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INTRODUCTION

Soil cement is a construction material, a mix of pulverized natural soil with small
amount of Portland cement and water, usually processed in a tumble, compacted to
high density. Hard, semi-rigid durable material is formed by hydration of the
cement particles. Soil cement is often used as a construction material for pipe
bedding, slope protection, and road construction as a subbase layer reinforcing and
protecting the sub grade. It has good compressive and shear strength, but is brittle
and has low tensile strength, so it is prone to forming cracks. Soil cement mixtures
differ from Portland cement concrete for paste (cement-water mixture). While in
Portland cement concretes the paste coats all aggregate particles and binds them
together, in soil cement the amount of cement is lower and therefore there are
voids left, and the result is a cement matrix with nodules of uncemented material.

Soil-cement is a highly compacted mixture of soil/aggregate, cement, and water. It

is widely used as a low-cost pavement base for roads, residential streets, parking
areas, airports, shoulders, and materials-handling and storage areas. Its advantages
of great strength and durability combine with low first cost to make it the
outstanding value in its field. A thin bituminous surface is usually placed on the
soil-cement to complete the pavement. Soil-cement is sometimes called cement-
stabilized base, or cement-treated aggregate base. Regardless of the name, the
principles governing its composition and construction are the same.

The use of soil cement dates to the early 20th century, and it has since become a
popular construction material due to its low cost and ease of use. The exact ratio of
soil to cement to water varies with each application and the qualities of the soil.

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The resulting material is exceptionally durable and resistant to weathering and
erosion, making it an excellent choice for construction projects in various
environments.

2.WHAT IS SOIL CEMENT

Soil cement is a construction material that mixes soil, cement, and water. It is a
type of soil stabilization technique that improves the properties of the native soil,
making it more durable and resistant to erosion while reducing its permeability.
The process involves mixing the soil and cement in specific proportions, typically
ranging from 5% to 15% cement by weight, with the addition of water to create a
slurry. The resulting mixture is then compacted into the desired shape and allowed
to cure or harden.

Soil cement is commonly used as a base or subbase for roadways, airport runways,
and other heavy traffic areas and for foundation and retaining wall construction. It
is a cost-effective alternative to traditional concrete or asphalt pavement, especially
in areas where suitable aggregates are not readily available or where environmental
concerns limit the use of such materials.

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 2.1.Composition of Soil Cement

Soil cement is a mixture of soil, cement, and water used to stabilize soils for
various engineering purposes such as road construction, building foundations, and
dams. The composition of soil cement depends on the desired strength and
durability of the finalproduct and the type of soil being used.Generally, the soil
used in soil-cement should have a good proportion of fine particles to ensure good
compaction and high strength. The ideal soil for soil cement is cohesive, has good
plasticity, and has low organic content. The percentage of cement used in the mix
varies between 3% to 10% by weight of dry soil.
The following is a general composition of soil cement mix:

 Soil: 70-90%
 Cement: 3-10%

 Water: 10-20%

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The exact proportions of the components depend on factors such as the desired
strength, moisture content, and soil type. The mix is thoroughly mixed until a
homogeneous mixture is obtained. The mixture is then compacted to the required
density and allowed to cure for several days.

3.WHY USE SOIL-CEMENT

Failing granular-base pavements, with or without their old bituminous mats, can be
salvaged, strengthened, and reclaimed as soil-cement pavements. This is an
efficient, economical way of rebuilding pavements. Since approximately 90
percent of the material used is already in place, handling and hauling costs are cut
to a minimum. Many granular and waste materials from quarries and gravel pits
can also be used to make soil-cement; thus, high-grade materials are conserved for
other purposes.

Highway and city engineers praise soil-cement’s performance, its low first cost,
long life, and high strength. Soil cement is constructed quickly and easily – a fact
appreciated by owners and users alike.

4.HOW IS SOIL-CEMENT BUILT

Before construction begins, simple laboratory tests establish the cement content,
compaction, and water requirements of the soil material to be used. During
construction, tests are done to see that the requirements are being met. Testing
ensures that the mixture will have strength and long-term durability. No guesswork
is involved.

