Bonga University

College of Agriculture and Natural Resource

Department of plant Science

Postharvest Handling of Horticultural crops

Course Instructor Habtamu Deribe (M.Sc. in Agronomy)
Email address: habtader@gmail.com

Course objectives
At the end of the course the students will be able to understand:
 the properties of fruits and vegetables
 the physiological aspects of produce in relation to postharvest
 the major causes of postharvest losses
 proper harvesting and postharvest handling of horticultural crops
Chapter 1
1. Introduction
Fresh horticultural crops are diverse morphological structure (roots, stems, leave, and so on),
composition, and general physiological. Thus, commodity requirements and recommendations
for maximum postharvest of fruit and vegetable vary among the commodities. All fresh
horticultural crops are high in water content and are subject to desiccation and mechanical and
physiological injury. They are also susceptibility to attack by bacteria and fungi, with
pathological breakdown. Biological (internal and external) causes of deterioration include
respiration ,ethylene production and action, rates of compositional changes, mechanical
physiological injuries, water stress, sprouting and rooting, physiological disorders, and
pathological breakdown. The rate of biological deterioration depends on several environmental
(external) factors, including temperature, humidity, air, frost and atmospheric gases composite,
and sanitation procedures.
Fresh fruits and vegetables play a very significant role in human nutrition, especially as sources
of vitamins minerals, and energy. Other constituents that may lower risk of cancer and other
diseases include python nutrients. Postharvest losses in nutritional quality, particularly Vitamin

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C content, can be substantial and are enhanced by physical damage, extended storage duration,
high temperatures, low humidity, and chilling injury of chilling-sensitive. You have spent
months working in the fields, and now have a beautiful fruits and vegetables. You want to ensure
that your customers will also enjoy this healthy harvest. How can you best maintain the quality
and safety of your produce as it travels from the field in the table? High-quality, disease-free
produce with a good shelf life is a result of sound production practices, proper handling during
harvest, and appropriate postharvest packaging handling and storage.
1.1. Importance of perishable horticultural crops
o The postharvest physiology of fresh fruit and vegetables has in recent times
become an important subdivision of both plant physiology and horticulture
o The increased attention afforded postharvest horticulture due to
o faulty handling practices after harvest can cause large losses of produce
Food products may be categorized as fresh plant produce, processed plant produce, dairy
products, and fresh and processed animal products.
Fresh fruits & vegetables have been part of human diet for long time
In the early days, animal products were more valued and only few nations capitalized on
fruits and vegetables
However, recently more attention has been rendered to the later because of more Obesity
and coronary heart diseases incidences

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 i. Vitamins- C
– fruits & vegetables account 95% of Vitamin C
• Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid ) is water soluble and antioxidant vitamin and cannot be stored
in the body.
• It is excreted from the body regularly, thus it is demand regularly
– Helps in protecting the body against pollutants.
– Promoting healthy cell development, normal tissue growth and repair such as
healing injuries and burns, and helps in absorption of calcium.
– Vitamin C is useful for healthy gums to help in protecting against infections.
– It also strengthens many parts of our body such as blood vessels and muscles.
• The main function of vitamin C is that it helps in the synthesis of collagen.
– Collagen is an important component of ligaments, blood vessels and bone.
– It is a fibrous protein found in skin, bone, and other connective tissues
– It is found throughout the body, present in cartilage and connective tissues and is
used to separate skeletal and smooth muscle cells.
ii. Folic acid:
– It is a supplemental form of a B Complex vitamin called folate that is necessary
for
• Formation of red blood cells
• DNA synthesis and for protein metabolism
• Folate is found in citrus fruits, green leafy vegetables, and whole grains.
• Women who may get pregnant need ample amounts of folate every day
iii. Vegetables and fruits prevent a raft of medical conditions
• Appendicitis • Gallstones
• Colonic and rectal cancers • Hemorrhoids
• Constipation • Varicose veins, etc
• Diabetes
• Fruits and vegetables are low in fat and high in dietary fiber thus they are good substitute
for animal based food staffs
iv. As for ornamentals
– Mixed with prepared foods

