Course No.

: HORT- 366
Course Title : POST – HARVEST MANAGEMENT AND VALUE ADDITION OF
FRUITS AND VEGETABLES.

Course Credits : 1+1=2

Books recommended :

1. Preservation for fruits and vegetables. Principle and practices. By Shrivastava & Sanjeev
Kumar.
2. Post harvest physiology, handling, utilization of tropical and subtropical fruits and
vegetables. By Pantastico, E.R
3. Post harvest biotechnology of vegetables. By Salunke, D.K.
4. Fruits and vegetables preservation. By Girdharilal, Sidhappa and Tandon.
 Chapter 1. Importance and Scope

Importance of PHT

1. Reduction in postharvest losses – 25% to 40% of Fruits and vegetables are wasted due
to postharvest losses. Postharvest technology reduces such losses and therefore increasing
production production of agricultural and horticultural crops. Minimizing PH losses can
increase the supply without bringing additional land under cultivation.

2. Reduction of cost of production – The cost of reducing spoilage is much lower than the
cost of producing same quantity and quality of produce. PHT reduces cost of production,
packaging, storage, transportation, marketing and distribution etc. It lowers the price for
consumers and increases the farmer’s income.

3. Reducing malnutrition – PHT ensures availability of sufficient food to feed the ever-
growing population thus reducing malnutrition and ensuring healthy growth of the nation.

4. Economic loss reduction – PHT reduces economic losses at grower level, during
marketing and at consumer end.

5. Availability (Temporal and Spatial) – Availability of Fruits and vegetables in off-

season and throughout India is possible because of PHT. Ex – Cold storage, processing,
export-imports.

6. Employment generation – Employment potential in PHT and value addition sector is

considered to be very high. Raw material can be provided to processing industries.

7. Exp[ort earnings – Export of fresh and processed horticultural commodities earn

valuable foreign exchange

8. Defense and astronauts- Defense forces posted in remote border areas and astronauts
who travel into space have special requirement for ready to eat and high energy low
volume food. These requirements are fulfilled by processing horticultural produce.

9. Infant and sports preparation – Special infant and sports drinks and other processed
preparations are available for use especially by these people. Theses preparations are
done to meet specific nutritional requirement of their body.
Scope of PHT/processing

1. Availability of raw material - Varied agro – climatic condition available in our

country makes it possible for us to produce several types of tropical, sub-tropical and
temperate fruits and vegetables. Many of tropical fruits do not grow in many
countries and their products are likely to find easy market in foreign countries.

2. Product mix – There is scope for developing new value added processed products. In
India only 1-2% fresh produce is processed and packaged in contrast to 70-80% in
developed countries.

3. Manpower – India has large reservoir of man power, but skilled labour is in short
supply and productivity in general is low. Proper training good working conditions
and reasonable wages will increase productivity.

4. Capital – In recent years Govt of India has supported various big industries; however
there is scope for small scale units which require less capital.

5. Lack of awareness – Farmers is not aware of market for preserved products and lack
technical knowledge to undertake processing themselves.

6. Marketing facilities – Processed products are not readily available in small towns
due to reluctance of shop keepers in stocking such items. Establishment of growers
co-operatives would help in marketing of such products.

7. Transport facilities –Considerable improvement in roads and rail transport can

reduce transport time, thus reducing PH losses. There is scope for utilization of
refrigerated trucks for highly perishable commodities. 97% horticultural produce is
transported by roads. PHL can be reduced if they are transported by rail.

8. Availability of containers – Bottles and cans required by processing industries

should be made easily available.

9. Publicity – Proper marketing and publicity is required to attract the consumers

towards purchasing new processed products in market.

10. Role of Govt- Central and state Govts are encouraging Fruits and vegetables
processing industries through various programs. Subsidies are made available for cold
storage, ripening chambers etc, different training programs are conducted to train
farmers in processing.
Nature And Causes Of Post-Harvest Losses

Losses occur after harvesting is known as post harvest losses. It starts first from the field, after
harvest, in grading and packing areas, in storage, during transportation and in the wholesale and
retail markets. Several losses occur because of poor facilities, lack of know-how, poor
management, market dysfunction or simply the carelessness of farmers.

(a) Extent of post-harvest loss: It is evident that the estimation of post-harvest loss is essential
to make available more food from the existing level of production. At least 50% of the
production of fruits and vegetab1es in the country is lost due to wastage and value destruction.
The wastage cost is estimated to be Rs.23, 000 crores each year. Swaminathan Committee (1980)
reported the post-harvest handling accounts for 20-30% of the losses at different stages of
storage, grading, packing, transport and finally marketing as a fresh produce or in the processed
form. India loses about 35-45% of the harvested fruits and vegetables during handling, storage,
transportation etc. leading to the loss of Rs. 40,000 crores per year.