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Manufacturing Process of Soil Cement:
Soil cement is a construction material made by mixing soil, cement, and water in a
precise ratio to create a hardened and durable surface. It is commonly used for road
construction, pavements, and building foundations.

The manufacturing process for soil cement involves the following steps:
4.1. Soil Selection: The first step is selecting the appropriate soil type for the
desired application. The soil should be free from organic matter, rocks, and debris
and have a good grading curve.

4.2. Mixing: The soil and cement are mixed in a predetermined ratio using a
mixing machine. The mixing process can be done in a central plant or on-site using
portable mixers.

4.3. Watering: Water is added to the mixture to achieve the desired moisture
content. The amount of water added should be carefully controlled to ensure the
mixture is not too wet or dry.

4.4. Compaction: The mixture is then compacted using a compaction machine to

remove any air pockets and increase the density of the soil cement.

4.5. Curing: After compaction, the soil cement is left to cure for a specific period,
usually around 7 to 28 days, to harden and develop its strength.

4.6. Surface Treatment: Once the soil cement has cured, a surface treatment may be

applied to improve its durability and longevity. It can include the use of sealers or
asphalt coatings.

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 5.PERFORMANCE OF SOIL CEMENT

Soil-cement thicknesses are less than those required for granular bases carrying the
same traffic over the same subgrade. This is because soil-cement is a cemented,
rigid material that distributes loads over broad areas. Its slab-like characteristics
and beam strength are unmatched by granular bases. Hard, rigid soil-cement resists
cyclic cold, rain, and spring-thaw damage. Cement stabilizes soil in two ways.
First, it reduces soil plasticity, especially for soil in which there is a high amount of
clay particles.

Soil cement can be mixed in place or in a central mixing plant. Central mixing
plants can be used where borrowed material is involved. Friable granular materials
are selected for their low cement requirements and ease of handling and mixing.
Normally pugmill-type mixers are used. The mixed soil-cement is then hauled to
the jobsite and spread on the prepared subgrade.

Compaction and curing procedures are the same for central-plant and mixed-in-
place procedures. There are four steps in mixed-in-place soil-cement construction;
spreading cement, mixing, compaction, and curing. The proper quantity of cement
is spread on the in-place soil material.

Then the cement, the soil material, and the necessary amount of water are mixed
thoroughly by any of several types of mixing machines. Next, the mixture is tightly
compacted to obtain maximum benefit from the cement. No special compaction
equipment is needed; rollers of various kinds, depending on soil type, can be used.

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The mixture is cemented permanently at a high density and the hardened soil-
cement will not deform or consolidate further under traffic.

Curing, the final step, prevents evaporation of water to ensure maximum strength
development through cement hydration. A light coat of bituminous material is
commonly used to prevent moisture loss; it also forms part of the bituminous
surface. A common type of wearing surface for light traffic is a surface treatment
of bituminous material and chips .5- to .75-inch thick. For heavy-duty use and in
severe climates a 1.5-inch asphalt mat is used. Contractors bidding on soil-cement
jobs know that construction will be relatively easy and problem-free; weather
delays rare; and reworking of completed sections unnecessary.

The second is cementation which is very important because clay is not its main
composition. In fine grained silty and clayey soils, the hydration of cement
develops strong linkages between the soil aggregates to form a matrix that
effectively encases the soil aggregates. Old soil-cement pavements in all parts of
the continent are still giving good service at low maintenance costs. Soil-cement
has been used in every state in the United States and in all Canadian provinces.

Specimens taken from roads show that the strength of soil-cement actually
increases with age; some specimens were four times as strong as test specimens
made when the roads were first opened to traffic. This reserve strength accounts in
part for the soil cement’s good long-term performance.

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 6.TYPES OF SOIL CEMENT

6.1.Cement-modified soils (CMS)

Cement-modified soil contains a relatively small proportion of Portland cement.

The result is caked or slightly hardened material, similar to a soil, but with
improved mechanical properties - lower plasticity, increased bearing ratio and
shearing strength, and decreased volume change.