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 – Principally, they are food for the mind
– Traditionally, they are gown in gardens, interior-scapes, hotels and offices
– Especial occasions
• Weddings, Funerals/ memorable service, Valentine’s day, parades/display
and rallies/ public meeting
• In some countries they are symbol of the state.
1.2. Basic concepts
• In the process of utilization of plants or plant parts by humans there is always a
postharvest component
• This is an integral/ essential part of the human food supply chain for
– Subsistence agriculture and seasonal production
– Distance between production and urban centers
– International traders
Postharvest: refers to the time period from harvest to the time of ultimate utilization,
deterioration or death.
It is the beginning of the products end
Loss: - any change in the availability, edibility or quantity of the food that prevents it from being
consumed by people.
 Hunger and malnutrition can exist in spite of adequate food production.
 These can be the result of uneven distribution, losses, and deterioration of available food
resources. Hence, maximum utilization of available food and minimization of postharvest
food losses are absolutely essential.
• The loss of foods (both in quality and quantity) in the post-harvest system has always
been a problem.
• To reduce such loss,
– one must understand the biological and environmental factors involved in
deterioration of the product and
– Use of post-harvest techniques.
• Post-harvest technology has to be based on a sound knowledge of postharvest
physiology

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Post-harvest physiology: It is the division of plant physiology dealing with functional processes
in plant material after it has been harvested.
• Post-harvest physiology is concerned with plants or plant parts that are handled and
marketed in the living state including seeds, fruits, vegetables, cut flowers, and foliage,
nursery products, turf, vegetative propagules and edible fungi.
• Post-harvest period starts with the harvest, but pre harvest factors could also influence the
final quality.
• Unless materials /products are consumed immediately after harvest, changes will take
place.
Why we need to study Postharvest Physiology?
 Harvested fruits and vegetables are still living organs as they continue to respire and lose
water.
 Faulty handling practices after harvesting can cause large losses of produce that required
large input of labor, material and capital to grow.
 This is mainly due to increased expense to prevent deterioration of the produce by proper
and safe storage and transportation
• Postharvest technology (PHT): is the science which deals with all aspects of
 Quality maintenance
 Loss reduction
 Value enhancement, and
 By-product utilization of the harvested agricultural produce.
Under the conditions of optimum energy, economic viability and employment potential is
high.
 The technique involved in harvesting, handling, transporting, storing to reduce losses
and to keep them fresh is post-harvest technology.
 The whole chain of movement and operation is postharvest handling.
Factors affecting post-harvest handling
 The nature of plant materials (its physiological processes)
 The technology used
 Economic aspects associated with handling, storage, and marketing of plants and
plant parts

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1.3. Post-harvest losses of Horticulture Products
1.3.1. Nature of postharvest Losses
Post-harvest losses are any change in the quantity or quality of a product after harvest that
prevents or alters its intended use or decrease its value.
Losses can be
– Quantitative loss or
– Qualitative loss
– Nutritional value (changes in composition)
– Sensory quality
– Texture….. hard or soft
– Flavor and aroma
– Color
– Freshness, turgidity, crispness, firmness
– Economic loss

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1.3.2. Importance or magnitude of postharvest losses
• Accurate estimate of losses are simply not available
• It is also difficult to identify the actual step in the post-harvest chain where the loss has
occurred.

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 The extent of loss is highly variable depending on a number of factors:
• Nature of the product ( its perishability)
• There is a very wide range in the degree of perishability between plants.
• Difference in post-harvest perishability
Post-harvest technology stimulates agricultural productions by;
 Prevent post-harvest losses
 Improves nutrition
 Adds value to agricultural products
 Opens new marketing opportunities
 Generates new job
The three main objectives of app post-harvest technologies to harvested fruits and
vegetables are:
1. To maintain quality(appreance, texture, flavor and nutritive value)
2. To protect food safety and
3. To reduce losses between harvest and consumption
The difference between Durable (Agronomic crops) and Perishable (Horticultural crops)

