.

xa
What occurs in the oil and gas industry aboveground often looks

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extremely complicated. In reality, the industry is not all that complex,
and the basic principles are fairly easy to understand.
This book tells the story of how oil and gas are produced. The

of
story begins with their origin and tells how they are produced today.
It continues with the process of bringing the oil and gas up from

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deep in the ground through wells. You will learn how wells are set

rs
up and drilled and about the many processes used in production.
What causes oil and gas to flow from a well? That question is the
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basis for this story. Inside this book are answers to that and other
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questions such as:

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How are oil and gas handled once they reach the surface?
How are they separated from one another, and why?
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How are they prepared for final sale?

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You will also learn about the unique problems that can occur
when drilling teams embark on oil and gas production. Included in
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this book are some important solutions to these challenges.

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The story you are about to read has no ending; it continues as

the oil and gas industry strives to meet our population’s growing
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energy needs.
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1
 1

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Where Do Oil and Gas Come

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From?

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In this chapter, you will learn:
• The characteristics of reservoir rocks

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• How oil and gas are formed

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• Where oil and gas are found
• The types of reservoir fluids

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rs
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One popular idea about the origin of oil is that it is found in large
underground formations similar to rivers or lakes. Some people think
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Oil and gas are hydrocarbons

that large subterranean caves or underground rivers are flowing with because they are made up of
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pure crude oil. Nothing could be further from the truth. hydrogen and carbon.
There is such a thing as an oil pool underground that stores oil.
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However, it is not an open pool but rather a portion of rock that con-
tains fluids, called a reservoir. This type of oil reservoir is much different
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from the familiar water reservoirs cities use to store drinking water.
And that is just the beginning of the story. This book contains
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an interesting account of how oil and gas occur and what happens
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from discovery to recovery.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF ROCKS
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To understand the origin of oil and gas, it is necessary to learn some-

um

thing about the basic characteristics of rocks. Most oil is found in

rocks. Natural gas, often associated with oil, is also found in rocks. Both
oil and natural gas are called hydrocarbons. They are hydrocarbons
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because they are made up of two elements: hydrogen and carbon.

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The mixture of hydrocarbons forms an oily, thick, flammable

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liquid called crude oil, commonly referred to as petroleum. The word

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petroleum comes from the Greek word for rock, petra, and the Latin
word for oil, oleum. The two words combined literally mean rock oil.
It might be difficult to understand how hydrocarbons such as oil
and gas can come out of rocks because few things seem more solid
than rock. But some rocks are not as solid as they appear to the naked

3
 2

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Exploring and Drilling

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for Oil and Gas

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In this chapter, you will learn:
• How geophysicists use seismology to explore for oil

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• How a well is drilled to reach its target

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• What drill pipe encounters during drilling
• The precautions drillers take while drilling

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rs
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EXPLORATION
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Although land might look flat and dry on the surface, a hydrocarbon
trap could lie deep beneath the surface, even if there is no evidence
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indicating its presence. This is why it is so difficult for explorers to

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find hydrocarbon traps.

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Explorers of oil and gas traps are called exploration geologists

and geophysicists. These professionals search for subsurface traps
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that might contain hydrocarbons. One of the sciences they use in

their search is seismology.
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Seismology is the study of natural and man-made vibrations in

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the earth. The vibrations take the form of sound waves. For example, Seismic exploration studies sound
earthquakes create sound vibrations that can be studied using seis-
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wave vibrations as they travel

mology. Scientists can also study sound vibrations imposed on the through rock layers.
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earth’s surface using force. In both cases, the sound waves can be
recorded on a chart and studied for clues in locating traps.
um

To understand how these sounds point to traps, consider the way

voice sound waves travel outward and back when a person shouts
toward the face of a cliff or building. The sound travels through the
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air, bounces off the cliff or wall, and returns back as an echo. The
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same basic principle applies to seismic waves used to explore for

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petroleum traps but with some differences.

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In seismic exploration, geophysicists search for traps buried

deep below the surface, so the sound must travel down through
thousands of feet of rock and back up to the surface. To increase
the chances of finding a potential reservoir, geophysicists usually
perform seismic surveys over many miles of surface area.

