Practical Approach and Review of Brachial

Plexus Pathology With Operative Correlation:

What the Radiologist Needs to Know
Sarah E. Stilwill, MD,* Megan K. Mills, MD,* Barry G. Hansford, MD,† Hailey Allen, MD,*
Mark Mahan, MD,z Kevin R. Moore, MD,x and Christopher J. Hanrahan, MD, PhDǁ

Introduction Normal Anatomy

T he interpretation of brachial plexus imaging studies can

be daunting for both the radiology trainee and the practic-
ing general radiologist due to complex anatomy and limited
The brachial plexus is a complex network of nerves that
supplies the motor and sensory innervation to the upper
extremity arising from the ventral nerve roots of C5-T1,
exposure. Familiarity with normal anatomy and a consistent which undergo multiple bifurcations and anastomoses,
systematic search pattern are critical, as subtle lesions involving resulting in the five nerve branches (musculocutaneous,
the brachial plexus may cause significant detrimental neuro- ulnar, radial, axillary, and median) to the extremity.6
logic deficits. Given its associated high spatial and contrast res- Rarely, C4 or T2 ventral nerve roots may contribute to the
olution, MRI of the brachial plexus can reveal the location of brachial plexus, which are termed prefixed and postfixed
an abnormality, the extent of nerve involvement and allow the brachial plexuses.7 The postganglionic ventral nerve roots
radiologist to come to a succinct differential diagnosis. In the from C5 and C6 give rise to the upper trunk, C7 the middle
traumatic setting MRI is imperative for preoperative plan- trunk, and C8 and T1 the lower trunk.6 Each trunk divides
ning.1-5 With atraumatic pathology, including tumors, infec- to give rise to anterior and posterior divisions for a total of
tion, inflammation and radiation plexopathy, recognition of 6 divisions.6 Divisions then combine into 3 cords with the
MR characteristics and location of pathology can provide an anterior divisions of the upper and middle trunks forming
accurate diagnosis. In this pictorial, case-based review article the lateral cord, the anterior division of the lower trunk
we describe normal brachial plexus anatomy, present a simple forming the middle cord, and the 3 posterior divisions
and practical approach to MR imaging interpretation, and pres- forming the posterior cord.6 The cords then give rise to the
ent imaging findings of the most common pathology with branches.6 Evaluation of the brachial plexus on MRI
operative correlation where applicable. includes all components from the nerve roots to the level of
the branches. Though a mnemonic or two may be helpful
to remember the brachial plexus nerve components, having
*Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah School a visual reminder when reading brachial plexus studies is
of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT. valuable (Fig. 1). Additionally, identification of the roots,
y
Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Oregon Health and Science trunks, divisions, cords, and branches can be made more
University, Portland, OR. manageable through an organized approach, which will be
z
Department of Neurosurgery, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt
discussed later.
Lake City, UT.
x
Intermountain Pediatric Imaging, Primary Children's Hospital, Medical
Imaging Department, Salt Lake City, UT.
ǁ
Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, University of Utah School
of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT.
Address reprint requests to Sarah E. Stilwill MD, University of Utah School
MRI Protocol Considerations
of Medicine, Department of Radiology & Imaging Sciences, 30 North As with any complex anatomy, the MRI protocol used for
1900 East #1A071, Salt Lake City, UT 84132-2140. E-mails: brachial plexus evaluation is crucial to allow optimal evalua-
sarah.stilwill@hsc.utah.edu megan.mills@hsc.utah.edu
hansford@ohsu.edu hailey.allen@hsc.utah.edu
tion. This section reviews the field of view, potential sources
mark.mahan@hsc.utah.edu kevin.moore@imail.org of artifact, and both basic and advanced sequences that allow
christopher.hanrahan@hsc.utah.edu visualization of the intricate brachial plexus components.

92 https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ro.2018.10.002
0037-198X/Published by Elsevier Inc.
Practical Approach and Review of Brachial Plexus Pathology With Operative Correlation 93

Artifact Minimization Vascular signal is also problematic when attempting to create

Three major sources of artifact should be considered when or interpret coronal STIR MIP images. To reduce the signal
imaging the brachial plexus. Commonly encountered arti- from adjacent vessels, sequences have been investigated and
facts include those due to airtissue interface, vascular pul- shown to provide improved depiction of nerves and/or sup-
sation, and breathing motion. Due to the changing contours pression of adjacent vessel signal. Vascular suppressing
of the neck and supraclavicular region, the complex airtis- sequences include diffusion weighted imaging, 3D diffusion-
sue interface can contribute to inhomogeneous fat suppres- weighted reversed fast imaging with steady state free sup-
sion. This can be reduced by the use of Short-T1 Inversion pression, and 3D acquisition with Dixon fat suppression.9-13
Recovery (STIR) or Dixon technique that will decrease inho- Diffusion weighted imaging (DWI) sequences may depict the
mogeneous fat suppression, especially at high field strength location of the brachial plexus pathology, but conventional
(3T).8 Vascular pulsation is best reduced by a saturation sequences are still typically required to provide a diagnosis
band placed over the heart and great vessels that is carefully or differential diagnosis to the underlying pathology.11
positioned depending on the plane of the sequence to avoid
suppression of the brachial plexus itself or relevant adjacent
structures. Respiratory motion artifact is the most difficult to
address and is patient-specific. Coaching the patient to avoid
Brachial Plexus MRI—The
heavy breathing can help reduce excessive artifact. Approach
Chart Review
Prior to interpretation, careful review of the patients’ medical
Field of View and Typical Sequences record and pertinent history is crucial for accurate interpretation
The field of view should extend from the spinal cord to of brachial plexus MR studies. Correlating with available cervical
the lateral axilla effectively covering the root origins to the spine and shoulder imaging studies, electromyography (EMG)
branches. On coronal imaging, it is helpful to visualize the reports, physical exam findings, and clinical symptoms can
contralateral nerve roots to the level of the dorsal root gan- direct the reader to the location of traumatic or atraumatic
glion, which can serve as a normal internal comparison. Axial pathology.
imaging should cover from the level of C4 through the lower
axilla. Typical sequences performed include coronal T1 and
STIR, axial and sagittal T2 with fat suppression (FS), which Soft Tissues
can be performed with Dixon or hybrid FS technique to Initial assessment of a brachial plexus MR study includes soft
reduce inhomogeneous fat suppression.8 At our institution, tissue evaluation, with careful observation of indirect signs/
we also perform a sagittal nonfat suppressed sequence for downstream effects of nerve pathology. The soft tissues, in
improved anatomical detail in the costoclavicular space. particular the lower neck and shoulder girdle muscles are
While brachial plexus MRI with contrast can detect an evaluated for secondary signs of plexopathy including dener-
abnormal blood-nerve barrier, most cases can be performed vation muscle edema. Denervation muscle edema can be
without contrast. Contrast should be administered in cases seen in both the acute and chronic setting, with edema signal
where there is concern for tumor, infection, or diffuse readily identified on T2 and STIR MR sequences as early as
involvement.6 With patients who are more susceptible to 24 hours following the inciting event and/or injury.14-16
motion due to pain or other reasons, oblique coronal and Edema involving a specific muscle or muscle group can local-
axial imaging planes can be aligned with the brachial plexus ize the abnormality to the pertinent nerve level within the
in order to reduce imaging time.7 In cases of suspected neu- plexus, and is therefore an important indirect sign that may
rogenic thoracic outlet syndrome, a routine brachial plexus aid in localizing pathology.16,17 Similarly, if postcontrast
MR is performed with additional sagittal imaging sequences imaging is available in the acute to subacute setting, the
with the arms in neutral position (at the patient's side) involved musculature will diffusely enhance in a nonmass
as well as the arms abducted (elevated overhead). like fashion, which may be more pronounced than the corre-
sponding findings on fluid-sensitive sequences. Denervation-
related muscle volume loss and fatty infiltration take longer
Advanced Imaging Sequences to develop and are thus only appreciated in the late sub-
3T imaging is preferred over 1.5T due to the higher signal-to- acute-chronic setting.14,17 The T1-weighted sequences and
noise ratio that allows better visualization of nerves. Where nonfat suppressed T2-weighted sequences are the hallmark
available, isotropic 3D STIR or 3D acquisition with Dixon fat sequences for demonstrating muscle atrophy.
suppression can allow for exquisite depiction of the brachial
plexus.6,9 3D acquisition also allows for reformatting in vari-
ous planes and production of maximum intensity projection Anatomical Landmarks
(MIP) images of the brachial plexus, which can be helpful for Following soft tissue evaluation, the reader must identify sev-
radiologist interpretation.6 eral key anatomical landmarks to guide comprehensive
Vascular signal adjacent to brachial plexus structures segment-by-segment evaluation of the brachial plexus com-
makes differentiating nerves from adjacent vessels difficult. ponents. The exit neural foramen is the first key anatomical
94 S.E. Stilwill et al.