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Estimates of post-harvest losses
• Food grain : 25% (from mishandling ,spoilage and pest infection)
• Fresh horticultural produce: 25-100% of the produce
II. Specific time and place (Season and location)
– Post-harvest losses in less developed countries are generally considered to be
higher than in developed countries
• storage, packing, transport and
• handling of technologies are particularly nonexistent,
– The pattern of loss also varies widely from country to country.
In developed countries, losses may be fairly high during harvesting because:
– Mechanical harvesting leaves some of the commodities in the field
– Mechanical damage
– Considerable quantity of food may be discarded at the point of harvesting because
they are the wrong size, shape and color. These are planed losses.
In less develop countries, harvest losses are lower Because:
• Most of the crop is handpicked.
• The material rejected here is also lower because of the expectation of quality and
uniformity
• But in developed countries loss during

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 • handling, storage, transportation and processing is low because of the
– efficiency of the equipment,
– good quality storage condition (facility) and
– Close control of critical variable by highly trained personnel.
Time:
The longer the time the produce is stored, the greater is deterioration and the greater is the
chance of damage and loss.
Hence storage time is critical factor in the loss of commodities, especially which has a short
natural shelf life.
1.3.3. Causes of post-harvest Losses
What do you think are the main causes of post-harvest losses?
Primary causes
 Chemical and biochemical-(undesirable reactions between chemical compounds
present in the food such as browning, rancidity, enzymatic changes, etc.)
 Mechanical-(Spillages and damages caused by abrasion/cut, bruising/yellowing,
crushing, puncturing, etc.)
 Biological and microbiological (Diseases and pest)-consumption or damage by
insects, pests, animals and microorganisms, i.e. molds and bacteria
 Fresh produce can become infected before or after harvest.
 These organisms directly consume small amounts of the produce but they damage
it to the point that it becomes unacceptable because of rotting and other defects.
 They produce toxic substance
 Physical-improper environmental and storage conditions (T0, relative
humidity, air speed, etc.)
 Psychological- human aversion or refusal due to personal or religious reasons
 Physiological-sprouting, senescence, other respiratory and transpiratory changes
– All horticultural crops are living parts containing 65-95% water and they continue
their living process after harvest.
– That is, they are metabolically active and they respire and transpire.
 There may be an increase in the rate of loss because of normal physiological changes
 Ripening

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  Color changes
 Dormancy
o These are desirable changes to some extent but may lead to:
 Over maturity
 Off flavor, sprouting and undesirable color changes
 Increased susceptibility of the commodity to mechanical damage or infection by
pathogens
 Abnormal physiological deterioration also occurs when fresh produce is subjected to
extremes of temperature, atmospheric humidity or because of contamination leading to
undesirable compositional changes.
 Interaction :
o Disease and pest damage ---- Increase respiration
o Mechanical damage---------increase ethylene production and respiration
o Ripening:----------------------increased infection
 Secondary causes
o Improper harvesting and handling and
o Inadequate storage facilities, transportation, packaging and marketing
systems
Causes of post-harvest losses can be classified in to intrinsic and extrinsic

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Physical damage/Mechanical damage/ injury
 Includes cuts, punctures (penetrate), cracks and splits.
o Careless handling during harvesting, packaging, transportation and storage will
reduce storage life
 Internal bruising which results in physiological damage
 Skin breakage indirectly provides opportunities for entry of pathogens
 Wounding, physical pressure, breakage, bruises and trimming result in the
increased production of ethylene and thus accelerate the rate of senescence
of the tissue
Based on the nature of biological or environmental factors
Biological factors
– Respiration
– Ethylene production
– Compositional changes
– Growth and development
– Transpiration
– Physiological breakdown-freezing injury or frost damage. Heat injury vs chilling
injury

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 1.4. Significance or importance of Post-harvest physiology
Significance levels of post-harvest losses
The farmer can’t recover his costs and make a profit and this might causes for poverty
Less food to people who are malnutrition/starvation
Health aspects: The production of horticultural crops is seasonal. There is thus a need to
store produce to meet requirements during the off season. Otherwise, there will be
deficiency disease as a result of there their absence.
Reduction of post-harvest losses means reduction of:
Wastage of produce, labor, materials and capital used in the process of production