(b) Important sites of post-harvest losses: Important sites where post-harvest losses are noticed
in India are —

• Farmer’s field (15-20%)

• Packaging (15-20%)

•. Transportation (30-40%)

• Marketing (30-40%)

Causes of post-harvest losses

Horticultural crops not only provide nutritional and healthy foods to human beings, but also
generate a considerable cash income for growers. However, horticultural crops typically have
high moisture content, tender texture and high perishability. If not handled properly, a high value
nutritious product can deteriorate and rot in a matter of days or hours. The causes of postharvest
losses can be divided into different categories:

1. Metabolic: All fresh horticultural crops are live organs. The natural process of respiration
involves the breakdown of food reserves and the aging of these organs.

2. Mechanical: Owing to their tender texture and high moisture content, fresh fruits and
vegetables are very susceptible to mechanical injury. Poor handling, unsuitable containers,
improper packaging and transportation can easily cause bruising, cutting, breaking, impact
wounding and other forms of injury.

3. Developmental: These include sprouting, rooting, seed germination, which lead to

deterioration in quality and nutritional value.
4. Parasitic diseases: High post-harvest losses are caused by the invasion of fungi, bacteria,
insects and other organisms. Micro-organisms attack fresh produce easily and spread quickly,
because the produce does not have much of a natural defense mechanism and has plenty of
nutrients and moisture to support microbial growth.

5. Physiological deterioration: Fruits and vegetable cells are still alive after harvest and
continue their physiological activity. Physiological disorders may occur due to mineral
deficiency, low or high temperature injury or undesirable atmospheric conditions, such as high
humidity, physiological deterioration can also occur spontaneously by enzymatic action leading
to over-ripeness and senescence, a simple aging phenomenon.

6. Lack of market demand: Poor planning pr inaccurate production and market information
may lead to over production of certain fruits or vegetables which can’t be sold in time. This
situation occurs most frequently in areas where transportation and storage facilities are
inadequate. Produce may lierotting in production areas, if farmers are unable to transport it to
people who need it in distant locations.

7. Consumption : These losses can be due to inadequate preservation methods at home,

methods of cooking and preparation such as peeling, consumption styles etc.

8. Others

 Lack of clear concept of packing house operations.

 Lack of awareness among the growers, contractors and even the policy makers.
 Lack of infrastructure.
 Inadequate technical support.
 Wide gap in technologies available and in vogue.
 Inadequate post-harvest quality control.
 Unorganized marketing.
 Absence of pre-cooling and cold storage.
 Inadequate market facilities, market intelligence and market information service (MIS)
 Poor storage facilities.

Types of Post harvest losses

A) Physical loss –
1. Physical losses can occure due to mechanical damage (bruising, cracking, cuts),
microbial damage, pest and disease damage resulting in produce tissue being disrupted to
a stage where it is not acceptable for fresh consumption or processing.
2. Evaporation of intercellular water also leads to direct loss in weight
3. The resulting economic loss is primarily due to reduced weight of produce available for
marketing or whole batch of commodity being rejected because of small proportion of
wasted items in the batch.
 B) Quality loss –
1. Quality loss can occur due to physiological (respiration, transpiration) and compositional
changes that alter the appearance, taste, texture and make the produce less aesthetically
desirable to end users.
2. These changes may arise from normal metabolism of produce (eg. senescence) or from
abnormal events (eg. Chilling injury) arising from post harvest environment.
3. Economic loss is incurred as such produce will fetch a lower price.
4. There is no demand for poor quality produce, even at reduced price in many markets
which leads to total economic loss even though goods may still be edible.

Nature of Losses
1. Loss in weight – Mainly due to transpiration of water
2. Shrinking and wilting – Fruits and vegetables get shriveled, tender and leafy vegetables
get wilted due to loss of water
3. Change in color – Loss of color due to high temperature and senescence.
4. Change in texture – Fruits and vegetables turn soft due to over-ripening, or hard &
brittle, spongy.
5. Change in taste – Development of unpleasant odour and off-flavour
6. Sprouting – Onion, garlic and potato if not stored at proper temperature and humidity
result in sprouting
7. Greening – Potatoes and Sweet potatoes turn green if exposed to sunlight due to
formation of solanine which has toxic properties
8. Rotting – Rotting can occur due to incidence of disease and microbial growth.
9. Bruising and cuts – due to defective harvesting, handling, packing, transport and
storage.
Chapter 2. Pre harvest factors affecting quality of the produce

1. Crops
2. Genetic / variety
3. Light
4. Temperature
5. Humidity
6. Mineral nutrition
7. Water relation/ Irrigation
8. Planting density
9. Cultural Practice - Canopy manipulation
10. Rainfall
11. Seasons / Day and day length
12. Carbon dioxide
13. Use of agrochemicals
14. Pest and diseases
15. Method of harvesting
16. Stage of harvesting

1. Crops: Quality of the fruit and vegetables are varies from crop to crop e.g. jackfruit, bael,
potato, onion, pumpkin, garlic etc. having good quality in relation to shelf life, while apple,
mango, cherry, strawberry, tomato, capsicum, okra, brussels sprout, chinese cabbage, carrot,
radish attract more to consumers due to their attractive appearance.