Figure 1 Anatomical representation of the brachial plexus. Illustration of the nerve components and root contributions
to the brachial plexus reproduced with permission from the Department of Neurosurgery, University of Utah.

landmark for localization of the spinal nerve roots and their musculocutaneous, axillary, and radial nerves are seen
dorsal root ganglia. For pre- and postganglionic nerve root extending into the axilla, surrounding the axillary artery
evaluation, the axial T1- and T2-sequences are keys to assess where they are best appreciated on the coronal T1 and sagit-
nerve integrity, caliber, and signal with careful attention to tal T2 FS and non-FS sequences (Fig. 4).6,18,19
the presence of pseudomeningocele formation.18
Next, the coalescence of the ventral rami to form the
brachial plexus trunks is best seen on the axial and sagit-
tal FS T2 Dixon sequences. The trunks extend laterally Sequence-specific evaluation of nerve
from the interscalene space, coursing between the ante- morphology
rior and middle scalene muscles (Fig. 2). Lateral to the The brachial plexus nerves are round or oval in shape, with a
scalene muscles and above the level of the clavicle (which smooth contour and uniform fascicular pattern. The nerves
is the second key anatomical landmark), the brachial are intermediate and/or isointense to skeletal muscle on non-
plexus trunks form into 6 divisions. The divisions run fat suppressed T1- and T2-weighted sequences20 and inter-
behind and extend below the level of the clavicle, where mediate to slightly hyperintense in signal on T2 FS/STIR
they divide into the lateral, posterior and medial cords sequences.20,21
just distal to the lateral margin of the first rib, (the third The perineural fat signal is preserved on all sequences, but
key anatomical landmark). The distal divisions and cords best seen on the T1-sequences. T1 and non-FS T2-sequences
are seen readily on the Sagittal T2 FS and non-FS best demonstrate perineural fibrosis, variant muscles slips
sequences, coursing adjacent to the subclavian artery, an including fibromuscular bands, and the presence of sur-
additional key reference point (Fig. 3).19 rounding soft tissue masses.17 Typically, normal peripheral
Lastly, the cords form the 5 terminal brachial plexus nerves do not enhance unless there is disruption of the
branches at the lateral border of the pectoralis minor muscle, blood-nerve barrier in the setting of tumor, infection, acute
our fourth key anatomical landmark. The median, ulnar, inflammation, or following radiation (Table 1).6,20
Practical Approach and Review of Brachial Plexus Pathology With Operative Correlation 95

Figure 2 Normal brachial plexus anatomy on MRI: Roots and Trunks. (A) Axial T2 image at the level of C6 shows the
preganglionic nerve rootlets (arrows), the first portion of the brachial plexus. The anterior and posterior rootlets coa-
lesce to form the postganglionic nerve root. (B) Axial T2 FS image at the level of the interscalene space show coursing
upper trunk (solid white arrow) and C7 nerve root (open arrow) forming the middle trunk, both located between the
anterior and middle scalene muscles. The C8 dorsal root ganglion (asterisks) is seen within the exit neural foramen.

Figure 3 Normal brachial plexus anatomy on MRI: Trunks through Cords. (A) Sagittal T2 Dixon fat-only MR images at
the level of the interscalene triangle demonstrates the upper, middle and lower trunks (solid white arrows) emerging
between the anterior scalene (white arrowhead) and middle scalene muscles (open white arrowhead), adjacent to the
subclavian artery (open white arrows). (B) Sagittal T2 Dixon fat-only MR images at the level of the costoclavicular inter-
val demonstrates the proximal cords including the lateral, posterior, and medial cords (solid white arrows) surrounded
by normal hyperintense peri-neural fat coursing adjacent to the subclavian artery (open white arrow) and vein (aster-
isk). (C) Sagittal T2 Dixon water-only MR image at the same level demonstrates normal morphology of the lateral, pos-
terior, and medial cords (solid white arrows). The nerves are round in shape, with a symmetric fascicular pattern and
hyperintense signal with respect to skeletal muscle.

Traumatic Brachial Plexus Injury Preganglionic

(BPI) Preganglionic nerve root avulsions are most frequently due to
traumatic nerve traction with the vast majority of these cases
Nerve Root Avulsions seen in the setting of high velocity motor vehicle accidents.26
Traumatic injuries of the brachial plexus can occur anywhere The likelihood of avulsion increases with nonclosed vehicles,
from the proximal nerve root origin to the terminal nerve such as motorcycles, snowmobiles, and all-terrain vehicles.
branches.22 Proximal nerve injuries are typically divided into Although less frequent, nerve root avulsion can be caused by
pre- or postganglionic injuries, categorized by their anatomical lower energy sports-related mechanisms.
relationship to the dorsal root ganglion. The preganglionic Direct imaging findings of preganglionic nerve root avulsion
segment includes the root entry zone, dorsal and ventral root- include discontinuity of any portion of the preganglionic seg-
let, intrathecal, and foraminal root. It is vital to distinguish ment from the root entry to the dorsal root ganglion.25,27
between pre- and postganglionic injury given that location of Asymmetric displacement or lateralization of the dorsal root
injury is a major consideration in management decisions.23-25 ganglion often results (Fig. 5). The downstream brachial
96 S.E. Stilwill et al.

Figure 4 Normal brachial plexus anatomy on MRI: Peripheral Branches. (A) Coronal T1 image demonstrates a normal
appearance of the distal most cords, and peripheral branches surrounding the axillary artery (asterisk), extending into
the axilla. The distal brachial plexus is best seen on the coronal T1 and sagittal T2 FS and non-FS sequences. (B) Sag
T2 Dixon water-only image just lateral to the pectoralis minor muscle demonstrates normal appearance of the periph-
eral branches (solid white arrows), surrounding the axillary artery (asterisk).