In order to deliver perishable produce with best quality to consumer;

An understanding of the physiology of the produce
The nature and cause of deterioration should be well understood.
This leads to the development of appropriate post-harvest handling practice and
technology by which deterioration of the produce is reduced.
Then by using proper post-harvest technology on handling, packaging, transportation and storage
reduces the post-harvest losses of fruit and vegetables. Processing and preservation technology
helps to save excess fruit and vegetable for the glut season (off season). The technology has
become a necessity to improve the food safety and strengthen nation’s food security. The
technology helps to boost export of agricultural commodities in the form of preserved and value
added products. Presently, citrus, grapes, tomatoes, peas, are being processed on a large scale in
Ethiopia.
Advantages of reducing PHL
 Nutritional advantages  Cost effective
 Economic Advantages  Environmentally friendly
 Feedback incentive to the growers  Consumer satisfaction
How can we reduce post-harvest losses?
We can do it if we
1 . Understand the causes of postharvest losses
2 . Determine factors which affect them and how
3 . Effectively use conditions which control the factors and minimize the spoilage

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 Chapter: 2
2. Structure, Composition & Nutritional Value of Horticultural Crops
2.1. Structure
Fruit and vegetables have many similarities with respect to their
 Compositions
 Methods of cultivation and harvesting, storage properties and processing.
 In fact, many vegetables may be considered as fruit in the true botanical sense.
 Botanically, fruits are those portions of the plant which house seeds.
 Therefore, such items are tomatoes, cucumbers, eggplant, peppers, and others would be
classified as fruits on this basis.
 The important distinction between fruit and vegetables has come to be made on usage
basis.
 Those plant items that are generally eaten with the main course of a meal are considered
to be vegetables.
 Those that are commonly eaten as dessert (a sweet course eaten at the end of a meal)are
considered fruits.
 That is the distinction made by the food processor.
 Vegetables are derived from various parts of plants and it is sometimes useful to associate
different vegetables with the parts of the plant they represent since this provides clues to
some of the characteristics we may expect in these items.
 Fruit as a dessert item, is the mature ovaries of plants with their seeds.
 The edible portion of most fruit is the fleshy part of the pericarp or vessel surrounding the
seeds.
 Fruit in general is acidic and sugary.
Category Examples
Earth vegetables roots Sweet potatoes, carrots
Modified stems tubers potatoes
Modified buds bulbs onions, garlic
Herbage vegetables
Leaves cabbage, spinach, lettuce
Petioles (leaf stalk) celery, rhubarb

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Flower buds cauliflower, artichokes
Sprouts, shoots (young stems) asparagus, bamboo shoots
Fruit vegetables
Legumes peas, green beans
Cereals sweet corn
Vine fruits squash, cucumber
Berry fruits tomato, egg plant
Tree fruits avocado, breadfruit

2.2. Composition and nutritional value

 Most fresh vegetables and fruit are high in water content, low in protein and fat.
 In these cases water contents will generally be greater than 70% and frequently greater
than 85%.
 Commonly protein content will not be greater than 3.5% fat content greater than 0.5 %.
 Exceptions exist in the case of dates and raisins which are substantially lower in
moisture but cannot be considered fresh in the same sense as other fruit.
 Legumes such as peas and certain beans are higher in protein; a few vegetables such as
sweet corn which are slightly higher in fat and avocados which are substantially higher
in fat.
 Water  Organic acids  Vitamins
 Mineral substances  Nitrogen  enzymes
 Carbohydrates containing  pigments
 Fats substances