2. Genetic / variety – Varieties with shorter shelf-lives are generally prone to higher post harvest
losses. Varieties with thick peel, high firmness, low respiration rate and low ethylene production
rates would usually have longer storage life.

3. Light – light regulates several physiological processes like chlorophyll synthesis,

phototropisum, respiration and stomatal opening. The duration, intensity and quality of light
affect the quality of fruits and vegetables at harvest. In tomatoes, leaf shading of fruits produced
a deeper red colour during the ripening than in the case of those exposed to light.

4. Temperature – all type of physiological and biochemical process related to plant growth and
yield are influenced by the temperature. The higher temperature during field conditions
decreases life and quality of the produce. At high temperature, stored carbohydrates of fruits,
vegetables and flowers are quickly depleted during respiration and plant respires at the faster
rate. The produce which is having higher amount of stored carbohydrates show
longer storage/vase life.

5. Humidity – High humidity during growing season results in thin rind and increased size in
some horticultural produce and this produce is more prone to high incidence of disease during
post harvest period.
6. Mineral nutrition – balanced application of all nutrient elements is necessary for the
maintaining growth and development of the plants. The application of fertilizers to crops
influences their post harvest respiration rate. Excess or deficiency of certain elements can affect
crop quality and its post harvest life. Ex. Calcium deficiency causes Bitter pit in apples and
blossom end rot in tomato

7. Water relation and Irrigation – stress due to excessive or inadequate water in the medium
reduce the longevity of the produce. Crops which have higher moisture content generally have
poorer storage characteristics.

8. Planting density: It affects both the quantity and quality of the produce. High density planting
increases competition between plants, reduces light availability, and thus may decrease quantity.
Low density planting lead to large size, better colored fruit or vegetable which may have shorter
shelf life. Larger fruits are commonly more sensitive to physiological disorders.

9. Cultural practice -Canopy Manipulation

A. Fruit thinning – increases fruit size but reduces total yield. It helps in obtaining better
quality produce
B. Fruit position in the tree – Fruits which are exposed to high light environment
possesses higher TSS, acidity, fruit size, aroma, and shelf life compared to which lies inside
the canopy. Hence better training system should be practiced to circulate optimum light and
air.
C. Girdling - increases the fruit size and advance and synchronized fruit maturity in peach
and nectarines. Increases fruitfulness in many fruit tree species.

10. Rainfall - Rainfall affects water supply to the plant and influences the composition of the
harvested plant part. This affects its susceptibility to mechanical damage and decay during
subsequent harvesting and handling operations. On the other hand, excess water supply to plants
results in cracking of fruits such as cherries, plums, and tomatoes. If root and bulb crops are
harvested during heavy rainfall, the storage losses will be higher.

11. Seasons / Day and day length– seasonal fluctuation and time of the day at harvest will
greatly affects the postharvest quality of the produce. Quality of produce are greatly influenced
by season e.g. Winter season harvest having more shelf life as compared to other season, while
off season fruits and vegetables give more remunerative price.
Generally produce harvested early in the morning or in the evening hours exhibits longer PH life
than produce harvested during hot time of the day.
Day length - If long days Onion (temperate) grown during short day (tropics) condition it leads
to very poor storage quality.

12. Carbon dioxide - quality planting material, early flowering, more flowering, increased yield
and rapid crop growth and development at higher level of CO2.
13. Use of Agro chemicals – Pre-harvest application of chemicals such as BA, IAA, GA3,
growth retardants like B-9, CCC, A-Rest and Phosphon-D have been reported to improve quality
and longevity of flowers crops. Use of chemicals on the plants to prevent the pathogen will have
direct impact on extending the postharvest life. Pre harvest application chemicals like MH on
onion filed prevent them sprouting during storage.

14. Pest and Diseases – infection by fungi, bacteria, mites and insects reduces the longevity as
well as consumer acceptability. Tissue damage caused by them show wilting and produce
ethylene which leads to early senescence.