6.2.Soil-cement base (SCB)

A soil-cement base contains a higher proportion of cement than cement-modified

soil. It is commonly used as a cheap pavement base for roads, streets, parking lots,
airports, and material handling areas. Specialized equipment, such as a soil
stabilizer and a mechanical cement spreader is usually required. A seal coat is
required in order to keep moisture out. For uses as a road construction material, a
suitable surface coating, usually a thin layer of asphalt concrete is needed to reduce
wear.

In comparison with granular bases, soil cement bases can be thinner for the same
road load, owing to their slab-like behavior that distributes load over broader areas.
In-place or nearby located materials can be used for construction - locally found
soil, stone, or reclaimed granular base from a road being reconstructed. This
conserves both material and energy.

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The strength of soil-cement bases actually increases with age, providing good
long-term performance.

6.3.Cement-treated base (CTB)

A cement-treated base is a mix of granular soil aggregates or aggregate material

with Portland cement and water. It is similar in use and performance to soil-cement
base.

7.ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS

7.1. Low First Cost

Soil cement is often more economical to construct than bases through the use of
soil material on or near the commercial paving site any in-place non-organic, low
plasticity soils can be used. Also, nearby borrowed soil can provide an excellent
material source, requiring lower cement contents than clay and silt soils.
Borrowing soil does not have to be expensive base-course material; almost any
granular material is suitable.

7.2. Fast Construction

Modern methods and equipment make soil-cement processing simple and efficient.
In-place soils are processed at the paving site. When borrowed soil is used, it is
usually mixed in a central plant the borrow source, then hauled to the paving site to
be compacted. Finished to grade and cured. There is no mellowing period or other

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delays in the construction process. In addition, soil- cement is stable immediately
after construction and gains strength rapidly.

7.3. Recycling of Existing Material

Making good soil-cement out of old flexible pavement is nothing new; it has been
done for years. Failed flexible pavements contain materials that can be salvaged
economically by recycling-breaking them up, pulverizing them, and stabilizing
them a minimum quantity of Portland cement to make a new soil-cement base.
There is no disposal problem as is commonly found when old pavements are dug
out. Since approximately 90% of the material used is already in place, handling
and hauling costs are cut to a minimum. Many granular and waste materials from
quarries and gravel pits can also be used to make soil-cement, thus conserving
high-grade materials for other purposes.

7.4.ENGINEERING BENEFITS

7.4.1.Stiffness

Soil-cement is a low-cost pavement base offering the feature most essential for
long-lasting parking and storage areas-stiffness. Large, paved areas must maintain
their original grade and must not develop depressions or potholes if they are to
drain freely during rains, thereby preventing puddles and damage from water that
seeps through and weakens the underlying soil. The stiffness of a cement-stabilized
base acts to distribute loads over a wider area, reducing subgrade stresses and

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allowing the maintain its original grade for many years without costly resurfacing
or repairs.

8.ADVANTAGES OF SOIL CEMENT

8.1.Widely available resources

8.2.Cheap and highly economical

8.3.Maintenance cost is less

8.4.Better weather resistant and strength

8.5.Can be employed for small works

8.6.Soil swelling can be reduced

9.DISADVANTAGES

9.1. Quantity of water must be checked

9.2. Formation of cracks

9.3. Not suitable for some soils

9.4. Proper supervision needed

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 10.APPLICATIONS OF SOIL CEMENT

Soil cement, a mixture of soil, cement, and water, holds immense potential across
various engineering applications due to its numerous advantageous properties. This
section explores the diverse applications of soil cement in different fields of
engineering and construction.

10.1. Road Construction: Soil cement is extensively used in road construction

projects, especially in rural and low-traffic areas. It serves as a cost-effective
alternative to traditional asphalt or concrete pavements. Soil cement stabilization
enhances the strength and durability of the road base, providing a stable foundation
for heavy traffic loads. Additionally, soil cement roads exhibit better resistance to
environmental factors such as moisture and frost, reducing maintenance
requirements.