Table 1 MR Sequence-Specific Checklist for Assessment of

Neural and Perineural Structures
Key Facts:

@ T1: Normal anatomy, perineural and intermuscular fat sig-

nal, bone marrow signal, chronic fatty muscle infiltration,
and methemoglobin blood products.

@ Fluid sensitive T2/STIR: Nerve caliber, architecture

and signal intensity; perineural, fascicular and muscular
edema.

@ Postcontrast: + Nerve enhancement in setting of tumor,

infection, and acute inflammation; also in functional nerve
impairment in setting of traumatic nerve injury.

Figure 5 Pre-ganglionic traumatic brachial plexus avulsion injury.

67-year-old man with absent motor function in the right arm, fol-
lowing motorcycle accident 10-months prior to examination. Axial
plexus may show edema and nerve enlargement with signal T2 FS MR image through the level of the C7-T1 neural foramen
demonstrates a preganglionic nerve root avulsion of C8 (arrowhead)
heterogeneity.22 Contrast-enhanced sequences are not typi-
with pseudomeningocele formation (solid white arrow). The C8
cally necessary to diagnose complete nerve root avulsion, but
nerve is enlarged and laterally displaced. Note the secondary finding
contrast enhancement of an intact nerve root can signify func- of denervation edema in the shoulder girdle musculature (open
tional nerve impairment or incomplete injury (Fig. 6).28 white arrows).
CT or MR myelography may be required for diagnosis in
cases where preganglionic structures are not well seen on
conventional MRI.29 CT myelography was once considered Indirect imaging findings of preganglionic nerve root avulsion
the most reliable modality in identifying preganglionic nerve include the development of a pseudomeningocele (Figs. 5-7).
injury, however, the modality is dependent upon sufficient Cerebrospinal fluid can fill the void left by the displaced nerve
pooling of cerebrospinal fluid into arachnoid scar and some root and while not pathognomonic, this finding should prompt
comparison studies suggest myelography is no better than scrutiny of the adjacent neural structures.18,22 Unopposed trac-
conventional MRI.23,30 MRI provides advantages in the tion from the uninjured contralateral nerves can result in spinal
global evaluation for BPI as it includes indirect imaging find- cord displacement away from the side of involvement.4,5,27 Dur-
ings of injury and a more thorough evaluation of the post- ing the acute or subacute phase of injury, denervation edema can
ganglionic brachial plexus (Fig. 7).5 Advanced imaging be seen within the involved shoulder girdle and paraspinal
techniques such as diffusion-weighted neurography and sur- muscles or in the arm muscles for upper or lower plexus injury,
face rendered CT have also been proposed as an adjunct to respectively. Contrast enhancement of involved muscles can
standard MRI to be used in the setting of trauma.5 occur as early as 24-hours following injury secondary to vascular
Practical Approach and Review of Brachial Plexus Pathology With Operative Correlation 97

Figure 6 Partial and complete traumatic pre-ganglionic brachial plexus injury. Case images from the same patient pre-
sented in Figure 5. (A) Coronal STIR MR image demonstrates the laterally displaced C8 nerve (white arrowhead) and
resultant pseudomeningocele formation (white arrow). (B) Coronal T1-weighted post-contrast enhanced MR image
with FS at the same level shows enhancement of the avulsed C8 nerve (solid black arrowhead) as well as enhancement
of the C7 nerve (solid black arrow) which is seen in continuity. Findings are consistent with complete avulsion of C8
and incomplete, but functional injury of the C7 nerve root.

dilation and increased extracellular space volume.31 If left Postganglionic

untreated, denervation changes will progress to irreversible Postganglionic nerve injuries occur distal to the dorsal root
chronic muscle atrophy and fatty infiltration (Fig. 8). ganglion. Injuries can range from partial stretch injuries to
A minority of patients with nerve root avulsion may have full thickness ruptures or lacerations. While motor vehicle
MRI signal changes in the adjacent cervical spinal cord (Fig. 9). accidents remain the leading cause of injury,2 postganglionic
Acutely, cervical spinal cord edema or hemorrhage can be seen, injury can occur in any scenario causing inflammation, com-
while myelomalacia can develop in the chronic setting.5 pression or traction of the brachial plexus.
Preganglionic nerve root avulsions cannot be repaired. Direct imaging findings of postganglionic injury include
Restoring function to the involved extremity is achieved edema and enlargement of the nerve segment involved. In
through nerve transfers with particular focus placed on resto- cases of complete transection, discontinuity of the nerve can
ration of biceps and shoulder girdle muscle function.1,3,5 The be seen with eventual neuroma development (Figs.
treatment approach to preganglionic nerve root injuries can 1013).32
be vastly different than other types of BPI and emphasizes Indirect findings include denervation edema of the mus-
the importance of imaging for injury characterization. cle groups involved. Without restoration of nerve

Figure 7 Pre-ganglionic traumatic brachial plexus injury. 41-year-old man with ‘flail arm’ and complete loss of motor
function 2-months following a snowmobile accident. (A, B) Sequential coronal STIR MR images show a pseudomenin-
gocele (solid white arrow) with a laterally retracted nerve root, which is redundant and hyperintense (solid white
arrowhead). (C) Coronal CT-myelogram in the same patient shows an empty neural foramen at the site of pseudome-
ningocele formation (solid black arrow). A preganglionic avulsion injury is also present at the level below (dashed black
arrow). Note the normal appearance of a more proximal neural foramen containing pre-ganglionic neural structures
(solid black arrowheads).
98 S.E. Stilwill et al.

grafting or distal nerve transfers where incomplete injuries

can be managed conservatively.5

Peripheral Nerve Injuries

Neuropraxia/Axonotmesis/Neurotmesis
Peripheral nerve injuries have been classified into three types:
neuropraxia, axonotmesis, and neurotmesis. These injuries
are defined by the histopathology and specific anatomical
structures of the nerve unit that are damaged.35
Neuropraxia is a clinical condition hallmarked by tempo-
rary loss of function, near complete recovery, and the
absence of denervation atrophy of the muscle. It is the mild-
est form of traumatic plexopathy, that usually resolves in
days to within 3 months.35 The nerve is grossly intact in the
setting of neuropraxia, but is functionally impaired with
slowed or absent conduction in the involved segment.36
Neuropraxia can be caused by multiple mechanisms includ-
Figure 8 Chronic traumatic BPI. Coronal T1 MR image in the same ing traction, compression, or concussion.
patient as presented in Figure 5 shows chronic atrophy of the shoul- Neuropraxia is commonly encountered in collision sports
der girdle musculature (solid white arrows). There is relative spar- such as American football. Neuropraxia caused by sporting
ing of the trapezius (asterisk), which is not innervated by the injury is more commonly known as a “burner” or “stinger”
brachial plexus. reflecting the typical symptomatology of burning sensation
in the neck and arm of the affected side immediately follow-
ing injury.37 While most neuropraxia due to sports injury is
transient, usually lasting minutes, recurrent or long-lasting
symptoms suggest a more serious injury. Players experienc-
ing one stinger are more likely to experience recurrent neuro-
praxia which can progress to chronic symptomatology.24,38
Gunshot wounds about the shoulder with complete weak-
ness of the arm are also commonly encountered. Many of
these are concussive injuries to the brachial plexus and have
good recovery rates with conservative management. The MRI
findings in these cases are often subtle.
Treatment of neuropraxia is typically conservative and
usually diagnosed clinically. Advanced magnetic resonance
imaging may be necessary in cases where symptoms are atyp-
ical or prolonged.
Axonotmesis and neurotmesis are more serious injuries
involving the axons of the nerve.35 Axonotmesis may still be
managed conservatively with a longer expected course of
recovery because of Wallerian degeneration and nerve regen-
eration required to regain function.32 Neurotmesis typically
Figure 9 Partial traumatic pre-ganglionic nerve root injury. 65-year- requires surgical intervention due to disruption of not only
old man status post motorcycle injury 10-months prior. Axial T2 the axons but the myelin sheath.32
FS MR image shows findings of a partial nerve injury at C6-C7 as Imaging in cases of mild neuropraxia can be normal
evidenced by increased, intrinsic T2 signal heterogeneity of the C7 (Fig. 14). Change in size, signal, or course of the nerve can
nerve (white arrowhead) with fiber attenuation. Concomitant signal
be seen in more severe injuries including axonotmesis. T2
abnormality of the adjacent hemi-cervical spinal cord is also present
hyperintensity and nerve enlargement are the most common
(solid black arrow).
findings with the severity of signal changes often correlating
to the severity of the injury (Fig. 15).32
Given more extensive injury in the setting of neurotmesis,
conduction, involved muscles eventually progress to partial or complete nerve disruption can be seen on imaging.
chronic atrophy.33,34 Hemorrhage and/or edema, especially in the acute setting,
Patients with postganglionic injuries have a much better can limit evaluation of the neural structures. Neuroma in
prognosis than their preganglionic counterparts. Most com- continuity or end bulb neuroma may develop at sites of
plete postganglionic injuries can be treated with nerve disruption.32
Practical Approach and Review of Brachial Plexus Pathology With Operative Correlation 99