15. Method of harvesting: Selection of suitable method for harvesting of the produce is
necessary otherwise bruises or injuries during harvesting may later manifest as black or brown
patches making them unattractive.

16. Stage of harvesting: Fruits and vegetables must be harvested at right stage of maturity. A
very common cause of poor product quality at harvest and rapid deterioration thereafter is
harvesting immature vegetables.

The factors affecting the quality of fruits and vegetables can be grouped into environmental and
cultural.
A) Environmental factors
Sl.No. Factors Quality affected
1 Temperature Maturity, colour, sugar, acidity etc. High Temperature reduces the quality,
e.g., citrus, radish, spinach, cauliflower, etc., and increased the quality in
grapes, melons omato, etc. Low temperature cause chilling and freezing
injury.
2 Light Essential for anthocyanin formation. Exposed fruit to sun light develop the
lighter weight, hinner peel, lower juice and acids and higher TSS than
shaded fruits, e.g., citrus, mango, etc. Exposure of potato to light causes
Greening (solanine formation) which has toxic properties. High sun light
intensity causes Sunscald in citrus and tomatoes and reduces the pure white
colour of cauliflower. Low light intensity causes thin and large leaves in
leafy vegetables.
3 Rains Causes cracking in grapes, dates, litchi, limes, lemon, tomato, sweet potato,
etc. It reduces appearance and sweetness.
4 Wind Causes brushing, scratching and corky scar (citrus fruits) on the fruit and
 damage leafy vegetables.
5 Humidity High humidity reduces the colour and TSS and increases acidity in citrus,
grapes, tomato, etc., but on other hand it is needed for better quality of
banana, litchi and pineapple.
B) Cultural factors
A Mineral nutrition
Nitrogen High nitrogen reduces the ascorbic acid content, TSS/ acid ratio and keeping
quality but increases thiamine, riboflavin, carotene, e.g., Citrus and Spinach.
Its deficiency reduces size of fruits.
Phosphorous High phosphorous decreases size, weight, vitamin C e.g., Citrus. Its
deficiency causes poor appearance of fruit.
Potassium Increase size, weight and vitamin C, e.g., Citrus. Its deficiency
causes uneven ripening.
Calcium Increases firmness of many fruits, e.g., Apple, Mango, Guava, Tomato, etc.
Magnesium Increases size, weight and vitamin C, e.g., Citrus fruits
Zinc Increases size, weight and vitamin C, e.g., Citrus. Deficiency causes
straggled cluster in Grape.
Boron Deficiency causes flesh browning in fruits, e.g., Anola and gummy
discolouration of albedo in citrus. Fruits and vegetables become hard and
misshapen. Cabbage, Turnip and cauliflower are sensitive to boron
deficiency.
Copper Deficiency causes irregular blotch on citrus fruits and
spoils the appearance.
B Growth Regulators
Auxins Increases fruit size in loquat (2, 4, 5-TP), mandarins
(NAA) and TSS in mango (2, 4,-D).
Gibberlic acid Increases size and weight of grape berries, apricot, and strawberry and
causes parthenocarpic fruits in fig, guava, grape, tomatoes etc. It reduces
disorder of fruits, e.g., water spot and corky spot in citrus
Cytokinin Maintain green colour of leafy vegetables and causes parthenocarpic fruits in
fig.
Ethylene Ethephon increases anthocyanin (coloured grape, plum, apple, chillies,
 brinjal), carotenoides (mango, guava, papaya, citrus, tomato etc), ascorbic
acid and TSS and reduces tannin (grapes, dates, etc) and acidity (grape,
mango, tomato, etc.)
Growth Alar (B9) increases colour in fruits, e.g., apple, cherry, apricot, etc. Maleic
retardant hydrazide (MH) inhibits sprouting in onion bulbs

C Root stock In citrus Troyer and Carizzo (Citranges) rootstock produce the fruit of
excellent quality of oranges, mandarins and lemons. In guava P.pumilum
root stock increases sugar and P.cujavillis ascorbic acid content of fruits.
D Irrigation Excess irrigation causes high acidity and deficiency of moisture reduces fruit
size, juice content and increases thickness of peel
E Pruning It affects the size, colour, acidity and sugar content of grape, phalsa, ber,
peach, apple etc.
F Thinning Thinning in grapes, dates, peaches, plum, etc., increases size, colour, acidity
and sugar content of fruits.
G Girdling In grapes, it increases size, colour and sugar content of the berries
H Variety Varieties differ in size, shape, colour and chemical composition. High yield,
bright appearance and good shipping qualities are most important characters
of the varieties.
I Diseases and Both are harmful to fruits and vegetables
pests
J Pesticide Pesticide spray residues may give rise to flavor taints in the processed
product. Excessive use of pesticides may even produce harmful metabolites
and toxicity not necessarily destroyed during processing
K Maturity In general vegetables with exception of potato and onion are of higher
quality when less mature because they are more tender, succulent, less
fibrous or starchy. On the other hand fruits when ripe are of higher quality on
account of full size, bright colour, sweetness and less acidic.
L Mechanical Fruits and vegetables should be in no case injured or damaged other wise
injury injury, such as skin abrasion and tissue bruising will reduce appearance and
may be source of infection.
 Chapter 3. Ripening and changes occurring during ripening

