Lithography

Introductio
n
Lithography comes from two Greek words, “lithos” which means stone and graphein which means
write.
“ writing a pattern on stone”

Photolithography
• Temporarily coat photoresist on wafer
• Transfers designed pattern to photo-resist
• Most important process in IC fabrication
• 40 to 50% total wafer process time
• Determines the minimum feature size

Applications of Photolithography

• Main application: IC patterning process

• Other applications: Printed electronic board, nameplate, printer plate, and et al.
Historical Developments and Basic Concepts

Photolithography Requirements
•High Resolution
•High PR Sensitivity
•Precision Alignment
•Precise Process Parameters Control
•Low Defect Density
Optical Resists/photoresist
•Photoresist is a viscous polymer resin (solution) containing some
photochemical active polymer(PAC)
•Two types of Photoresist
•Negative
•Positive
•Spin coating most common method of putting photoresist on wafer
•Photoresist material is irradiated using photons(photolithography),
electrons(e-beam lithography) and X-rays(X-ray lithography)
 TYPES OF PHOTORESIST AND PROCESS

•Mask applied to wafer with photoresist material •Negative Photoresist

•Positive Photoresist •Behaves in opposite manner to positive resist
•Resist is exposed with UV light wherever the •Exposure to irradiation causes the resist to
underlying material is to be removed polymerize, and becomes insoluble
•Exposure to radiation changes the chemical •Negative resist remains on the surface wherever
structure of the resist so that it becomes more it is exposed, the developer solution removes
soluble in the developer solvent only the unexposed portions
•The exposed resist is then washed away by the •Mask contain the inverse (or photographic
developer solution, leaving windows of the bare negative) of the pattern to be transferred
underlying material
•The mask contains an exact copy of the pattern
to remain
•Whatever goes shows
 Procedure for Lithography
• Spin coat the photoresist over the wafer
• Prebake the system which improves adhesion and reduce stress.
• The coated wafer is then exposed to the lithography system (either contact , proximity and
projection)
• Then the exposed wafer is put on the developer solution to remove either exposed area or unexposed
area.
• It depends on the type of the resist in use.
• Post bake is caried out in order to the hardened the pattern photoresist.
• Post bake reduces the any residue of the developer
• The next step is etching which removes the all unwanted films which are not protected by the resist .
• Final etching of the resist and inspection of cleaning
Proximity Printing
Photolithography-NA
Photolithography-DOF

◆ The defocus tolerance (DOF)

◆ Much bigger issue in

miniaturization science than in ICs

What you need here is a use a telephoto lens at its widest aperture.
B1: Optics – Basics and Diffraction
B1: Optics – Basics
and Diffraction
 B1: Optics – Basics
and Diffraction
• Qualitative Example of a small aperture being imaged
B2: Projection Systems (Fraunhofer Diffraction)
B2: Projection Systems (Fraunhofer Diffraction)
B2: Projection Systems
(Fraunhofer Diffraction)
B2: Projection Systems
(Fraunhofer Diffraction)
Electron lithography
 Next Generation Lithography: E-Beam

• Electron scattering in resist and substrate

• The scattered electrons also expose the resist
• Interaction of e-and substrate + resist leads to
beam spreading
– Elastic and in-elastic scattering in the resist
– Back-scattering from substrate and generation
of secondary e-
– 100 Å e-beam become 0.2 µm line
 • Pattern directly written into resist by scanning
e‐beam
• Device is just like an SEM with
– On‐off capability
– Pixelation
– Accurate positioning
– E‐beam blur

• Thermionic emitters:
a) Electrons “boiled” off the surface by giving them thermal energy to overcome the barrier (work function)
b) Current given by Richardson‐Dushman Equation
• Field Emitters:
c) Takes advantage of the quantum mechanical properties of electrons. –Electrons tunnel out when the surface barrier becomes
very narrow
d) Current given by Fowler‐Nordheim equation
• Photo Emitters:
– Energy given to electrons by incident photons
 Vector Scan :