Figure 10 Post-ganglionic traumatic brachial plexus injury. 33-year-old man who presented with a “flail arm” months
following polytrauma. (A) Coronal T1-weighted MR image and (B) Coronal STIR MR image show a displaced left clavi-
cle fracture, which impinges and partially transects the coursing brachial plexus at the level of the distal divisions /
proximal cords (white arrowhead). There is marked edema and enlargement of the upper trunk (solid white arrows).

Figure 11 Full-thickness BP laceration injury: Intra-operative view. 40-year-old male presented with a mid-shaft clavicle
fracture and lateral cord distribution neurologic deficits following motorcycle crash. (A) Intra-operative view of the
base of neck demonstrates a discolored lateral cord, and normal gross appearance of the adjacent posterior and medial
cords. (B) With deeper intra-operative exploration, full-thickness laceration of the lateral cord is apparent with proxi-
mal nerve swelling visible at the location of the tenotomy scissors.

Figure 12 Pre-ganglionic traumatic brachial plexus injury. 47-year-old woman who had complete motor loss above the
level of the wrist following a motorcycle/moose collision. Patient exam and EMG findings were diagnostic of an upper
plexus injury with involvement in the upper and middle trunks but some preserved function in the lower trunk. (A)
Coronal STIR MR image shows pseudomeningocele formation (solid white arrow) consistent with pre-ganglionic nerve
root avulsion injury. (B) Axial T2-weighted MR image shows the pseudomeningocele (solid white arrow) as well as a
laterally displaced and redundant nerve (white arrowhead). (C) Axial T1-weighted post-contrast FS sequence shows
enhancement of the retracted nerve (white arrowhead).
100 S.E. Stilwill et al.

Figure 13 Concomitant traumatic post-ganglionic brachial plexus injury in the same patient as presented in Figure 12.
(A) Coronal STIR MR image shows enlargement and edema of multiple portions of the upper brachial plexus consis-
tent with post-ganglionic injury. The C5 root and upper trunk (solid white arrows) as well as the cords (open white
arrows) are involved. Ax T2 FS images immediately above (B) and below (C) the level of the preganglionic nerve avul-
sion injury (depicted in Figure 12) demonstrate intact, but edematous nerve roots (arrowheads).

Brachial Plexus Birth Palsy the dorsal root ganglion resulting in partial or total nerve root
avulsion, or distal (post-ganglionic) to the dorsal root ganglion
Brachial plexus birth palsy (also known as birth palsy) is a trau-
leading to traumatic neuroma formation.39-41
matic brachial plexus injury that occurs secondary to excessive
traction on the plexus during difficult delivery, often in the set-
ting of breech presentation or forceps-assisted delivery. The Imaging Findings
underlying mechanism is brachial plexus stretch or avulsion
Preganglionic Injury
from the spinal cord.39,40 Brachial plexus birth-related traction
Similar to the adult traumatic injury, nerve roots are avulsed
injuries may involve the upper plexus (C5 and C6 nerve roots)
from the spinal cord with concurrent nerve sheath injury,
producing the classic Erb-Duchenne palsy (40%), the lower
plexus (C8 and T1 nerve roots) resulting in a Klumpke palsy
(30%), or both upper and lower neural elements (total plexus
injury, 30%).39-41 Injury may occur proximal (preganglionic) to

Figure 15 Idiopathic lower trunk brachial plexus injury. 54-year-old

man who presented with persistent lateral 4th and 5th digit numbness
Figure 14 Transient Neuropraxia. 21-year-old male football player without history of injury. The patient had clinical and EMG findings
who sustained multiple ‘stingers’ with normal MR imaging findings consistent with a lower trunk plexopathy. (A) Coronal STIR MR and
in the setting of transient neuropraxia. Coronal STIR MR image (B) Sagittal T2-weighted FS MR images demonstrate enlargement and
demonstrates normal size and signal intensity of the imaged brachial hyperintense signal in the left C8 nerve root (solid white arrow) and
plexus roots and trunks (solid white arrows). The patient was lower trunk. Compare the abnormal C8 nerve (solid white arrow) with
treated conservatively and symptomatology resolved. the adjacent, normal C7 nerve root (white arrowhead).
Practical Approach and Review of Brachial Plexus Pathology With Operative Correlation 101

Figure 16 Brachial plexus birth palsy/obstetrical brachial plexus palsy (OBPP)- Preganglionic traction injury with avul-
sion pseudomeningocele. 3-month-old baby with right arm Erb’s palsy since birth. (A) Coronal STIR MR demonstrates
an extradural fluid collection (solid white arrow) without intrinsic neural elements following C6 and C7 root avulsion.
(B) Axial STIR MR image confirms absence of neural elements within the avulsion pseudomeningocele (solid white
arrow). The extradural fluid (white arrowhead) produces mild mass effect on the dural sac.

resulting in a pseudomeningocele, which does not contain common (Fig. 17). Chronic injury may show enhancing scar
nerve roots (Fig. 16).39-42 Attenuated or disrupted proximal tissue within the stretched neural elements. Enhancing mus-
roots and/or rami within or immediately distal to diverticu- cle implies ongoing denervation.39-42
lum may contract into a nerve “retraction ball,” which can Glenohumeral dysplasia also occurs as a sequelae of bra-
also occur in distal nerve elements. Denervation changes in chial plexopathy on the developing glenoid and humeral
posterior cervical paraspinal muscles (especially multifidus) head. Imaging reveals a dysplastic glenoid, winged scapula,
usually reflect a preganglionic injury. Spinal cord edema, and hooked coracoid. The humeral head is small and
myelomalacia, and syringomyelia are possible. Central spinal ovoid.40,41,43
cord edema is seen in the acute stage, secondary to root avul-
sion.39-42
Clinical Findings
Clinical findings depend on the severity and distribution of
Postganglionic Injury plexus injury. Injury to one or more brachial plexus nerve
Stretch injury results in variable enlargement or attenuation roots, trunks, or cords leads to upper extremity contracture.
of the stretched (but anatomically contiguous) plexus ele- Complete brachial plexus avulsion produces a useless “flail
ments. Local soft tissue edema and muscle denervation arm.” Note that clinically incomplete paralysis is commonly
changes in the distribution of the injured neural elements are observed even with complete root avulsion(s) because of