Ripening is the process by which fruits attain their desirable flavour, quality, colour, palatable
nature and other textural properties. Ripening is associated with change in composition i.e.
conversion of starch to sugar. On the basis of ripening behavior, fruits are classified as
climacteric and non-climacteric fruits.

Climacteric fruits: Climacteric fruits are defined as fruits that enter ‘climacteric phase’ after
harvest i.e. they continue to ripen. During the ripening process the fruits emit ethylene along with
increased rate of respiration. Ripe fruits are soft and delicate and generally cannot withstand
rigours of transport and repeated handling. These fruits are harvested hard and green, but fully
mature and are ripened near consumption areas. Small dose of ethylene is used to induce
ripening process under controlled conditions of temperature and humidity.
Climacteric fruits are:
*Mango *Banana *Papaya *Guava *Sapota *Kiwi *Fig *Apple *Passion fruit *Apricot *Plum
*Pear
These fruit in fully ripe state are too delicate to withstand transportation over long distances and
should preferably be ripened near the consumption area.

Non-Climacteric fruits: Non-climacteric fruits once harvested do not ripen further.

Nonclimacteric fruits produce very small amount of ethylene and do not respond to ethylene
treatment. There is no characteristic increased rate of respiration or production of carbon dioxide.
In order to improve external skin colour and market acceptance, citrus like orange, lemon,
mousambi and kinnow can be treated with ethylene, as a de-greening agent. Ethylene treatment
breaks down the green chlorophyll pigment in the exterior part of the peel and allows the yellow
or orange carotenoid pigments to be expressed.
Non-Climacteric fruits are:
*Orange *Mousambi *Kinnow *Grapefruit *Grapes *Pomegranate *Litchi *Watermelon
*Cherry *Raspberry *Blackberry *Strawberry * Carambola *Rambutan * Cashew
Several processes take place as fruit ripen and become edible, and then senesce. These changes
may take place while fruit are still attached to the plant or after harvest. Tomato, banana and
avocado are examples of fruit that at harvest can be at a mature green but unripe stage and are
inedible until subsequent ripening processes have occurred. In contrast, strawberry, orange,
boysenberry and grape are examples of fruit that need to stay on the tree or vine until ready to eat
in order to have their desired eating characteristics.

The maturity has been divided into two categories i.e. physiological maturity and
horticultural maturity.
1. Physiological maturity: It is the stage at which a plant or plant part continues ontogeny
(complete developmental history of an organism from egg/spore/ bud etc. to an adult individual)
even if detached from the parent plant or the point of origin. It can also be defined as the stage at
which a plant or plant part is capable of further development or ripening when it is harvested i.e.
ready for eating or processing. Ex. A French bean pod or okra pod is at its physiological maturity
when the seeds are fully developed and the pod is lignified which will dehisce with little
pressure.
2. Horticultural maturity / Harvest maturity: It may be defined as the stage at which a plant
or plant part possesses all the prerequisites for use by consumers for a particular purpose, i.e.
local, distant, export market (shipping maturity) or exhibition or processing (processing
maturity), culinary maturity, desert maturity etc. Ex. A pod vegetable is matured when it is
tender with maximum size. Horticultural maturity stage of tomato if harvested for long distance
transportation would be the “turning stage of skin from green to red”, while the optimum stage of
harvesting of the same crop for home use or local markets would be “when the fruits have
attained full red colour”.

Several major changes take place as fruits ripen, and taken collectively they characterise
ripening processes.

These changes make the ripe fruit attractive to animals, which in eating the fruit will disperse the
seeds and enlarge the range and improve the survival chances of the next generation of the plant.
Lignified pits and seeds encased in a fibrous core might be discarded after eating the flesh,
whereas smaller seeds might pass through the animal’s digestive system and be deposited with
the animal’s excrement.
1. Change in carbohydrate composition - The ripening induces the breakdown of
carbohydrate polymers, by various carbohydrases and leads to near total conversion of starch
to sugars. This has the dual effect of altering the taste and texture of the produce. The
increase in sugar renders the fruit much sweeter and therefore more acceptable.