13
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Drilling Wells Offshore

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In this chapter, you will learn:

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• How to drill for oil at sea

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• The unique facilities constructed for work offshore

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• The challenges presented by the environment
• How drillers reach oil and gas targets in deep water

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rs
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Offshore operations have expanded in the last few years with plat-
forms actively producing oil and gas in thousands of oceanic loca-
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A wide variety of platform

tions around the world. Today, offshore operations rely heavily on installations populate waters around
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advanced technology and skilled workers to drill under challenging the globe. They house workers
conditions in remote locations.
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and equipment that work around

There are two main types of offshore facilities: offshore rigs and
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the clock to drill and produce oil

production platforms. Sometimes, a platform contains both rig and and gas, and then transfer the
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production operations. The rig performs the drilling process to reach production to shore.
the oil and natural gas. The production platform is a much larger
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structure that produces the oil and natural gas and houses workers
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and production equipment.

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PLATFORMS
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An offshore production platform can be secured to the seafloor or

it can float on the surface. The type of offshore facility depends on
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the operation’s distance from shore, the depth of the water, and the
size of the area to be drilled. Much of the drilling equipment on
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platforms is similar, but installation of platforms can vary dramati-

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cally (fig. 3.1). Some facilities are mobile and can be floated or moved
to various locations. Others might be permanently anchored to the
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seafloor. Most offshore facilities have a helideck used by helicopters

to transfer crews, load equipment, and deliver supplies.
An offshore drilling rig creates the opening by which oil and gas
can be produced. Rigs can also be used to prepare for production.

27
 4

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Testing and Completing Wells

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In this chapter, you will learn:
• What happens when pipe reaches the producing zone

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• The importance of reading a well log

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• Test methods that reveal downhole information
• Steps to complete a well

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• How fluids are drawn out of rock and up a well
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It costs a lot of money to drill a well and even more to complete one. If
well owners are going to bear the expense, they need to know whether
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Completing a well is costly,

there are enough hydrocarbons in the trap to justify completion. The so drillers need to know if
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cost of completing the well varies from year to year. On average, for hydrocarbons are really present.
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every seven exploratory, or wildcat, wells drilled, six of them will be

dry; meaning, only about one in seven strikes oil or gas. These are
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poor odds, but one good reservoir can make the payoff worthwhile.
Once the hole is drilled into the reservoir, the well owners will run
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tests to see if hydrocarbons are present before they proceed.

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FORMATION TESTING
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One way to test the formation in a well for the presence of hy-
drocarbons is to log it. Well logging is a method of obtaining and
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recording downhole information about the well. It involves lower-

ing a special logging instrument into the well that sends signals
to the surface where electrical, radioactive, or acoustic properties
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of the formations are recorded. This record is called a log and is

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expressed in several lines or curves (fig. 4.1). Experts can look at

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the curves and fairly accurately determine whether a formation

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has petroleum and how much it might have.

Another way to test a well is to take core samples of the forma-
tion. A core is simply a long cylinder of rock that is relatively small in
diameter. It is extracted from a formation using a special coring drill.

33
 5

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Stimulating Reservoirs

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In this chapter, you will learn:
• What causes formation damage

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• How to achieve reasonable flow rates

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• Methods of initiating flow
• How to open new channels of flow

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rs
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Petroleum and other fluids such as water reside in the pore spaces of
reservoir rock. These pore spaces must be connected and permeable
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Natural and man-made formation

so the fluids can flow out of the rock and into the well. Sometimes, a damage can slow down a well’s
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reservoir rock has low permeability and the hydrocarbons cannot be rate of flow.
extracted at reasonable rates.
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Another factor that slows the rate of extraction is man-made

formation damage caused by drilling into the rock. The rock’s natural
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permeability might be adequate, but when a well is drilled into the

reservoir, it can cause damage to the surrounding area and reduce
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the permeability of the nearby formation. DRILL

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STRING
There are many other causes of formation damage. The drilling
mud used in drilling the hole can cause problems. When the mud PRODUCING
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FORMATION
contacts the formation, it sometimes seeps into the rock and blocks
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permeability (fig. 5.1). Or, the water in the mud can do the same when
DRILLING
it interacts with rock minerals. In both cases, hydrocarbons cannot MUD
readily flow into the well.
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Because various problems can threaten the rate of extraction, it is

beneficial for explorers to obtain as much data as possible to maximize
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FORMATION
DAMAGE
production. One way this is done is through reservoir modeling. This
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technique creates a computerized model of the reservoir from digitized

data of geologic maps and engineering studies. The data is entered
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into a computer program that applies past and present values for types
of reservoir behavior to create a model of the region. The computer
model predicts behavior over time and facilitates decisions about Figure 5.1 When the hole is being
how to stimulate production of the fluids. When stimulation is recom- drilled, drilling mud can seep into a
mended, two common techniques are used: fracturing and acidizing. permeable formation.