Figure 17 OBPP- Postganglionic traction injury. Full term 5-month-old baby who had failed descent during birth, deliv-
ered with traction, with immediate right upper extremity palsy and no functional recovery since birth.(A) Coronal STIR
MR image depicts abnormal thickening and hyperintensity of the upper trunk (solid white arrow) with concordant
attenuation of the proximal C5 ventral primary ramus. (B) Coronal T1 post contrast FS MR image shows avid amor-
phous enhancement of the upper trunk (solid white arrow) as well as the contributing neural elements and surround-
ing tissue reflecting blood-neural barrier disruption within the retraction neuroma and local scar tissue formation. (C)
Axial STIR MR image shows abnormal enlargement of the upper (solid white arrow) and middle trunk (white arrow-
head) as they pass through the scalene triangle.
102 S.E. Stilwill et al.

redundant muscle innervation from multiple roots. The most Nontraumatic Brachial Plexus
common signs and/or symptoms include extremity pain, Pathology
paralysis of the ipsilateral limb with or without phrenic nerve
palsy. The clinical examination cannot reliably distinguish Radiation-Induced Brachial Plexopathy
between pre- and postganglionic injuries.40 Patients who have received radiation therapy directed to the
Clinically, the classic Erb-Duchenne palsy results from lower neck, upper back, upper lung, and pectoral girdle may
upper plexus injury (C5, C6 roots, upper trunk) during develop symptomatic brachial plexopathy. The underlying path-
forced adduction and downward traction resulting in proxi- ophysiology of radiation-induced plexopathy is not well under-
mal muscle weakness with loss of shoulder abduction, shoul- stood, although oxidative stress and alterations in microvascular
der external rotation, elbow flexion, and forearm blood supply leading to fibroblast proliferation with eventual
supination.40,44,45 This is the most common obstetrical bra- neural and perineural fibrosis are thought to be involved.48
chial plexus palsy traction injury pattern. The less common Patients can present with pain, weakness, loss of sensa-
Klumpke palsy results from forced abduction and upward tion or altered sensation in the distribution of the affected
traction on the arm to the lower plexus (C8, T1 roots, lower nerves. The at-risk population includes patients radiated
trunk) resulting in distal muscle weakness with hand for breast cancer, lung cancer, laryngeal or glottic cancer,
paralysis.40,44,45 lymphoma, and localized metastases of the bones or soft
Accurate characterization of injury level is critical to treat- tissues in the region of the plexus.25,48 The likelihood of
ment planning and prognosis. In general, birth plexus inju- developing radiation plexopathy is dose dependent, with
ries tend to have better functional outcomes than similar an incidence of approximately 5%-10% among patients
injuries in adult patients. receiving at least 60 Gy to the lower neck or upper chest.
At surgery, the surgeon may find evidence for root avul- Signs and symptoms of plexopathy can be seen at lower
sion, neuroma, spinal cord displacement or edema, hemor- doses (50 Gy) if the patient has also undergone surgery in
rhage or scarring in the spinal canal, absence of nerve roots the region of the plexus.6,49
within the intervertebral foramina, and/or pseudomeningo- The latent period from the time of treatment completion to
cele(s) (Fig. 18).39-42 Operative brachial plexus exploration symptom onset is markedly variable, with early cases pre-
and intervention is based on a combination of clinical and senting within a few months of treatment and other patients
imaging findings. Nerve grafting or nerve transfers are per- presenting up to two decades later.50 Kori et al reported an
formed to improve clinical function when axonal regenera- average latency of 5 years with a median of 4 years.49
tion and distal re-innervation is inadequate. Scar tissue The role of MRI in these patients is to help distinguish
formation (neuroma) at the site of traction injury is resected between radiation plexopathy and recurrence of tumor, as
in the setting of nerve grafting so interposed nerves can act the clinical findings may be similar. Nerves affected by radia-
as a conduit to reach their distal target without interruption tion can be focally or diffusely enlarged with increased signal
(Fig. 19).46,47 Nerve transfers are used in the setting of multi- on STIR/T2-weighted images (Fig. 20).50,51 Perineural fibro-
ple nerve root avulsions, in which a functioning nerve is used sis appears as T1 and T2 hypointense signal surrounding or
to innervate a distal target.46,47 encasing the plexus structures.25 Tension from the fibrosis can

Figure 18 OBPP- Normal vs. abnormal intra-operative view of BP. Case images from patient presented in Figure 17. (A)
Intra-operative view of the left base of neck during exploration for contralateral C7 transfer (donor side) demonstrates
normal appearance of the coursing upper and middle trunks, with retraction of the sternocleidomastoid and anterior
scalene muscles. (B) Intra-operative view of the contra-lateral, right base of neck demonstrates abnormal appearance
of the brachial plexus with neuroma formation of the upper trunk. The anterior scalene muscle has been divided dur-
ing exploration.
Practical Approach and Review of Brachial Plexus Pathology With Operative Correlation 103

Figure 19 OBPP- Intra-operative microscopic view of a nerve graft procedure. Surgical repair of the neonatal brachial
plexus palsy visualized in prior figure 18. The neuroma of the upper trunk was resected and the C5 and C6 roots were
trimmed back to normal fascicular appearance. Similarly, the distal portion of the upper trunk was trimmed back to
healthy nerve. Multicable nerve grafts were used to coapt (connect) C5 root to the posterior division of the upper trunk
and suprascapular nerve, and from the C6 root to the anterior division of the upper trunk. Fibrin glue has been placed
on the suture coaptation sites to augment the suture repair.

Figure 20 Radiation Plexopathy. 67-year old woman status post 60 Gy of external beam radiation therapy directed to
the left chest wall, axilla and left supraclavicular region for recurrent breast cancer. (A) Sagittal T2 Dixon water-specific
MR image demonstrates enlargement and T2 hyperintensity of the C5-T1 nerve roots (solid white arrows). (B) Sagittal
T2 Dixon fat-specific MR image reveals mild hypointense stranding of the peri-neural fat (bracket) surrounding the
brachial plexus trunks (solid white arrows), compatible with mild/ early peri-neural fibrosis.(C) Coronal T1 FS post-
contrast image of the brachial plexus depicts mildly enhancing muscle edema involving the left trapezius (asterisk),
posterior scalene (solid white arrowhead) and serratus anterior (solid white arrow), related to both direct effects of the
radiotherapy and indirect denervation edema.

result in distortion or focal angulation of the nerves. Abnormal recurrence, imaging findings of radiation plexopathy tend to be
findings should be limited to the radiation field, the extent of stable across serial examinations.51
which can sometimes be deduced by patterns of fatty replace-
ment of the marrow or geographic edema of the muscles and
soft tissues.51 Postcontrast images can demonstrate mild general- Thoracic Outlet Syndrome
ized enhancement of the affected nerves whereas mass-like or Compression of the neurovascular bundle of the upper
nodular enhancement would be inconsistent with radiation- extremity within the interscalene triangle, costoclavicular
related effects and would more likely indicate recurrent malig- interval, or retropectoralis minor space can result in thoracic
nancy or perineural spread of tumor.50 In contrast to tumor outlet syndrome (TOS). The most common type of TOS is
104 S.E. Stilwill et al.