2. Change in color - Pigments are essential for the attractiveness of fruits and accumulate most
often in the skin during the ripening process. Color is often the major criteria used by
consumers to determine whether the fruit is ripe or unripe. As fruit matures and ripen, green
colour decline and develops yellow, red or other colours due to the presence of accessory
pigments, which are characteristic of the various cultivars.
 Formation of pigments: During ripening there is formation of pigments mainly carotenoids
and anthocyanins. Carotenoids include β-carotene, xanthophyll esters, xanthophylls and lycopene
while anthocyanins include cyaniding, pelargonidin, petunidin etc
 Degradation of pigments: Climacteric fruits show rapid loss of green colour with
attainment of optimum eating quality. Some non-climacteric fruits also exhibit a marked loss of
green colour with attainment of optimum quality. The green colour loss is due to the degradation
of chlorophyll structure. The main factors responsible for chlorophyll degradation are: pH
changes, oxidative systems and enzyme chlorophyllase.

3. Flesh softening and textural changes - Textural change is the major event in fruit softening,
and is the integral part of ripening, which is the result of enzymatic degradation of structural
as well as storage polysaccharides. Cell walls of fruit undergo a natural degradation during
fruit ripening, reducing cell wall firmness and intercellular adhesion. This leads firstly to the
attainment of a desirable eating texture and then, as senescence begins, to a loss of this
desirable texture. Enzymatic degradation of structural as well as storage polysaccharides
occurs - pectin, cellulose, and hemicelluloses.

4. Taste: Taste depends on the proper proportion of sugars and acids. So, it is convenient to
measure taste as sugar-acid ratio (Brix-acid ratio). Acidity and astringency gradually
disappear, while sweetness increases due to conversion of starch to sugars during the course
of fruit ripening. Starch content of banana decreases from initial 21% to about 15% in ripened
fruit. This is accompanied by accumulation of sugars mainly sucrose to the extent up to 20%
by fresh weight.

5. Flavour changes - The increase in flavor and aroma during fruit ripening is attributed to the
production of a complex mixture of volatile compounds and degradation of bitter principles,
flavanoids, tannins, and related compounds.

6. Aroma: Aroma plays an important part in the development of optimal eating quality in most
fruit. It is due to synthesis of many volatile organic compounds (often known merely as
volatiles) during ripening phase. Together with taste, it constitutes flavour. Aroma usually
develops during ripening but occasionally in storage also. During ripening enzymes break
 down large organic molecules into smaller one that can be volatile (evaporate into the air)
and can be detected as an aroma. The flavouring compounds are found to be different in
different types of fruit but all of them are volatile. The aroma of fruit is not due to a single
chemical compound but it is a mixture of no. of chemicals, which may be derived from
aliphatic compounds, alcohols, acetates, ketones or esters and terpinoides.

7. Change in organic acids - In oranges and grapefruits the acid content drops during ripening,
while in lemons, there is an increase in acids. Synthesis of ascorbic acid also occurs in many
fruits during ripening. Generally, the acidity decreases during ripening as organic acid are
utilized in respiration of fruits.

8. Ethylene and respiration – Climacteric peak (increase in ethylene and respiration rate) is
observed during ripening in climacteric fruits. Respiration is essential for ripening as it
provides the energy required to drive many of the reactions and changes. If respiration is
inhibited, ripening is also inhibited.

9. Abscission: During ripening the pectinase enzyme also unglue the cells of the abscission zone
(the layer of cells in the pedicels often called abscission zone). So, the cells in this zone
become weak and the weight of the fruit will cause it to all from the plant.
10. Development of surface wax: The delicate waxy or powdery substance develops on the
surface of certain fruits like grape and berries.
Chapter 4 – Respiration

Metabolic activity in fresh fruits and vegetables continues for a short period after harvest. The
energy required to sustain this activity comes from the respiration process (Mannapperuma,
1991). Respiration involves the oxidation of sugars to produce carbon dioxide, water and heat.
The storage life of a commodity is influenced by its respiratory activity. By storing a commodity
at low temperature, respiration is reduced and senescence is delayed, thus extending storage life
(Halachmy and Mannheim, 1991). Proper control of the oxygen and carbon dioxide
concentrations surrounding a commodity is also effective in reducing the rate of respiration.

There are mainly two types of respiration: aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration,
depending upon availability of oxygen. In aerobic respiration, oxygen (O2) is the final electron
acceptor while in anaerobic respiration, or fermentation, some other compound is the final
electron acceptor.

Aerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration is the major biochemical process supplying energy. It involves the oxidation
of certain organic compounds i.e. glucose, maleic acid, stored in the tissues. The compounds that
are oxidised during this process are known as respiratory substrates. Aerobic respiration occurs
in three phases: glycolysis or Embden-Meyerhoff-Parnas (EMP) pathway, the Krebs or Tri-
carboxylic acid cycle and the electron transport chain.