43
 7

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What Controls the Well?

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In this chapter, you will learn:
• What makes up a wellhead

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• How wells are controlled

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• How the equipment is controlled
• About managing high- and low-pressure wells

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rs
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On the surface, various types of specially designed equipment are
hard at work. The wellhead is the equipment that confines and controls
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the flow of fluids from the well. Wellheads vary in size, strength,
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and configuration, depending on conditions. A wellhead sometimes

consists of several heavy fittings with certain parts designed to hold
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high pressures. Such a wellhead is used on a high-pressure gas well.

Or, a wellhead might be a simple assembly designed to support tub- CHRISTMAS
TREE
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ing in the well when pressure and production are low. Generally,
wellheads are made up of one or more casingheads, a tubing head, and
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a Christmas tree (fig. 7.1).

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CASINGHEAD
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A casinghead is a heavy flanged steel fitting connected to the first string TUBING HEAD
of casing. It provides housing for assemblies, allows suspension of the
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casing strings, and prevents fluid flow as necessary. A casinghead has

several parts attached to the top of each casing string after they are
run and cemented in the well. In wells with an intermediate casing
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CASINGHEAD
string, two casingheads can be used, one on top of the other (fig. 7.2).
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In wells having only an outer surface casing and inner production

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casing, the casinghead might be less complex (fig. 7.3).

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Regardless of type, the casinghead enables the use of gripping

devices, or hangers, to help support the weight of the casing. Casing-
heads also have sealing elements or packers to prevent the flow of fluids Figure 7.1 A typical wellhead is made
within the casinghead and to the atmosphere. Openings are provided up of one or more casingheads, a tubing
to bleed off pressure that might collect in or between casing strings. head, and a Christmas tree.

53
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Lifting More Oil and Gas

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In this chapter, you will learn:
• About the limits of natural energy

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• How to bring up more oil

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• How a beam pumping unit works
• When to use gas lift

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rs
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As a well produces, pressure in the reservoir will likely fall to a
point where natural drive energy is not strong enough to push the oil
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Two common ways to lift oil: pump

and gas. At this point, some method of artificial lift must be used. pressure and gas injection.
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Although there are many different methods of artificial lift, they can
be divided into two broad categories: pumps and gas lifts. Pumping
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methods include three primary types: beam, subsurface hydraulic,

and electric submersible.
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BEAM PUMPING
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The most common method of artificial lift is beam pumping, which

operates equipment both on and below the surface. A beam pumping
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unit consists of a pumping unit, a sucker rod string, and a sucker

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rod pump. Beam pumping units are a familiar sight around oilfields
(fig. 8.1).
On the surface, the beam pumping assembly imparts an up-
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and-down, rocking motion from the walking beam to a string of

high-strength steel rods called sucker rods (fig. 8.2). The sucker rods
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are attached to the front of the pumping unit. These rods go down
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inside the tubing and are attached to the top of a sucker rod pump.
The pump is installed inside of, or as a part of, the tubing string
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near the bottom of the well (fig. 8.3). As the walking beam moves
up and down, the rod string also moves up and down to operate
the sucker rod pump.

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Recovering the Rest

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of the Oil

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In this chapter, you will learn:

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• How to tap even more oil

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• Different techniques to drain a reservoir

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• How water and heat assist processes
• The challenges of enhanced recovery

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rs
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At some point, a well can no longer produce oil, even when arti-
ficial lift methods are applied. But this does not mean that no oil
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Even after successful production, a

remains in the reservoir. Statistics show that from 25–95 percent of reservoir might still contain one-
U

the original oil in place might still be there. Even the most efficient fourth to over three-fourths of the
water drive can leave behind 75 percent of the oil. The U.S. Depart- original oil accumulation.
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ment of Energy estimates that 24–45 billion barrels of recoverable

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oil still remain in initially produced reservoirs—meaning, those

reservoirs that have been produced at least once before. This esti-
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mated amount more than doubles the current known reserves in

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the United States.