Figure 23 Cervical Rib- Intra-operative view. Surgical resection of

cervical rib that was fused to the first thoracic rib. Notable intra-
Figure 21 Thoracic Outlet Syndrome (TOS). 27-year-old woman operative findings include a subclavian artery cranial to the cervical
with vasculogenic thoracic outlet syndrome, presenting with aching rib (and substantially rostral to the clavicle which is not visualized
and tingling in her right upper extremity during overhead arm posi- below the supraclavicular nerves). The brachial plexus (dashed
tioning. Coronal maximum intensity projection (MIP) image of the white arrow) is obscured and posteriorly displaced by the cervical
chest from MR angiogram (arterial phase) demonstrates focal nar- rib and subclavian artery. The anterior scalene muscle is atrophic
rowing of the right subclavian artery (solid white arrow) with arms and largely fibrotic.
in the abducted position. For comparison, the left subclavian artery
is normal in caliber.

compression of the brachial plexus as it traverses the thoracic

outlet, is significantly less common. Patients with neurogenic
TOS typically present with painless neurologic loss, includ-
ing atrophy and numbness of the hand and medial fore-
arm.52,53 The so-called disputed neurogenic TOS is a pain
syndrome with subjective numbness in a lower trunk pattern
and pain in the periscapular and lateral neck region. It is clas-
sically triggered with dynamic movements and overhead arm
positioning. Compression of the brachial plexus in such
cases involves the lower trunk resulting in ulnar sided symp-
toms 68% of the time, with both ulnar and radial symptoms
or isolated radial sided symptoms occurring less frequently
(20% and 12% of the time, respectively).52,53
Potential causes of neurovascular compression leading to
TOS are numerous and include: cervical rib, elongated C7
transverse process, abnormal first rib, anomalous muscle,
Figure 22 TOS secondary to cervical ribs. 35-year-old man hypertrophied anterior scalene muscle, anomalous blood
presents with right upper extremity numbness, and pain at the vessels, intramuscular course of brachial plexus structures,
base of the neck. (A) AP radiograph of the cervical spine depict-
and anomalous fibromuscular bands.25,52,54
ing bilateral cervical ribs arising from C7 (solid white arrows).
(B) Sagittal T2 Dixon fat-specific MR image with arms in the
Imaging evaluation of patients with suspected TOS
abducted position demonstrates the cervical rib (open white should include radiographs of the cervical spine and/or
arrowheads) abutting and slightly displacing the lower trunk of chest to assess for rib and other osseous abnormalities.
the plexus (solid white arrow). Multiphase MR angiography and dynamic and/or posi-
tional imaging of the brachial plexus are included in the
MR evaluation of patients with suspected TOS at our insti-
vasculogenic, wherein the subclavian and/or axillary vein, tution.52-54 Mild flattening of the subclavian vein with arm
artery, or both are compressed.52,53 Patients present with abduction is a normal finding, however the subclavian
pain, swelling, numbness, alterations in skin temperature, artery should maintain a round, noncompressible mor-
and skin discoloration, which is typically worsened by arm phology (Fig. 21). Significant flattening of the subclavian
abduction or overhead activities. Vascular thrombosis, vein of more than 50% of the vessel caliber would be con-
venous collateralization, and aneurysm formation can be sidered abnormal, particularly if asymmetric to the asymp-
seen in severe cases. True neurogenic TOS, caused by tomatic side. The course of the plexus should be assessed
Practical Approach and Review of Brachial Plexus Pathology With Operative Correlation 105

Figure 24 Subclavius posticus muscle. 47-year-old woman with

left upper extremity numbness found to have an anomalous sub-
clavius posticus muscle. (A) Sagittal T2 Dixon fat-specific MR Figure 25 Parsonage Turner Syndrome. 71-year-old-woman
image with arms in neutral position. The anomalous muscle presents with sudden onset, severe right upper extremity pain.
(asterisk) originates from the first rib and inserts upon the supe- (A) Sagittal T2 FS MR image of the right shoulder demonstrates
rior angle of the scapula running in an AP oblique plane. The lat- multi-compartment muscle edema involving the distribution of
eral, posterior and medial cords of the plexus run slightly both the supra-scapular and long dorsal thoracic nerves. There is
inferior and posterior to the anomalous muscle (solid white denervation muscle edema within the supraspinatus (solid white
arrows). (B) Sagittal T2 Dixon fat-specific MR image with arms in arrow), infraspinatus (asterisk) and deltoid muscles (white
dynamic abduction position with subtle inferior displacement of arrowhead). (B) Coronal T2 FS MR image through the upper
the nerves by the anomalous muscle (asterisk). The muscle chest reveals marked hyperintensity and mild asymmetric
directly abuts the lateral cord (solid black arrow). The posterior enlargement of the coursing brachial plexus (open white arrow)
and medial cords of the plexus run slightly more inferior and consistent with acute neuritis.
posterior to the muscle (solid white arrows). The clavicle is
located superiorly (white arrowhead).

sudden onset severe pain involving one or both upper

for abutment or compression by adjacent osseous struc- extremities followed by progressive motor weakness and
tures and for loss of intervening fat planes, particularly sensory dysfunction. It is more commonly seen in patients
with the arms abducted (Figs. 22 and 23). The identifica- with a recent history of trauma, viral infection, vaccina-
tion of focal displacement of the plexus, nerve kinking or tion, or surgery and is believed to be autoimmune in etiol-
loss of the normal oval and/or round shape of the brachial ogy although specifics of its pathophysiology remain
plexus structures should lead to further interrogation for a unknown.55
subtle fibrous band or anomalous muscle (Fig. 24).52-54 While Parsonage-Turner syndrome is primarily a clinical
diagnosis, MRI of the brachial plexus or shoulder can be per-
formed to assess for other possible etiologies of symptoms
and to characterize the extent and distribution of abnormal
Brachial Plexitis—Parsonage Turner
findings.55 Indirect signs predominate on MRI, with multi-
Syndrome compartmental feathery denervation muscle edema being the
An uncommon cause of brachial plexus dysfunction is idio- most common finding (Fig. 25). Direct signs of neuropathy,
pathic brachial plexitis, also known as Parsonage-Turner syn- specifically nerve enlargement and increased T2/STIR signal
drome or neuralgic amyotrophy. Patients present with intensity, may also be present.16,56
106 S.E. Stilwill et al.

Figure 26 Chronic inflammatory demyelinating plexopathy (CIDP). 47-year-old man presenting with slowly progressive
numbness, weakness, and loss of coordination of his right upper extremity. (A) Coronal 3D SPACE maximum intensity
projection (MIP) MR image of the right brachial plexus demonstrates marked enlargement and T2 hyperintensity of the
brachial plexus from the roots to the proximal branches (bracket). (B) Ax T2 FS MR image through the roots and trunks
demonstrate similar findings of nerve hypertrophy and diffuse increased intrinsic hyperintense signal (solid white
arrows). The partially imaged left brachial plexus are normal in caliber and signal.