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 1. Water
• Vegetable cells contain important quantities of water. Water plays a vital role in
physiological processes.
• It has effects on the storage period length and on the consumption of tissue reserve
substances.
 In vegetable cells, water is present in following forms:-
• Bound water or dilution water which is present in the cell and forms true solutions with
mineral or organic substances;
• Colloidal bound water which is present in the membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus and
acts as a swelling agent for these colloidal structure substances; it is very difficult to
remove during drying/dehydration processes;
• Constitution water, directly bound on the chemical component molecules and which is
also removed with difficulty.
1. Mineral substances
Mineral substances are present as salts of organic or inorganic acids or as complex organic
combinations (chlorophyll, lecithin, etc.); they are in many cases dissolved in cellular juice.
Vegetables are richer in mineral substances as compared with fruits.
The mineral substance content is normally between 0.60 and 1.80% and more than 60 elements
are present;
The major elements are: K, Na, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Al, P. Cl, S.
• Among the vegetables which are especially rich in mineral substances are: spinach,
carrots, cabbage and tomatoes.
• Mineral rich fruit includes: strawberries, cherries, peaches and raspberries.
• Important quantities of potassium (K) and absence of sodium chloride (NaCl) give a high
dietetic value to fruit and to their processed products.
• Phosphorus is supplied mainly by vegetables.
• Vegetables usually contain more calcium than fruit; green beans, cabbage, onions and
beans contain more than 0.1% calcium.
• Iron (Fe) has an important role as a constituent of hemoglobin.
• Main iron sources are apples and spinach.
2. Carbohydrates

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Carbohydrates are the main component of fruit and vegetables and represent more than 90% of
their dry matter. From energy point of view carbohydrates represent the most valuable of the
food components; daily adult intake should contain about 500g carbohydrates. Carbohydrates
can be oxidized to furnish energy/glucose. Glucose in the blood is a ready source of energy for
the human body.
Carbohydrate compounds can be classified in to three groups:
– Monosaccharaides: unbranched groups of carbohydrate compound. Eg: Glucose,
fructose, galactose …
– Oligosaccharides: Monosaccharide units (2 to 10) join glycosidic linkage to form
oligosaccharide. Eg:
 Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose)
 Maltose (Glucose + Glucose)
 Lactose (Glucose + Galactode)
– Polysaccharides: Long linear or branched chains of monosaccharaides. Eg:
 Storage: Starch
 Structural: Cellulose, hemicelluloses
Some properties of sugars
 Sugars such as glucose, fructose, maltose and sucrose all share the following
characteristics in varying degrees, related to fruit and vegetable technology:
 They supply energy for nutrition;
 They are readily fermented by micro-organisms;
 In high concentrations they prevent the growth of micro-organisms, so they may
be used as a preservative;
 On heating they darken in color or caramelize;
 Some of them combine with proteins to give dark colors known as the browning
reaction.
Some properties of starches:
– They provide a reserve energy source in plants and supply energy in nutrition;
– They occur in seeds and tubers as characteristic starch granules.
Some properties of celluloses and hemicelluloses:

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 – They are abundant in the plant kingdom and act primarily as supporting structures
in the plant tissues;
– They are insoluble in cold and hot water;
– They are not digested by man and so do not yield energy for nutrition;
– The fiber in food which produces necessary roughage is largely cellulose.
Some properties of pectin and carbohydrate gums
– Pectin’s are common in fruits and vegetables and are gum-like (they are found in
and between cell walls) and help hold the plant cells together;
– Pectin in colloidal solution contribute to viscosity of the tomato paste;
– It form gels when sugar and acid are added; this is the basis of jelly manufacture.
3. Fats
Generally fruit and vegetables contain very low level of fats, below 0.5%. However, significant
quantities are found in nuts (55%), apricot kernel (40%), grapes seeds (16%), apple seeds (20%)
and tomato seeds (18%).
4. Organic acids
Fruit contains natural acids, such as citric acid in oranges and lemons, malic acid of apples, and
tartaric acid of grapes. These acids give the fruits tartness and slow down bacterial spoilage.
Organic acids influence the color of foods since many plant pigments are natural pH indicators.
With respect to bacterial spoilage, a most important contribution of organic acids is in lowering a
food's pH. Under anaerobic conditions and slightly above a pH of 4.6, Clostridium botulinum
can grow and produce lethal toxins. This hazard is absent from foods high in organic acids
resulting in a pH of 4.6 and less
5. Nitrogen-containing substances
These substances are found in plants as different combinations: proteins, amino acids, amides,
amines, nitrates, etc. Vegetables contain between 1.0 and 5.5% while in fruit nitrogen-containing
substances are less than 1% in most cases. From a biological point of view vegetal proteins are
less valuable than animal ones because in their composition all essential amino-acids are not
present.

