LEVELLING

This is a process of providing heights or elevations of points with respect to a defined reference datum.
The basic concept involves measuring vertical distance relative to a horizontal line of sight; hence two
(2) main equipment are needed:

- One to establish the horizontal line of sight; it’s called a level

- One to provide means to measure the vertical distance; it’s called a graduated staff

Mean sea level (MSL): Average height of the surface of the seas for all stages of the tide considered for
reasonably long period of time e.g. 20 years. It is to be understood that the MSL is not a level surface
but the best level surface that approximates the MSL is the geoid. We loosely (but wrongly) refer our
heights to the MSL when we actually mean the geoid since the geoid is a level surface.
Benchmark (BM): is a relatively permanent object or mark, natural or artificial whose elevation or height
above or below a reference datum is known or assumed. Examples include a metal disc or pin in
concrete, a rock with a definite mark chiseled on it, a fire hydrant structure with a mark on it etc.

Figure 1: Example of a benchmark

Levelling: the process of finding elevations (heights) of points or their differences in elevation (heights).

Vertical control: a series or network of interconnected benchmarks or other points of known height
established in a given area e.g. a Ward, County or Country, and serve to provide basic control for
levelling in that area. Each country has a network of vertical control that was established at a much
higher accuracy. In Kenya, most of the vertical control network follows the old railway line and the
benchmark values of those points may be found at the Survey of Kenya records.

Sometimes heights are transferred from a main BM of a vertical network to a temporally one; such a
temporally BM is called a Temporally or Transferred Benchmark (TBM); they are common in
construction sites – buildings, roads, railway lines, canals, bridges etc.

Reduced level (RL): height of a point above datum

.

Figure 1: Level surfaces

Figure 2: A horizontal surface

Figure 3: Reduced levels
Figure 4: Level surface and horizontal line
CURVATURE AND REFRACTION

Refer to figure 5

Figure 5: Effects of curvature and refraction

Points A and B are on the same level surface, therefore same height (meaning reading A’ =B’).

X’A’B” is the horizontal lie defined by the level. Due to curvature, the error B’B” is created. It can be
shown to be
𝐷2
𝑐 = 2𝑅 ; R is radius of the earth (R = 6371km). If D is in km, then c is in metres

and due to refraction, the error YB” is created. Though refraction reduces effect of curvature (by 1/7th),
the overall effect is greater. The combined effect has been established to be about (6c/7),

(𝑐 − 𝑟) = 0.0673𝐷2

D is distance between the two points in km

Table 1: Combined correction of effect of curvature and refraction

D (metres) correction (m) correction (mm)
10 0.00000673 0.0
20 0.00002692 0.0
30 0.00006057 0.1
40 0.00010768 0.1
50 0.00016825 0.2
60 0.00024228 0.2
70 0.00032977 0.3
80 0.00043072 0.4
90 0.00054513 0.5
100 0.000673 0.7
110 0.00081433 0.8
120 0.00096912 1.0
130 0.00113737 1.1
140 0.00131908 1.3
150 0.00151425 1.5
160 0.00172288 1.7
170 0.00194497 1.9
180 0.00218052 2.2
190 0.00242953 2.4
200 0.002692 2.7
210 0.00296793 3.0
220 0.00325732 3.3
230 0.00356017 3.6
240 0.00387648 3.9
250 0.00420625 4.2
260 0.00454948 4.5
270 0.00490617 4.9
280 0.00527632 5.3
290 0.00565993 5.7
300 0.006057 6.1
310 0.00646753 6.5
320 0.00689152 6.9
330 0.00732897 7.3
340 0.00777988 7.8
350 0.00824425 8.2
 D (metres) correction (m) correction (mm)
360 0.00872208 8.7
370 0.00921337 9.2
380 0.00971812 9.7
390 0.01023633 10.2
400 0.010768 10.8
410 0.01131313 11.3
420 0.01187172 11.9
430 0.01244377 12.4
440 0.01302928 13.0
450 0.01362825 13.6
460 0.01424068 14.2
470 0.01486657 14.9
480 0.01550592 15.5
490 0.01615873 16.2
500 0.016825 16.8

Typical distances involved in ordinary levelling are 20 – 50m in which case this effect may be ignored but
becomes significant beyond 100m lengths.

METHODS OF DETERMINING HEIGHT OF POINTS

- Measure vertical distances by taping or electronic methods
- Trigonometric levelling
- Barometric levelling
- Differential or spirit levelling

DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING

EQUIPMENT

- Levels (both optical and digital) – to establish horizontal line

- Graduated staffs or levelling staff – to provide means of measuring vertical distance from the
horizontal line

Levelling staff
Figure 6: Levelling procedure
Figure 7a: Levelling staff
Figure 7b: If staff is not fitted with a circular bubble, slide it back and forth and accept the minimum
reading

OPTICAL LEVELS
These are usually of two (2) types
- Tilting levels
- Automatic levels
Tilting level
The telescope of this type of level is pivoted at the centre of the tribrach as sown in Figure 8.
The reticule is a plate where there are cross hairs etched on them. These cross hairs are
brought onto sharp focus using the eyepiece (process called “removing parallax”) before
observations ae done.
A line of sight also called line of collimation is created by the line passing through the centre of
the cross hair and the centre of the objective lens – this is the desired line of sight.
Figure 8: schematic diagram of a tilting level