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To recover more oil from produced reservoirs, the petroleum

industry has developed a number of alternate recovery methods to
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produce oil still residing there. These techniques are known as enhanced
oil recovery (EOR), secondary recovery, and tertiary recovery (fig. 9.1).
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The definitions of these terms vary and overlap.

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Separating and Treating

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Reservoir Fluids

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In this chapter, you will learn:

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• How oil and gas are processed for sale

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• The different vessels used for separation

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• How separators divide fluids
• Why it is important to remove water

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rs
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Courtesy of Nicolas Bremond/LCMD-

When gas, oil, and water reach the surface, what happens next? Before
they are ready for sale to a pipeline company or other shipper, they
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must be processed. Crude oil and natural gas seldom come out of a
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reservoir in a pure state. What actually comes out of a producing well

is a relatively complex mixture of liquid, gas, and solids made up of
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mostly sand and scale, called basic sediment. Basic sediment and water
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(BS&W) must be removed, and the oil and gas must be separated.
Once separated, the oil goes to a refinery where it is used to
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make gasoline, kerosene, fuel oils, and other products. The gas is

ESPCI
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piped to a special plant for more processing to extract natural gas,

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propane, butane, and other hydrocarbons. The water, although once

Figure 10.1 This photomicrograph
helpful in the reservoir, must be removed and handled properly shows droplets of water suspended
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when it reaches the surface with the oil and gas. Because it is usually and dispersed throughout the oil in
salt water, it must be properly disposed of so it does not harm the
Ex

a water-in-oil emulsion.
environment. Often, the water can be recycled in water drives and
injected back into other reservoirs to lift up more oil.
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Produced water occurs in two ways: as free water that rapidly

settles out of oil that has remained still in a tank; or as water closely
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bound up in the oil. Closely bound water forms an emulsion, which

is a mixture of droplets of one liquid spread out, or dispersed, in
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another liquid. In an emulsion, liquids do not mix well.

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An oilfield emulsion usually has water droplets spread out and

suspended in the oil (fig. 10.1). The droplets eventually settle out if
given enough time, or the process can be sped up by applying heat,
chemicals, and other techniques.

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Understanding Well

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Performance

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In this chapter, you will learn:

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• The importance of testing

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• Different testing methods

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• What the tests indicate about production

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Production tests help determine how much or how fast a well will
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produce. A well owner might request that several production tests be Best results are achieved when
run to reveal important information about the well and its reservoir. drillers know exactly how a well
ni

To ensure the well produces efficiently and to build a case history, will behave.
several different types of tests can be conducted.
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POTENTIAL TESTS
The most frequent well test is a potential test. This test measures the
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largest amount of oil and gas a well can produce under certain fixed
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conditions over a 24-hour period. The test involves allowing the well
to produce for a time period and accurately measuring its produc-
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tion. Potential tests are performed when the well is first produced
and throughout its producing life.
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Production from the well is measured in several ways. One

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approach uses a test separator and stock tank. A test separator is

simply one that diverts the well fluids through the separator testing
um

system while the well is being tested (fig. 11.1). In a test separator,
fluids are divided into oil and gas. The exiting gas is piped through
a meter and measured.
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 12

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Storing and Measuring Oil and

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Gas

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In this chapter, you will learn:
• How stock tanks are used

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• The importance of accurate measurement

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• The effect of temperature and water on volume
• How a LACT unit operates

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• The impact of computers
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STORAGE
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Stock tanks on a lease are a frequent sight. These tanks store oil
until it is sold and moved by pipeline or other transportation to a
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refinery. Often, several stock tanks are placed near one another, form-
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ing a collection of tanks, often referred to as a tank battery (fig. 12.1).

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Courtesy of Rubb, Inc.

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Figure 12.1 A top view of a tank battery

101
 13

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When Special Problems Occur

Au
at
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In this chapter, you will learn:
• How water can affect equipment and pipes

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• Why water must be properly handled

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• What happens when paraffin accompanies oil
• The dangers of hydrogen sulfide

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rs
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Given that well fluids on a lease are handled and treated in a continu-
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ous operation, certain problems will sometimes develop. Some of

these conditions were mentioned in earlier chapters but because of
U

their impact on well performance, they are discussed here in more

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detail. Some of the major problems that might occur are corrosion
Th

and scale caused by water, paraffin, and hydrogen sulfide gas. Specifi-
cally, produced salt water is a source of many problems.
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CORROSION
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As oilfields get older, more and more water is produced from them,
and increased water production means increased corrosion problems.
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Fighting corrosion is possible with special chemicals called inhibitors.