10.1.1 Airport Pavements: Soil cement is also employed in the construction

of airport pavements, including runways, taxiways, and aprons. Its high
compressive strength and excellent load-bearing capacity make it suitable for
accommodating heavy aircraft traffic. Moreover, soil cement pavements offer
enhanced resistance to rutting and cracking, ensuring long-term performance and
safety in airport operations.

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10.1.2 Erosion Control: In erosion-prone areas, soil cement plays a vital role
in stabilizing slopes, embankments, and riverbanks. By binding soil particles
together, soil cement structures effectively prevent soil erosion caused by rainfall,
runoff, or hydraulic forces. This application is particularly crucial in mitigating the
risk of landslides, protecting infrastructure, and preserving the natural
environment.

10.1.3 Foundation Stabilization: Soil cement is used for stabilizing weak or

expansive soils in foundation construction. By improving soil strength and
reducing settlement, soil cement foundations provide a solid base for buildings,
bridges, and other structures. This application is especially beneficial in areas with
poor soil conditions or high-water tables, where conventional foundation methods
may be inadequate.

10.1.4 Levee and Dam Construction: Soil cement is employed in the

construction of levees, dams, and flood control structures due to its high strength
and impermeability. By compacting soil cement mixtures into embankments or
barriers, engineers can create robust flood defenses that withstand hydraulic
pressures and resist seepage. This application helps protect communities from the
adverse effects of flooding and ensures the stability of critical infrastructure.

10.1.5. Soil Stabilization for Land Reclamation: In land reclamation

projects, soil cement is used to stabilize reclaimed land for development purposes.
By treating reclaimed soil with cementitious materials, engineers can enhance its
load-bearing capacity and geotechnical properties, allowing for safe and
sustainable construction of buildings, roads, and utilities on formerly unusable
land.

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10.1.6. Military Engineering: Soil cement finds extensive use in military
engineering for the rapid construction of temporary roads, airfields, and base
camps in remote or hostile environments. Its ease of deployment, minimal
equipment requirements, and quick curing time make it an ideal solution for
military construction projects, enabling troops to establish infrastructure rapidly
during operations.

11. SOIL CEMENT CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

As in any construction procedure, the materials are subjected to a laboratory test to

study the activity and characteristics of each material. This is to establish the
cement content, the water requirement of the soil, which in turn would help us to
know the compaction efficiency.

Even though the material is found to be cheap, no mind work is performed. All the
calculations are made based on specific tests. This would ensure attainment of
strength as well as long term durability.

The three basic processes involved in construction with soil cement:

11.1. Mixing

11.2. Compacting

11.3. Curing

Mixing

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The mixing of soil cement mixture is done at a central mixing plant. The final
mixture is conveyed to the job site and laid over the already prepared sub-grade
level (For a pavement construction).

Cement Laid Over Prepared Soil Subgrade

When the soil cement preparation is done at the site, there are four stages

 Cement spreading

 Mixing

 Compaction

 Curing

First, a proper quantity of cement is being spread over the soil. They are mixed
homogeneously. Then measured water is added and mixed thoroughly. The mixing
can be done by several hands mixing equipment or machines.

Compaction

Next is compaction of the whole mixture by normally used compaction equipment.

The compaction must be performed with high precision to bring the maximum

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advantage of the cement used. Once done, the whole mixture layer is cemented
permanently at a very high density. This won’t let the soil undergo further
consolidation or settlement under huge traffic.

Soil Cement Composition Compaction by Rollers

Curing

The last step is curing, which is performed to prevent evaporation of water into the
atmosphere. Only an adequate amount of water will enable proper cement
hydration. For this, a bituminous coating is laid over the layer and would act as a
bituminous surface. The thickness of the layer can be increased if the pavement is
constructed in an area with huge traffic.

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 12.SOIL CEMENT TESTS

Laboratory tests determine three fundamental control factors for soil-cement.