In vector scan pattern generator the beam is directed

sequentially to the parts of the chips pattern to be
exposed. The pattern is decomposed into the number
of elements(RECTANGULAR, TRIANGLE )
•Vector data comes in the form of points and lines, that
are geometrically and mathematically associated.
Points are stored using the coordinates.
•vector data structure produces smaller file size than
raster image because a raster image needs space for
all pixels while only point coordinates are stored in
vector representation

Raster Scan :
In the raster scan the beam is deflected repetitively over the exposure field as in Television. The beam is turned on at various
points in the scan to expose the desired pattern .
•Raster image comes in the form of individual pixels, and each spatial location or resolution element has a pixel associated
where the pixel value indicates the attribute, such as color, elevation, or an ID number.
•Raster image is normally acquired by optical scanner, digital CCD camera and other raster imaging devices. Its spatial
resolution is determined by the resolution of the acquisition device and the quality of the original data source
 Advantages and Disadvantages of E-Beam Lithography

• The biggest disadvantage of

• The advantages of electron
electron lithography is its low
lithography are:
throughput (approximately 5
(1)Generation of micron and
wafers / hour at less than 0.1 µ
submicron resist geometries
resolution). Therefore, electron
(2)Highly automated and
lithography is primarily used in
precisely controlled operation
the production of photo-masks
(3) Greater depth of focus
and in situations that require
(4)Direct patterning without a
small number of custom
mask
circuits.
 X-RAY lithography
• X-ray lithography employs a shadow printing
method similar to optical proximity printing. The
x-ray wavelength (4 to 50 Å) is much shorter than
that of UV light (2000 to 4000 Å). Hence,
diffraction effects are reduced and higher
resolution can be attained. For instance, for an
x-ray wavelength of 5 Å and a gap of 40 µm, R is
equal to 0.2 µm.

• Types of x-ray sources:

– Electron Impact X-ray source
– Plasma heated X-ray source
• Laser heated
• E-beam heated
– Synchrotron X-ray source
 X-RAY lithography
• Mask: Needs a combination of materials that are opaque (heavy element, e.g. Au) and transparent (low atomic mass
membrane, e.g. BN or S3N4) to x-rays

• Mask written by e-beam

• Diffraction is not an issue (shadowing is, see next viewgraph)

• Masks difficult to make due to need to manage stress

• Dust less of a problem because they are transparent to x-rays

• On account of the finite size of the x-ray source and the finite mask-to-wafer gap, a penumbral effect results which
degrades the resolution at the edge of a feature.

• An additional geometric effect is the lateral magnification error due to the finite mask- to-wafer gap and the
non-vertical incidence of the x-ray beam.
 Ion beam lithography
• There are two types of system : a scanning focussed beam system and a masked system.
• Higher resolution than Electron beam due to less scattering
• Can be used to repair the photomask
• Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) is used as resist using helium and Argon ions.
Etching
 Introduction
After a thin film is deposited, it is usually etched to remove unwanted materials and leave only the desired
pattern on the wafer
A Process by which the unwanted material is removed by chemical reaction/physical means etching.

Etching is used in microelectronics processing for pattern transfer during fabrication process.
● In addition to deposited films, sometimes we also need to etch the Si wafer to create trenches
(especially in MEMS)
● Photoresist is generally used as a mask, but sometimes other thin films also act as masks.
● The masking layer may be photoresist, SiO2 or Si3N4
● The etch is usually done until another layer of a different material is reached

• Two Approaches
-Dry or Plasma Etching
-Wet Etching
Dry or Plasma Etching dominates the modern VLSI Technology
 Introduction : Etching

• Etching of thin films and sometimes the silicon substrate are very common process
steps
 Dry etching: definition
❑ Dry etching techniques are those that use plasmas (hot
ionized gases) to drive chemical reactions or employ
energetic ion beams to remove material. Dry-etching
processes yield finer patterns than wet etching (surface
tension !). These techniques also offers greater safety as
large quantities of corrosive acids or bases are not required.
❑ Within a dry etching reaction chamber the wafers lie
directly in the plasma glow (also called a discharge), where
reactive ions are accelerated towards the wafer (often
biased). The ions are a species likely to attack the substrate
material chemically with or without selectivity.
 Dry Etching Mechanisms
There are three principal mechanisms:
▪ Physical etching (anisotropic, less selective)
▪ Chemical etching (isotropic, selective)
▪ Ion-enhanced etching (anisotropic, selective)