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Research has helped industry develop inhibitors that protect against

corrosion at a reasonable cost. Most liquid corrosion inhibitors are
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effective at holding down or eliminating corrosion.

It is best to place a corrosion inhibitor in the well fluids as they
exit the reservoir. There, the inhibitor mixes with the fluids and goes
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to work immediately at the bottom of the well. As the fluids flow up

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the tubing and into the rest of the production system, the inhibitor
is already working in the fluid stream.
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107
 Index

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absorber, 90

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acetic acid, 46
acidizing, 43, 44–46

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active heave compensator, 31
air guns, 14

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alkaline solution, 74

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American Petroleum Institute (API), 103

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annulus, 23
anticlines, 8

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anticline trap, 8
API gravity, 103

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artificial lift, 47

rs
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baffles, 84
ball-and-seat valves, 66
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barrel, 63
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basic sediment, 79
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basic sediment and water (BS&W), 79, 103

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beam pumping, 59–60, 62–64

beam pumping unit, 59
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blowout preventer (BOP) stack, 31

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blowout preventer (BOP), 31

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blowout, 24
borehole, 26
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bottomhole pressure tests, 98–99

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bottomhole temperature, 99
bottomhole temperature tests, 99
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bridle, 62
brine, 110
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bubble caps, 92
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cable, 14
calcium magnesium carbonate, 46
cap, 48
carbonate reservoirs, 46
carbonate rocks, 46

155
 Index OIL AND GAS: THE PRODUCTION STORY

carbon dioxide (CO2), 75 drilling, 18, 19–24. See also exploration

casing, 115 and drilling
casingheads, 53 drilling fluid, 20

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casing-tubing annulus, 39 drilling mud, 20

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cathodic protection, 108 drilling rig, 18

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caustic solution, 74 drill pipe, 18
cement, 22 drillship, 28
channeling, 74 drill stem test, 34

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characteristics of rocks, 3–4 drive, 50

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chemical miscible techniques, 74 driving reservoir production, 47–51

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choke, 58 combination drive, 50–51

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Christmas tree, 53, 56–58 dissolved-gas drive, 47–48
circulation, 20 gas-cap drive, 48
combination drive, 50–51 water drive, 49

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completing wells, 26 dry hole, 34

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completion, 33 duster, 34
computers, 106
condensation, 90 rs
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electric submersible pumping, 67
conductor casing, 23
electrostatic treaters, 89
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connate water, 11
emulsion breakers, 86
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core samples, 33
emulsion, 79
corrosion, 90, 107–110
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engine piston, 67
corrosion inhibitors, 107
Th

enhanced oil recovery (EOR), 71

corrosive fluids, 38
erosion, 7
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coupling, 62
exploration, 13–16
crank arm, 62
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exploration and drilling, 13–26

crude oil, 3
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about, 19–24
cyclic steam injection, 76
drilling, 18
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exploration, 13–16
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leasing, 18
deepwater drilling, 31
exploration geologists, 13
dehydration, 90
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dehydrators, 90
demulsifiers, 86 fault traps, 8
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densities, 11 field handling of natural gas, 89–92

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directional drilling, 24 filter, 37

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dissolved-gas drive reservoirs, 47 fingering of surfactant, 74

dissolved-gas drives, 47–48 fire flooding, 76
dolomite, 46 fire tube, 86
domes, 10 fissures, 7
downcomer, 86 flammable liquid, 3

156
 OIL AND GAS: THE PRODUCTION STORY Index

floating buoy, 94 heave compensators, 31

floating production, storage and offloading helideck, 27
system (FPSOs), 30 high permeability, 4

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flowing bottomhole pressure, 99 high porosity rocks, 4

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flowing bottomhole pressure test, 99 homogenous rock, 35

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flow line, 63 horizontal heater-treaters, 88
fluid level determination test, 99 horizontal separators, 82
fluids, 3 horsehead, 62

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formation damage, 43 huff and puff, 76

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formation fracturing, 45 hydrates, 89

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formation, 8 hydraulic pumping, 65

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formation testing, 33–34 hydraulic pumps, 66
formic acid, 46 hydraulic rams, 31
4-D (four dimensional) seismic, 16 hydraulics, 65