These factors are as follows:

12.1. Proper cement content

12.2. Proper moisture content

12.3. Roper density

Adequate cement content is the first requisite for quality soil-cement. Well
before construction, the soils at a project site should be identified, the limits of
each soil defined, and a representative sample of each soil type should be
forwarded to the laboratory to determine the quantity of cement required to harden
it. A soil survey of the construction area should be conducted. Proper soil
surveying, identification, and sampling are important. For instance, if one soil type
was sampled and tested while actual construction involved a different soil type, the
tests would be worthless and, in fact, detrimental since they would mislead the
engineers. Obviously, it is important to sample and test the soils that will actually
be used in soil-cement construction. A 75-pound sample of each type of soil is
adequate for laboratory testing. Sampling methods and procedures are discussed in
the EA3 TRAMAN and in NAVFAC MO-330. Soil samples are usually taken
from a graded roadway by digging a trench from the center line to the edge of the

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proposed pavement and to the depth of processing. Soil samples for proposed
roadways not yet graded are taken with an auger from the various soil horizons of
each soil type from the “dressed down” face of exposed cuts or from the surface.
Samples should be taken so that only one horizon of each soil type is represented
by each sample. Similarly, it is not good practice to take a composite sample from
various locations. Data obtained from a composite sample does not apply to soil in
any single location and may be misleading. There are exceptions. For instance, in
sampling pit material that is to be loaded during construction by a shovel operating
over the vertical face of the pit, the sample is taken from the bottom to the top of
the vertical face after the overburden is removed. On small projects, it is not
uncommon to sample only the poorest soil on the job, and the cement content for
this sample is used throughout the job. Be sure that complete identification is
supplied with each sample.

The purpose of laboratory testing is to figure out the minimum cement

content needed to harden the material adequately and the optimum moisture
content (OMC) and density values to be used for construction. The OMC and
maximum density are determined by the moisture-density test and the required
cement content is decided by either the wet-dry test for pavements found in Non
frost areas or the freeze-thaw test for pavements found in frost areas. A brief
description of each test is provided below. The moisture-density test finds the
OMC and maximum density for molding laboratory specimens and, in the
field, figures out the quantity of water to be added and the density to which the
soil-cement mixture should be compacted.

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 13.CONCLUSION

As a Civil Engineer our aim is economy without losing strength. Hence soil
cement is best choice for low traffic pavements soil cement bricks are eco-friendly
with nature.

The use of soil-cement can be of great benefit to both owners and users of
commercial facilities. Its cost compares favourably with that of granular-base
pavements. When built for equal load carrying ability, soil cement is almost always
less expensive than other low-cost site treatment or pavement method. The use or
reuse of in-place or nearby borrow materials cuts the need for hauling of
expensive, granular- base materials, thus both energy and materials are conserved.
It is not only benefit to the human but also benefit to the environment.

The crushed rock production process consumes a considerable amount of energy

for mining, transportation, burning and which contributes to the total CO2
emission to the atmosphere. The environmental issues to be addressed include the
need to reduce the level of CO2 emissions. The major engineering benefits if soil
cement roads are increased strength, better volume stability and increased
durability.

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 14.REFERENCES
1. "Cement-Modified Soil (CMS)" Portland Cement Association accessed
March, 16 2015.
2. ASTM International. (n.d.). Standard Test Method for Unconfined
Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soil. ASTM D2166-16.
3. Chen, F., Shu, X., & Wu, L. (2018). Soil-cement column strengthening
method for soft soil foundation treatment. Construction and Building
Materials, 182, 71-83.
4. Fernandes, F. A. O., & Gomes, J. C. (2016). Soil-cement blocks: An
alternative material for masonry construction. Construction and Building
Materials, 125, 1167-1173.
5. Mitchell, J. K., & Soga, K. (2005). Fundamentals of soil behavior. John Wiley
& Sons.
6. Nelson, J. D., & Miller, D. J. (1992). Expansive soils: Problems and practice in
foundation and pavement engineering (Vol. 15). John Wiley & Sons.
7. Tayfur, G., Yilmaz, K. A., & Haskan, E. (2008). Prediction of unconfined
compressive strength of cement-treated soft clayey soils using CBR, Lugeon
and RQD tests. Engineering Geology, 97(3-4), 155-162.
8. U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration. (n.d.).
Soil cement construction handbook.

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