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6. Vitamins
Vitamins function as enzyme systems which facilitate the metabolism of proteins,
carbohydrates and fats. The vitamins are conveniently divided into two major groups, those
that are fat-soluble and those that are water-soluble. Fat-soluble vitamins are A, D, E and K.
Water-soluble vitamins include vitamin C and several members of the vitamin B complex.
7. Enzymes
 Enzymes are biological catalysts that promote most of the biochemical reactions which
occur in vegetable cells.
 Some properties of enzymes important in fruit and vegetable technology are the
following:
 In living fruit and vegetables enzymes control the reactions
associated with ripening;
 They may be responsible for changes in flavor, color, texture and
nutritional properties;
 The heating processes in fruit and vegetables manufacturing/processing are designed not
only to destroy micro-organisms but also to deactivate enzymes and so improve the fruit
and vegetables' storage stability.

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 In fruit and vegetable storage and processing the most important roles are played by the
enzymes classes of

 Hydrolases (lipase, invertase, tannase, chlorophylase, amylase, cellulase) and

 Oxidoreductases (peroxidase, tyrosinase, catalase, ascorbinase,
polyphenoloxidase).

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 8. Pigments

Chlorophyll
The chlorophylls are contained mainly within the chloroplasts
The bright green color of leaves and other parts of plants is largely due to the oil soluble
chlorophylls, which in nature are bound to protein molecules in highly organized
complexes.
When the plant cells are killed by ageing, processing, or cooking, the protein of these
complexes is denatured and the chlorophyll may be released.
Such chlorophyll is highly unstable and rapidly changes in color to olive green and
brown.
This color change is believed to be due to the conversion of chlorophyll to the
compound Pheophytin.
Conversion to pheophytin is favored by acid pH but does not occur readily under
alkaline conditions.

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 For these reason peas, beans, spinach, and other green vegetables which tend to lose their
bright green color on heating can be largely protected against such color changes by the
addition of sodium bicarbonate or other alkali to the cooking or canning water.
Carotenoids
Pigments belonging to this group are fat-soluble and range in color from yellow through
orange to red.
They often occur along with the chlorophylls in the chloroplasts, but also are present in
other chloroplasts and may occur free in fat droplets.
Important carotenoids include:
• The orange carotenes of carrot, maize, apricot, peach, citrus fruits, and squash;
• The red lycopene of tomato, watermelon, and apricot;
• The yellow-orange xanthophyll of maize, peach, paprika and squash.
Flavonoids
 Pigments and colour precursors belonging to this class are water-soluble and commonly
are present in the juices of fruit and vegetables.
 The flavonoids include:
 The purple, blue, and red anthocyanins of grapes, berries, plump, eggplant, and
cherry;
 The yellow anthoxanthins of light colored fruit and vegetables such as apple,
onion, potato, and cauliflower, and the colorless catechins and
 leucoanthocyanins which are food tannins and are found in apples, grapes, tea,
and other plant tissues.

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 Chapter 3
3.1. Physiological and biochemical aspects of produce development
3.1.1. Metabolic changes during maturity, ripening & senescence
Stages of fruit and vegetable development
 Plant development defined as a series of process from ---initiation of growth ----death of
a plant or plant part.
Basic stages occur during the development are:
I. Growth:
• The irreversible increase in physical attributes of a developing plant or plant parts.
II. Maturity:
• Maturity is the stage of development leading to the attainment(achievement) of
physiological or horticultural/commercial maturity
III. Ripening:
a sequence of changes in texture, color and flavor as a result of physiological and biochemical
change --------- and that makes the fruit ready for consumption.
At present days artificial ripening can also be practiced by introducing ethylene or acetylene gas
(calcium carbide) Eg: Banana, mango and avocado.
At the process of ripening there might be
• Loss of chlorophyll (undesirable in vegetable)
• Production of carotenoids and ant ocianines.
• Starches conversion into sugars.
• Changes in organic acids, proteins and fats.
• Reduction in tannins and fungi static compounds.
IV. Senescence:
• Senescence is the last stage of development during which degradation of biological
components occurs.
Metabolic changes during maturity, ripening & senescence
• During ripening
Several biodegradation processes can take place inside the fruits such as:
 Depolymerization
 Substrate utilization
 Loss of chloroplasts and
 Pigment distraction
Mainly due to the action of hydrolytic enzymes (esterases, dehydrogenases, oxidases,
phosphatases and ribonucleases)