In glycolysis, a molecule of the six-carbon sugar glucose is oxidized to two molecules of the
three-carbon pyruvate. The Krebs cycle completes the oxidation of pyruvate to produce carbon
dioxide (CO2) and reduced electron carriers. In the electron transport chain, a proton (H+ )
gradient drives the production of even more ATP and is coupled with the transfer of electrons to
oxygen (O2 ), producing water (H2O). After the entire process of respiration is complete, much
of the energy released from the glucose is recaptured in the production of ATP.

Glucose is the most favoured substrate for respiration. All carbohydrates other than glucose are
converted into glucose first before they are used for respiration. Fats are metabolized into
glycerol and fatty acids first and then to acetyl CoA and glyceraldehyde-3- phosphate,
respectively. Proteins are degraded individual amino acids (after deamination) and then enter the
respiratory pathway. The respiration is exothermic in nature and theoretically, 60% of the bond
energy is lost as heat. However, calorimetry studies have shown that respiration in postharvest
tissues often results in even more dissipation of energy as heat loss (90% or more) and less ATP
synthesis. This heat contributes to an increase in the temperature of the commodity and is known
as vital heat or heat of respiration. Heat of respiration is a primary consideration in designing
the storage for horticultural crops.
Anaerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration is preferred energy producing pathway in fruits and vegetables. But under the
limiting O2 conditions, fermentation becomes increasingly important. During this process,
pyruvic acid produced during the glycolysis is converted to lactic acid, ethanol or acetaldehyde.
Increase in fermentation helps the cell meet its ATP requirement under anaerobic conditions.
Anaerobic respiration produces much less energy than aerobic pathway and elevated CO2
concentrations have deteriorative effect on the product quality. Anoxia results in injuries to
tissue. High concentrations of fermentative metabolites are also associated with various
physiological disorders like necrosis, discoloured tissues, offflavours, off-odours etc. The oxygen
concentration at which anaerobic respiration starts is called extinction point. It varies between
the tissue types and also species, cultivar, development stage, maturity etc.

SIGNIFICANCE OF RESPIRATION

Respiration plays a major role in the postharvest life of fresh fruits and vegetables. Respiration
continues even after harvest. After harvest the produce is dependent entirely upon its own food
reserves as no replenishment is there. Therefore, losses of respiratory substrates and moisture are
not made up and deterioration has started. Produce’ possessing a high respiration rate can be
stored for longer time duration. An enhanced respiration rate is associated with perishability of
food. The significant effects of respiration are:

 Loss of substrates: The process of respiration utilizes various substrates and thus results in
loss of food reserves in the tissue, loss of taste quality and food value. During the extended
storage the loss in weight can be highly significant.
 Oxygen consumption: For aerobic respiration, presence of oxygen is must. Reduction of
oxygen concentration is a useful tool for controlling respiration rate and slowing down the
senescence.
 Carbon Dioxide production: Accumulation of CO2 produced due to respiratory metabolism
can be beneficial or harmful. Carbon dioxide concentration is also used as an effective
measure for delaying senescence.
 Release of Heat: As respiration is exothermic in nature, heat generated raises the temperature
of produce. The heat generated is one of the prime consideration for designing the packaging/
storage of horticultural crops.
 Shelf life indicator: Respiratory process indicates the metabolic activity of living produce
and determines the post-harvest physiology and deteriorative ability of plant produce.
Respiration rate is well correlated with rate of deterioration, and thus is a good measure of the
storage potential of the plant produce. Generally, a higher respiration rate indicates shorter
shelf life.
 Change in quality: The physiological processes leading to enhanced quality (e.g., color
development, softening, astringency loss, and aroma production) are deeply influenced by
respiration. Extremes in respiration rate results in the development of specific physiological
disorders, resulting in loss of quality. Respiration is beneficial in providing carbon skeleton
 intermediates for pigment synthesis, flavor development, formation of ripening enzymes, fats,
sterols etc.
 Classification: Respiration rate is an important criterion to compare perishability of fruits and
vegetables. Depending upon respiratory rate Kader and Barrett classified fruits and vegetables
into five different classes, rate as shown below:

Respiratory Quotient The ratio of moles of CO2 produced per mole of O2 consumed is called
the respiratory quotient. RQ is as an indication of which substrates are being used in the
respiratory pathway. RQ is 1 for glucose (carbohydrate) catabolism. When substrates other than
glucose are respired, the RQ is different than 1. The complete oxidation of malate by the TCA
cycle results in a RQ of 1.6 (oxidation of respiratory malic acid, leads to the production of
additional CO2). The RQ can also exceed 1 when O2 is not involved, such as in fermentation.
RQ values below 1 are expected when lipids or proteins, molecules often containing less oxygen
than carbohydrates, are respired.