Chronic Inflammatory Demyelinating fascicles, and adjacent soft tissue inflammation. Imaging
Polyneuropathy may or may not demonstrate the inciting source and/or
Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy site of infection spreading to the coursing brachial plexus
(CIDP) is a rare autoimmune neuropathy that can involve (Fig. 27).27,62-64
the brachial or lumbosacral plexus. Patients present with
progressive motor weakness involving proximal and distal
muscles that lasts more than 8 weeks.57 Sensory symptoms
of numbness and pain can also be seen. CIDP can be mono- Tumors of the Brachial Plexus
phasic or relapsing, and treatment typically involves immune
Malignant involvement of the brachial plexus is not a rare
modulation therapy (intravenous immunoglobulin and corti-
occurrence and is most often seen secondary to invasion
costeroids).58,59 MRI demonstrates marked hypertrophy of
from adjacent apical lung cancer, breast cancer, lymphade-
the brachial plexus structures with associated T2/STIR
nopathy, primary bone tumors, or metastases. In contradis-
hyperintensity (Fig. 26).60 Findings are classically symmetric,
tinction, primary tumors of the brachial plexus, both benign
although unilateral cases are possible.60,61 In some cases, the
and malignant, are rare and broadly divided into tumors of
severe hypertrophy of the roots and proximal trunks can
neurogenic vs non-neurogenic origin.65 MRI is the preferred
result in an “onion bulb” morphology of the plexus, as
imaging modality for evaluating tumors of the brachial
can be seen in the congenital hypertrophic neuropathy
plexus with PET and CT useful adjuncts for problem-solving
Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease. Prolonged or relapsing cases
and preoperative planning. When combining lesion-specific
of CIDP can also be associated with profound muscle
imaging features with clinical presentation and past medical
atrophy.61
history, it is often possible to provide a limited differential or
specific diagnosis.

Infection
Infectious brachial neuritis is relatively uncommon, however Neurogenic Tumors
when it does occur, it is most commonly due to a direct Neurogenic tumors of the brachial plexus are further clas-
spread of infection from adjacent soft tissues. There are a few sified as benign vs malignant. Benign entities include
reported cases in the literature of secondary infection of the schwannoma, neurofibroma, ganglioneuroma, and plexi-
brachial plexus related to septic glenohumeral arthropathy, form neurofibroma. Although plexiform neurofibroma is
spinal osteomyelitis-discitis, apical lung pleural and/or considered benign, there is an increased risk of malignant
parenchymal infection, overlying soft tissue infections, recent transformation with estimates ranging from 5%-10% in
surgery, or postvenous catheter line placement (septic large tumors.66 The primary malignant tumor of the bra-
thrombophlebitis).62,63 MRI findings of infectious neuritis chial plexus is a malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor
are similar to other sites of soft tissue infection and (MPNST). When evaluating tumors of the brachial plexus,
include nonmass like enhancement, increased intrinsic it is important to consider underlying medical conditions
T2-hyperintense signal of the involved nerve and/or nerve as plexiform neurofibromas and neurofibromas occur at
Practical Approach and Review of Brachial Plexus Pathology With Operative Correlation 107

Figure 27 Septic Thrombophlebitis. 28 -year-old female, IV drug user with worsening shoulder pain. (A) Right upper
extremity ultrasound demonstrates acute thrombus within the proximal brachial vein, with absence of normal Doppler
flow. MRI was subsequently performed to exclude septic joint. (B) Sagittal T2 FS, (C) Sagittal post-contrast T1 FS and
(D) Axial post-contrast T1 FS images through the upper extremity confirm occluded proximal brachial vein (black
arrows in B,C, and D), with thick enhancing peri-vascular and peri-neural soft tissue edema consistent with phlegmon.
The brachial plexus branches run medial to the brachial vein and artery, and are secondarily involved in this case
(bracket in D). (Color version of figure is available online).

increased rates in patients with certain systemic diseases nerve fascicles.25,65 Identifying tumors as benign or
such as neurofibromatosis type 1.67 The telltale MRI fea- malignant is valuable for preoperative counseling as
tures of peripheral nerve sheath tumors have been well schwannoma and solitary neurofibroma resections are
described in the literature including: the target sign, split- typically possible without nerve injury while complete
fat sign, fascicular sign, and string sign. These tumors typi- resection required to treat a plexiform neurofibroma will
cally present as well-defined, avidly enhancing ovoid result in permanent nerve damage. The imaging appear-
masses with the long axis of the lesion contiguous with the ance of benign peripheral nerve sheath tumors can be
entering and exiting parent nerve. The target sign refers to variable with some lesions such as long-standing ancient
peripheral hyperintensity and central hypointensity on schwannomas demonstrating nonuniform enhancement
T2-weighted imaging which is a result of predominantly and cystic necrosis mimicking MPNST.68 Plexiform neu-
myxoid tissue peripherally and a greater proportion of rofibromas are often disfiguring due to the diffuse
fibrocollagenous tissue centrally (Fig. 28).6,25,65 While enlargement of the afflicted nerve and its branches, an
very helpful in identifying peripheral nerve sheath tumors, appearance which has been described as a “bag of
the aforementioned imaging findings, including the target worms” at gross pathology. While plexiform neurofibro-
sign, are not useful for distinguishing between schwan- mas often demonstrate the target sign at MRI, they are
noma and neurofibroma. However, these lesions can be much larger than solitary neurofibromas with infiltrating,
accurately distinguished from one another based on their lobulated margins and nonuniform enhancement
relationships to the parent nerves. Schwannomas are (Figs. 29 and 30).69
encapsulated lesions that have been classically described MPNSTs often lack specific imaging features and may be
as “eccentric” to the parent nerve without infiltration of impossible to differentiate from other soft tissue sarcomas,
nerve fascicles; this is in contradistinction to neurofibro- which reinforces the importance of the clinical history, par-
mas which are unencapsulated and directly infiltrate ticularly in patients with neurofibromatosis type 1 who
108 S.E. Stilwill et al.

Figure 28 Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumor. 57-year-old-woman with peripheral nerve sheath tumor arising from the
exiting left C5 nerve root. (A) Coronal T1-weighted MR image shows a homogeneously hypointense dumbbell-shaped
lesion slightly remodeling the left C4-C5 neural foramen (solid black arrow). (B) Coronal STIR MR image shows the
classic “target sign” (solid white arrow) with peripheral hyperintensity and central hypointensity. (C) Coronal T1-
weighted FS MR image following intravenous gadolinium administration shows diffuse, avid enhancement of the lesion
(solid white arrow).