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 a. Water
During storage ripening of fruit and vegetable will lose its water content as a result of:
Respiration
Transpiration and
Exchange of gas
This is depends upon the RH, temperature, structure of the plant and the rate of the process
(transpiration and respiration).
When the loss is more than 5-10% fruit and vegetable start shrivel and become unusable.
b. Color
The most common changes in fruit during ripening are loss of green color.
It is due to degradation of chlorophyll structure.
The disappearance of chlorophyll is associated with the synthesis of pigments ranges from
yellow to red.
c. Flavoring compounds
 Aroma plays an important part in the development of optimal
Eating quality of fruit and vegetables
This is due to the synthesis of many volatile organic compounds during the ripening phase.
D. Carbohydrates
One of the changes that occur in fresh fruits during ripening is change of carbohydrates
composition mainly due
To substrate utilization and
Action of hydrolytic enzymes
Starch is completely hydrolyzed into
Simple sugar (Glucose, fructose and sucrose)
Structural carbohydrates (starch) are decreased slightly.
In some fruits approximately equal quantities of glucose and fructose are formed due to
hydrolysis of starch.
However, as storage time advances, especially in fruit, the content of all three free sugars
(sucrose, glucose and fructose) declines.
During storage of fruit and vegetables, free sugars show a general initial increase (as result of
breakdown of polysaccharides) followed by a decrease.

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 Several factors contribute towards the excessive decline of sugars during storage, such as:
 Fruit maturity
 Storage temperature
 Concentration of O2, ethylene and CO2.
 Higher temperature favors faster utilization of sugars as substrate in the
respiration process.
e. Organic acids
 Common acids found in fruit include citric, malic and ascorbic acid.
 During ripening, organic acids are among the major cellular constituents undergoing
changes.
 The titratable acidity decreases with storage time, especially at higher temperatures.

 Many of the chemical and physical effects that occur during ripening of fruits are
attributed to enzyme action.
 The biochemical changes are responsible for development of:
 Off-flavors
 Discoloration and
 Loss of firmness as a result of enzymes.
 The most important enzymes related to food quality include
 lipolytic acyl hydrolase
 lipoxygenase
 peroxidase For the changes in Flavor
 catalase
 Protease
 Polyphenol oxidase ----- Change in color
 Amylase (starch---to--- simple sugar)--------------------- Change in softness
 pectin methylesterase (it makes strong structure) Loss of texture
 Polygalacturonase
 Ascorbic acid oxidase and Thiaminase
Loss of nutritional quality

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Maturity
Physiological maturity: The stage of development when a plant part will continue development
even if detached; mature fruits
Horticultural maturity: The stage of development when a plant part possesses the necessary
characteristics for use by consumers
Maturity Indices
Non-climacteric fruits Climacteric fruits
(Fruits with no starch reserves) (Fruits with starch reserves)
 Pineapple  Apples
 Strawberry  Mango
 Citrus  Banana
What is a good maturity index?
 Simple, easy to carry out
 Objective (free of biases or prejudice caused by personal) vs subjective indicators
 Related to quality
 Related to storage life
 Represents a progressive change with maturity
 Permits prediction of maturity from year to year
 Inexpensive
Predicting Maturity
• Days from planting to harvest
• Progressive changes in size, composition of the product
• Difficult to do; need new tools and methods
 Nondestructive firmness measurement: fruits
 Chlorophyll fluorescence, broccoli: green tissues
 NIR spectroscopy: sugar concentration in melon
 Imaging constituents: internal defects

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