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fracture acidizing, 44 hydrocarbons, 3

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fracture, 8 hydrochloric acid, 46
fracturing, 43, 44 hydrofluoric acid, 46
free water, 79 rs
hydrogen sulfide, 112
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hydrogen sulfide gas, 107
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hydrophones, 14
gas-cap drive, 48
U

gas-cap reservoir, 48
impellers, 67
e

gas cap, 48
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gas drive, 48 impervious material, 10

gas lift, 68 indirect heaters, 90

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gas-lift valves, 68 inhibitors, 107

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gas miscible techniques, 74 insert pumps, 64

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gas sampling, 104 in situ combustion, 76

gas wells, 51 intermediate casing, 24

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gauging, 96 Introduction
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geologists, 5
geophones, 14 jackup rig, 28
um

geophysicists, 13 joints, 22
glycol dehydrator, 90
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gravel pack, 37
LACT units, 104
ro

gravity, 80, 103

lease automatic custody transfer units (LACTs), 104
t
Pe

lease, 18
hanger-packer, 55 leasing, 18
hangers, 53 lifting oil and gas, 59–69
heater-treater, 86 about, 62–64
heat exchanger, 86 beam pumping, 59–60

157
 Index OIL AND GAS: THE PRODUCTION STORY

electric submersible pumping, 67 waterflooding, 73

gas lift, 68 oil sales outlet, 102
subsurface hydraulic pumping, 65–67 oil tanks. See storing and measuring oil and gas

in
limestone-type formations, 44 oilwells, 23

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low permeability, 4 oleum, 3

Au
low porosity, 4 open-hole completions, 36
lubricator, 98 origin of oil and gas, 5–7

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marine risers, 31

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packer, 39
master valve, 57

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paraffin, 110–111
matrix acidizing, 44, 45

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paraffin scrapers, 110
measurement, 103–104
passive heave compensator, 31
metering devices, 96
perforated completion, 34

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metering separator, 96
perforated completions, 34
meters, 96

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perforated liner completions, 36
miscible processes, 74–75
perforating gun, 34
miscible techniques, 74
rs
perforations, 34
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mist extractor traps, 84
performance. See well performance
mud, 20
ni

permeability, 4
mud acid, 46
U

permeable rocks, 4
mud solids, 45
petroleum, 3
multiple completions, 40
e

pins, 62
Th

pipeline, 56
natural drive energy, 59
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piston, 63
natural gas, 3 pitmans, 62
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net-oil computer, 96 platforms, 27–30

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plugs, 10
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Occupational Safety and Health Administration plunger, 63

(OSHA), 112 polished rods, 62
Ex

offshore drilling, 27–33 polymers, 74

deepwater drilling, 31 pores, 4
um

platforms, 27–30 pore spaces, 4

offshore production, 93–94 porosity, 4
le

offshore rigs, 27 porous rock, 4

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oilfield emulsions, 79 ports, 66

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oil in place, 71 potential tests, 95–96

oil pool, 3 power oil, 66
oil recovery, 71–78 pressure, 6
miscible processes, 74–75 pressure energy, 47
thermal processes, 76 prime mover, 60

158
 OIL AND GAS: THE PRODUCTION STORY Index

producer, 34 solid inhibitor, 108

production casing, 34 solvent, 110
production operations, 27 source bed, 8

in
production platforms, 27 sources of oil and gas, 3–12

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production risers, 94 characteristics of rocks, 3–4

Au
productivity tests, 99 origin of oil and gas, 5–7
pumping. See lifting oil and gas reservoir fluids, 11–12
traps, 8–10

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sour crude, 112, 113
reboiler, 90

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sour gas, 112, 113

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record, 15
spar platform, 30
reservoir fluids, 3, 11–12

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special problems, 107–113
reservoir modeling, 43
corrosion, 107–110
reservoir, 8
hydrogen sulfide, 112

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rock cuttings, 20
paraffin, 110–111
rock matrix, 45

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scale, 109
rotary table, 18
water disposal, 110
rs
special tests, 99
ve
salt column, 10 specific gravity (SG), 103
ni

salt water, 11 speed reducer, 60

U

saltwater disposal, 116 spherical separator, 82

satellite wells, 94 standing valve, 63
e

scale, 79, 109 steam flooding, 76

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secondary recovery, 71 steel alloys, 108