Materials and Gases Used for Dry Etching

Si CF4, CF4+O2, SF6, SF6+O2,

NF3, Cl2, CCl4, CCl3F
SiO2 CF4, CF4+H2,
Si3N4 C2F6, C3F8, CHF3

Al CCl4, CCl4+Cl2,
Al- SiCl4,
Si BCl3,
Al- BCl3+Cl
Cu 2
 Plasma Etching
• Typical RF-powered plasma etch system look just like PECVD or sputtering systems.
• Both chemical (highly reactive) species and ionic (very directional) species
typically play a role.

• Etching gases include halide-containing species such as CF4, SiF6, Cl2, and HBr,
plus additives such as O2, H2 and Ar. O2 by itself is used to etch photoresist. Pressure
= 1 mtorr to 1 torr.
• Typical reactions and species present in a plasma used are shown above.
RF power input

Matching
network
Dissociation:
CF4 + e- → Ionization:
Electrode CF3+ e- → CF3 + + 2e-
RF CF3+ F + e-
generator Plasma Excitation:
Plasma Dissociative ionization:
sheaths CF4 + e- → CF4 * + e-
-
CF4 + e →
Electrod CF3+ + F + 2e- Recombination:
CF + + F + e- → CF
3 4
F + F→ F2

Gas inlet Ground Gas outlet,

( Ar, CF , O ) pump
4 2
 PLASMA PROPERTIES
DC Plasma Excitation
• A plasma is created when one or more electrons are torn free from an atom of gas. Atoms that have lost some or
all of their negatively charged electrons are called ions. An ionized atom has a positive charge because it is
missing electrons, but still contains positively charged protons and neutrons (with no charge) in its atomic
nucleus. A plasma is generally a mix of these positively charged ions and negatively charged electrons.
• Two type of collisions :
Elastic Collisions : deflects the electrons
Inelastic Collisions :leads to further ionization or excite neutral species in the plasma.
Dissociative attachment e + AB A - + B+ + e
Dissociation e + AB A +B +e
Or Ionization e+A A+ + 2 e
• Collisions may increase the density of plasma .
• Electrons are generated by secondary emission from energetic positive ion collisions can also cause neutrals and
ions to be raised to excited electronic state that later decay by photoemission, These processes causes the glow.
 PLASMA PROPERTIES
DC Plasma Excitation
• The region where glow does not tale place is called as dark
space.
• This is caused by the much higher speeds of the electrons
caused by their lower mass.
 PLASMA PROPERTIES
C Plasma Excitation
• If the polarity on conducting electrode is alternated at low frequency.
• There will be periodic change in position of the cathode and anode dark spaces.
• If the rate of the reversal, or frequency is increased the plasma characteristics will change when the
period of oscillation is shorter than the time required for the plasma to reach equilibrium condition.

• An rf is applied in the megahertz range to an electrode through an

impedence matching network.
• When the electrode is positive many highly mobile electrons are accelerated
towards the electrode causing a significant accumulation of negative charge.
• When the electrode is negative, heavy, immobile ions are accelerated
towards it, fewer of these ions strike the electrode than did electrons on the
previous cycle.
• The plasma therefore acts electrically as a diode with a net negative charge
building on the electrode.
 PLASMA Chemistry
• Plasma discharge contains many neutral and ionic species that are continuously created and annihilated by collisions in the
gas phase and with the chamber walls.
• The concentration of any species in the plasma must therefore be thought of as a dynamic equilibrium value.
• The most common plasma is CF4 –O2.
• The graph shows the etch rate after adding oxygen plasma in the plasma.
• Typically there are about 1015 cm-3 neutral species (1 to 10% of which may be
free radicals) and 108-1012 cm-3 ions and electrons.