CROSS HAIRS

Figure 9: sample cross hairs

The tubular level vial
This is partially filled with alcohol and leaves small space for a bubble to be created. The sensitivity of
the bubble depends on the radius of curvature of the bubble – the larger the more sensitive. The
sensitivity is usually given in arc seconds e.g. 20”. Graduations on the bubble are normally spaced 2mm
apart

Figure 10: Tubular bubble

𝑠 2𝑚𝑚
If 2mm subtends 20”, then from = 𝑅𝛳 , it implies 𝑅 = 𝛳
= 20"
(ϴ is in radians), to get 20.63m
Figure 11: Staff as seen through the telescope – the reading adopted is 1.045

AUTOMATIC LEVEL
Unlike tilting levels, automatic levels do not have a tilting screw and the telescope is rigidly fixed to the
lower part. They have a compensator that facilitates automatic levelling of the instrument provided the
circular bubble is levelled. It also has no tubular vial

Figure 12: Circular bubble (Bull’s eye-level vial)

The compensator ensures that the line of sight is level even when the optical axis is not exactly level.
The compensator
It enables the self- levelling feature of the automatic level. The compensator deviates a horizontal ray of
light passing through the objective to the cross hairs thus ensuring a horizontal line of sight is
maintained even if the optical axis is slightly tilted.

Figure 14: The compensator system

An automatic level is much faster to use than the tilting level and are today more popular.

DIGITAL LEVEL
The electronic digital level is also an automatic level (with a compensator system) to aid levelling the line
of sight. It then employs the technique of digital image processing as it uses a special bar coded staff.
The levelling is done just like with the automatic level and then the bar coded staff is sighted. At the
press of a button the image of the bar code is picked, processed and compared with a pre-stored image
on the onboard computer. The match provides the reading which is stored electronically (compare with
the scanner at the supermarket store which scans the goods prices). It can also process the sight length
which is useful in balancing backsights and foresights.

Figure 15: Digital levels

Figure 16: Bar coded levelling staff

TRIPODS
All levels are mounted on a tripod. It can be wooden, metallic or fiber glass.

How to setup the level: setting up level instrument - Google Search

TESTING AND ADJUSTING LEVELS

Due to continued use, transport and handling, the level requires checks and adjustments from time to
time. One of the parts affected is the tubular vial which leads to non- horizontal lines which result to a
collimation error.

Adjusting the tubular vial

The requirement is to have the vial perpendicular to the vertical axis (coincides with the plumb line)
about which the instrument rotates. To test this;

- Have the instrument levelled

- Turn level about 180 degrees. Rotating the level about this axis should not alter the bubble
position.
- If bubble position remains the same; then the vial is in adjustment.
- If not;
- Note the distance the bubble moves; using the capstan screws return the bubble halfway this
distance to its position
- Repeat the process until the bubble remains centered.

TWO PEG TEST

This method is used to determine the collimation error (the amount by which the line of sight deviates
from the horizontal).
The collimation error is practically minimized by ensuring that staff positions are maintained at equal
distances from the levelling instrument.

PRINCIPLES OF LEVELLING
The line of sight (collimation) lies on a horizontal plane when the instrument is in adjustment and properly
set up. If the height of this plane is known, then heights of ground points can be established relative to
this plane.

Figure 18: Principle of levelling

1. The level is set up at a convenient position between (at best midway, if possible) the points
whose heights are to be determined.
2. It is preferred that one of the points to hold the staff is a known point (benchmark), RLA (refers
to the height of A) while the second point is the one whose height is to be determined relative
to the benchmark, RLB- height at B.
3. Staff readings R1 (at A) followed by R2 (at B) are read.
4. The height of the horizontal plane (height of the plane of collimation, HPC) at instrument station
I1 can be determined to be

HPCI1 = RLA +R1 ------------- (1)

5. Height of point B (RLB ) is therefore the height of the horizontal plane (HPC) less reading R2 i.e.

RLB = HPCI1 – R2 ------------- (2)

6. Equations (1) and (2) can be simplified by eliminating HPC (height of horizontal plane). Thus

RLB = RLA + (R1 – R2) ------- (3)

Height of B = Height of Benchmark A + (reading at benchmark A – reading at benchmark B)

7. The back reading at the benchmark A is called a back sight (BS) while the forward reading at B
(new point) is called the fore sight (FS).

8. Therefore the height difference between any two points is given by

ΔH = BS – FS ---------------- (4)

 Height difference = Back sight – Fore sight

 This arrangement gives the value and sign of the height difference.
 If the sign is positive, it implies the land is “rising” as we move from the benchmark to
the new point; we refer to this difference as a “rise”.
 If the sign is negative (-), then the land is “falling” from benchmark to new point; we
refer to this as a “fall”.

9. The BS is the first reading taken after the instrument station has been changed
The FS is the last reading taken at every instrument station. Any reading taken between BS and
FS is called an intermediate sight (IS) (reading).

10. The student to write the expression for reduced level of C (RLC) in figure 18.
Figure 19a: Layout of levelling lines

Figure 19b: The cross sectional view of the layout