Figure 29 Neurofibromatosis. 29-year-old-woman with Neurofibromatosis Type-1 and multiple plexiform neurofibro-
mas. (A) Coronal STIR MR image shows heterogeneous, predominately hyperintense lobulated enlargement of the
right brachial plexus (solid white arrows). (B) Coronal T1-weighted FS MR image following intravenous gadolinium
contrast administration shows non-uniform enhancement of the partially imaged brachial plexus (solid white arrows)
involving the roots through divisions. (C) Coronal STIR MR image, at the level of the supraspinatus muscle belly, pos-
terior to the brachial plexus, demonstrates an additional plexiform neurofibroma (open white arrows) with signal char-
acteristics similar to the proximal brachial plexus lesions. There are numerous additional smaller hyperintense nodular
foci throughout the right shoulder girdle soft tissues consistent with neurofibroma formation.

present with sudden increase in mass size, new onset pain or Non-Neurogenic Brachial Plexus
worsening neurologic deficits.70 Several imaging features are Malignancies
useful in favoring a diagnosis of MPNST over benign periph- Non-neurogenic brachial plexus malignancies may be further
eral nerve sheath tumors including: increasing size (greater classified as tumors which secondarily invade the brachial
than 7 cm), perilesional edema, peripheral enhancement, plexus, and are more commonly seen than primary malignan-
and intratumoral cystic change.67 Local soft tissue invasion cies arising from the brachial plexus. The most common
and osseous destruction are also highly suspicious for malig- tumors to secondarily involve the brachial plexus include lung
nancy. FDG PET/CT avidity (standard uptake value >3-4) is and breast cancer metastases, metastatic lymphadenopathy in
suggestive of malignancy, but there is overlap in standard the supraclavicular or axillary regions, neurolymphomatosis,
uptake values between MPNSTs and benign peripheral nerve and superior sulcus non-small cell lung carcinomas or Pancoast
sheath tumors with low uptake not excluding malignancy.71 tumors.6,25,65 In general, these lesions may be focal or diffusely
ADC mapping has also been suggested as having a role for infiltrative with solid enhancement and invasion of regional
the diagnosis of MPNSTs, however is not currently used for osseous and soft tissue structures. In the setting of a superior
diagnosis at our institution. sulcus tumor, patients typically present with Pancoast's
Practical Approach and Review of Brachial Plexus Pathology With Operative Correlation 109

diagnosis of neurolymphoma is challenging both clinically and

at imaging with the MRI appearance of thickened, T2 hyperin-
tense, enhancing peripheral nerves significantly overlapping
with competing infectious and inflammatory etiologies.71
Given this limitation of MRI, FDG PET/CT has emerged as an
invaluable complimentary modality demonstrating intense lin-
ear uptake of the involved nerves which is both highly specific
and sensitive for lymphomatous infiltration. Any malignant
bone tumor invading the scapula, vertebral bodies, first rib, or
clavicle can secondarily involve the brachial plexus with osse-
ous metastases being the most common culprit.6
Primary malignancies arising within the distribution of the
brachial plexus include various soft tissue sarcomas includ-
ing, but not limited to, liposarcoma, synovial sarcoma,
undifferentiated pleomorphic sarcoma, as well as radiation-
induced sarcoma. These lesions may have no particular
differentiating features while others will have a similar
appearance to those previously described in the literature
arising remote from the brachial plexus (ie prominent adi-
Figure 30 Plexiform Neurofibroma  Intra-operative view. Intra-opera- pose component in a well-differentiated liposarcoma).72
tive picture during a NST resection demonstrates a fusiform shaped, Radiation-induced sarcomas may occur as late as 40-years
multi-nodular tumor (solid white arrow) associated with the lateral cord. following radiation therapy, most often as the sequela of prior
The lateral cord segment is expanded and diffusely enlarged (dashed breast cancer therapy. Up to 11% of all MPNSTs have been
white arrow). associated with a history of prior therapeutic radiation.73

syndrome, which includes hand musculature weakness and/or Benign Non-Neurogenic Tumors
atrophy, shoulder and/or arm pain, and Horner's syndrome Multiple non-neurogenic benign tumors have been described
consisting of ptosis, anhidrosis, and miosis due to stellate gan- arising in close proximity to the brachial plexus. The most
glion invasion. When evaluating a superior sulcus tumor it is commonly reported lesion is aggressive fibromatosis or des-
important to comment on involvement and/or invasion of the moid tumor, which typically presents with pain or neurologic
brachial plexus, subclavian vasculature, vertebral bodies and symptoms.65 Similar to desmoids arising remote from the bra-
intervertebral foramina as contraindications to surgery include chial plexus, these lesions are typically infiltrative with fascial
vertebral body infiltration of >50%, brachial plexus involve- tails and avid enhancement with predominant T1-hypointen-
ment cranial to C8, and extensive mediastinal involvement (tra- sity and T2-hyperintensity, but heterogeneous signal character-
cheal or esophageal invasion)25 (Fig. 31). Neurolymphoma is a istics. Band-like T1 and T2-hypointense, nonenhancing
rare extranodal manifestation of large B-cell non-Hodgkin lym- regions of signal abnormality are the result of collagenous tis-
phoma which has a predilection for the brachial plexus. The sue deposition and suggestive of a fibrous neoplasm (Fig. 32).

Figure 31 Malignant Tumor Invasion. 61-year-old man with non-small cell lung cancer and a left apical Pancoast tumor.
(A) Coronal T1-weighted MR image shows a large destructive / locally invasive hypointense left superior sulcus tumor
(solid white arrows) infiltrating the C8 and T1 nerve roots and inferior trunk of the brachial plexus (white arrowhead).
(B) Coronal T1-weighted FS MR image following intravenous gadolinium administration shows thick, irregular periph-
eral enhancement of the lesion (open white arrow) with central necrosis.
110 S.E. Stilwill et al.

Figure 32 Infiltrating supra-clavicular desmoid tumor. 32-year-old female presents with a supra-clavicular desmoid
tumor. (A) Coronal T1-weighted MR image shows a large, infiltrative hypointense mass diffusely involving the supra-
clavicular through retroclavicular brachial plexus (solid white arrows). (B) Coronal STIR MR image shows heteroge-
neous, but primarily hyperintense signal intensity of the infiltrating mass with intralesional hypointense bands, which
are characteristic of fibrous neoplasms (solid white arrowheads). (C) Coronal T1-weighted FS MR image following
intravenous gadolinium contrast administration shows avid enhancement of the lesion with central non-enhancing,
hypointense bands (solid white arrowheads). Enhancing fascial tail-like components (open white arrow) are character-
istic of desmoid tumors.

Figure 33 Lipoma. 62-year-old-man with right base of neck lipoma. (A) Coronal T1-weighted MRI shows a large,
encapsulated fat containing lesion (black arrows) displacing the brachial plexus (arrowheads). (B) Sagittal T1-weighted
MR image shows the fatty mass inferiorly displacing the cords of the brachial plexus (white arrow) and subclavian
artery (asterisk). (C) Coronal T1-weighted FS MR image following intravenous gadolinium contrast administration
shows diffuse signal loss within the fat containing lesion (asterisk) without intralesional enhancement.

While benign, these tumors are often locally aggressive and dif- Conclusion
ficult to manage with high rates of recurrence.74
The second most common benign non-neurogenic tumor MR imaging of the brachial plexus need not be intimidat-
to involve the brachial plexus is a lipoma. Lipomas are typi- ing. Accurate interpretation of brachial plexus MRI is
cally well characterized on CT and MRI given the diffuse sim- founded upon a solid understanding of normal anatomy,
ple intralesional fat (Fig. 33). However, it may be difficult to which can be further simplified by using an anatomical
impossible to distinguish lipoma variants or lipomas which landmark-based approach to systematically interrogate
have undergone fat necrosis from atypical lipomatous tumor each individual component of the brachial plexus. Com-
and/or well-differentiated liposarcoma.75 bining this approach with an understanding of the com-
There are reports of multiple other benign soft tissue and mon direct and indirect imaging findings and in concert
osseous tumors resulting in a brachial plexopathy including with the clinical history and physical examination will
hemangioma, osteochondroma (Fig. 34), intraneural gan- allow the reader to identify the salient findings and arrive
glion, and lymphangioma.25 at the correct diagnosis.
Practical Approach and Review of Brachial Plexus Pathology With Operative Correlation 111

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