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sediments, 5 stick, 108

seismic section, 15 stimulating reservoirs, 43–46
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seismic waves, 13 acidizing, 44–46

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seismology, 13 fracturing, 44
te

semisubmersible drilling platforms, 28, 30 stimulation, 43

separating and treating reservoir fluids, 79–94 stock tanks, 84
Ex

field handling of natural gas, 89–92 storage, 101–103

offshore production, 93–94 storage tanks, 84
um

separation, 80–85 storing and measuring oil and gas, 101–106

treating oilfield emulsions, 86–89 computers, 106
le

separation, 80–85 LACT units, 104

ro

separators, 80, 115 measurement, 103–104

t
Pe

shale, 4 storage, 101–103

shale oil, 4 strata, 9
shale shaker, 20 stuffing box, 62
shaped charges, 34 submersible pump, 67
slips, 39 subsurface hydraulic pumping, 65–67

159
 Index OIL AND GAS: THE PRODUCTION STORY

subsurface hydraulic pump, 66 troublesome formations, 24

subsurface pump, 66 tube bundles, 90
subsurface safety valve, 39 tubing and packers, 38–39

in
sucker rod pump, 59 tubing couplings, 99

st
sucker rods, 59 tubing heads, 53, 55

Au
surface casing, 22 tubingless completion, 40
surfactant tubing pumps, 64
channeling of, 74 tubing string, 37

at
fingering of, 74 2-D (two dimensional) seismic, 15

s
surge tank, 90 two-phase separator, 80

xa
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tank battery, 101 unconformity, 9
tanks. See also storing and measuring oil and gas

of
stock tanks, 84

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storage tanks, 84 vertical heater-treaters, 86
surge tank, 90 vertical separators, 82
tank battery, 101 rs
viscous oil, 76
ve
wetting tank, 66
ni

tension-leg platform, 30
U

tertiary recovery, 71 walking beam, 59

testing and completing wells, 33–41 water disposal, 110
e

formation testing, 33–34 water drive, 49

Th

multiple completions, 40 waterflooding, 73

n-

open-hole completions, 36 water injection pumps, 110

perforated completions, 34 water injection wells, 73
io

perforated liner completions, 36 wellbore, 4

ns

tubing and packers, 38–39 well completions, 38

te

tubingless completions, 40 well drilling, 4

wire-wrapped screen completions, 37 well elements, 53–58
Ex

test separators, 95 casinghead, 53

thermal processes, 76, 78 Christmas tree, 56–58
um

the short story, 115–116 tubing head, 55

thief, 102 well fluids, 39
le

thief hatch, 102 wellheads, 53

ro

3D (three dimensional) seismic, 16 well logging, 33

t
Pe

three-phase separator, 81 well performance, 95–100

traps, 8–10 bottomhole pressure tests, 98–99
traveling valve, 63 potential tests, 95–96
trays, 92 productivity tests, 99
treating oilfield emulsions, 86–89 special tests, 99

160
 OIL AND GAS: THE PRODUCTION STORY Index

well potential, 116 wellheads, 53

wells. See also testing and completing wells; well logging, 33
well elements; well performance well potential, 116

in
drilling, 4 wet gas, 90

st
gas, 51 wetting tank, 66

Au
oil, 23 wildcat, 33
satellite wells, 94 winch, 98
water injection, 73 wireline, 98

at
well completions, 38 wireline stuffing box, 98

s
well fluids, 39 wire-wrapped screen completions, 37

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161
 To obtain additional training materials, contact:

in
PETEX

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The University of Texas at Austin
Petroleum Extension Service

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10100 Burnet Road, Bldg. 2
Austin, TX 78758

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Telephone: 512-471-5940
or 800-687-4132

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FAX: 512-471-9410

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or 800-687-7839
E-mail: petex@www.utexas.edu

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or visit our Web site: www.utexas.edu/ce/petex

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To obtain information about training courses, contact:

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PETEX
Learning and assessment center
The University of Texas rs
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4702 N. Sam Houston Parkway West, Suite 800
Houston, TX 77086
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Telephone: 281-397-2440
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or 800-687-7052
FAX: 281-397-2441
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E-mail: plach@www.utexas.edu
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or visit our Web site: www.utexas.edu/ce/petex

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ISBN 0-88698-225-1
Catalog No. 3.90020
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