• In standard plasma systems, the plasma density is closely coupled to the ion energy (as
determined by the sheath voltage). Increasing the power increases both.
Feature size control and anisotropic etch mechanisms
❑ There are two techniques for making the pattern
❖ lift off
❖ Etching
❑ Disadvantage of the lift off technique is rounded
feature (shadowing the deposited layer) and
temperature limitation.
❑ For this reason we use etching technique.
❑ The first layer is blanket layer is deposited
❑ Pattern resist is deposited.
❑ Then etching of the blanket is done by using the
resist as mask
❑ If the etchant attacks equally from all direction it is
called as isotropic etchant.
❑ Isotropic etchant leads to the under cutting and
narrowing of feature size.
❑ For this reason we use plasma etching
A=1-VH/Vv
A is the degree if anisotropy, VH and Vv
is the horizontal and verticval etching rate
 Sputter Etching
• Purely physical etching:
• Highly directional, with poor selectivity
• Can etch almost anything

• Sputter etching, uses Ar+.

• Damage to wafer surface and devices can occur:
a) Trenching,
b) Ion bombardment damage, radiation damage, c)
c) Redeposition of photoresist
d) Charging
• These can occur in any etch system where the physical component is strong.
+ + ++
a) b) c)

Mask Mask ---- ----

Mask
Film Film
Film
 Factors Considered Prior to selecting
Etchants
1. Etch Rate • Usually selectivity, and directionality are the first order
issues.
2. Selectivity
• Selectivity comes from chemistry; directionality usually
3. Anisotropy comes from physical processes. Modern etching techniques
try to optimize both.
4. Uniformity • Illustration of undercutting (directionality) and selectivity
5. Free from Residues and issues.
Damage

a)

b)
 Ion-Enhanced Etching
Reactive neutral species Reactive neutral species

Ionic species Ionic species

+ + + + + +

a) b)
Mask PR Mask
Film Film

Inhibitor

Chemical etch enhanced Inhibitor removed

by ion bombardment by ion bombardment

• Many different mechanisms proposed for this synergistic etching between physical and
chemical components. Two mechanisms are shown above.
 Ion-Enhanced Etching
• Ion bombardment can enhance etch process (such as by damaging the
surface to increase the reaction, or by removing etch byproducts), or can
remove inhibitor that is an indirect byproduct of etch process (such as
polymer formation from carbon in gas or from photoresist).

• Whatever the exact mechanism (multiple mechanisms may occur at same

time):
• Need both components for etching to occur.
• Get anisotropic etching and little undercutting because of directed
ion flux.
•Get selectivity due to chemical component and
chemical reactions.

Therefore, this technique has many applications in etching today.

 Types of Plasma Etching Systems
• Different configurations have been developed of
to make use physical or ion assisted etching mechanisms. chemical,

Barrel Etchers
Gas inlet
Quartz tube Gas inlet
Electrode
Plasma
Plasma
Shield Wafers
To pump
Wafers

RF
End view Side view

• Purely chemical etching.

• Used for non-critical steps, such as photoresist removal (washing).
 RIE System
• For more directed etching, need stronger ion bombardment.
• Wafers sit on smaller electrode (RF power there).
• Higher voltage drop across sheath at wafers. (100-700 eV).
• Lower pressures are used to attain even more directional etching (10-100 mtorr).
• More physical component than plasma mode directionality Microwave
supply
but less selectivity. (2.45 GHz)
RF power input magnetic coil
Matching
networ
k
plasma
Electrode
RF
generato Plasma Plasma
r sheaths
Electrod
gas inlet
wafer

gas outlet,
Gas inlet Ground Gas RF pump
( Ar, CF , outlet, bias supply
4
O ) pump (13.56
2
MHz)
Reactive Ion Etching (RIE) Mode
High Density Plasma (HDP) Etch
Systems
 Specific Etch Processes
Polycrystalline Silicon /Polycide
• Low pressure chemical vapor deposition technique is used for growth of polysilicon
• Higher stability at elevated temperature for polysilicon-SiO2