Respiratory Substrate – carbohydrates, lipids, and organic acids.

Respiratory quotient (RQ) = CO2 evolved

O2 consumed

• RQ range from 0.7 to 1.3 for aerobic (with O2) respiration.

• RQ is much greater if tissue goes into anaerobic (without O2) respiration.

• Carbohydrates: RQ = 1
• Lipids: RQ < 1
• Organic Acids: RQ > 1
Factors affecting Respiration

1. Temperature: Typically, for every 10 °C increase, respiration increases between 2 and 3

fold (Van’t Hoff Rule). The temperature dependence of respiratory rate varies among and
within commodities. Generally, the respiration increases significantly as the storage
temperature increases. Within the physiological range of temperature (0°C–30°C), the
rate of respiration increases exponentially, and a large amount of heat is produced as heat
of respiration.
Heat Stress: If the temperature rises beyond the physiological range, respiration rate falls.
When tissue reaches its thermal death point, metabolism is disordered as enzyme proteins
are denatured. Continued exposure to high temperatures causes phytotoxic symptoms and
tissue collapse.
Chilling stress: Although respiration is normally reduced at low, but non-freezing
temperatures, certain commodities particularly those originating in the tropics and
subtropics, exhibit abnormal respiration when their temperature falls below 10 to 12 °C.
Respiration may increase dramatically at the chilling temperatures or when the commodity is
returned to nonchilling temperatures. Enhanced respiration rate is cells' effort to detoxify
metabolic intermediates that accumulated during chilling, as well as to repair damage to
membranes and other sub-cellular structures. Enhanced respiration is one of the symptoms
that signal the onset of chilling injury.

2. Oxygen and carbon dioxide: Low O2 concentrations reduce respiration. High CO2 also
reduced respiration. Reduction of O2 concentration below 2%–3% gives beneficial
reduction in rates of respiration and other metabolic processes for most produce. However,
complete removal of O2 is not recommended as anaerobic environment is detrimental to the
quality of the produce as it leads to fermentation, decay and development of off flavor, and
change in color and texture. Increasing the CO2 level around some commodities reduces
respiration, delays senescence and retards fungal growth. Different commodities vary
widely to their ability to tolerate high CO2

3. Ethylene: Climacteric & Non-Climacteric fruits differ in their response to ethylene in the
environment. Exposure of climacteric tissues during their preclimacteric stage to ethylene
(C2H4) shortens the time to the start of the climacteric rise in respiration. Once the
respiratory rise has begun, the tissue's endogenous rate of C2H4 production increases and
the internal C2H4 concentration also increases, reaching levels that saturate its biological
activity. In contrast, C2H4 treatment of non climacteric tissues, in which endogenous C2H4
levels are very low, induces a climacteric-like rise in respiration that is proportional to C2H4
concentrations. However, unlike the case in climacteric tissues, endogenous C2H4
production remains unaffected. Removal of C2H4 results in a return of the respiration rate to
its pretreatment level. The respiratory response of nonclimacteric tissues to C2H4 can be
repeatedly induced throughout their postharvest life
4. Stage of development: Respiration rates vary due to stage of the development. Storage
organs such as nuts and tubers have low respiration rates. Tissues with vegetative or floral
meristems such as asparagus and broccoli have very high respiration rates. The
commodities harvested during active growth, such as many vegetables and immature fruits,
have high respiration rates. Mature fruits, dormant buds and storage organs have relatively
low rates. After harvest, the respiration rate typically declines; slowly in non-climacteric
fruits and storage organs, rapidly in vegetative tissues and immature fruits. The rapid decline
presumably reflects depletion of respirable substrates that are typically low in such tissues.

5. Stress/ Injury: Physical stress during cultivation, harvesting, and postharvest handling
influences respiratory behaviour significantly. Tissue injury increases the rate of respiration
and induces ethylene production, which may further catalyse an increase in respiration with
consequent loss of quality. The extent of increase in respiration rate is usually proportional
to the severity of bruising. Water stress which is induced by lower than optimal relative
humidity in air surrounding the commodity can increase its respiration rate. Biological stress
like disease also increases the respiration rate. Other stresses that stimulate the respiration
rate of vegetables including exposure to ionizing radiation and to various chemicals such as
methyl bromide (fumigant) etc.

6. Surface of tissue: Thickness of surface dermal system, wax composition and arrangement,
number and distribution of stomata on the tissue influences the respiration rate. More the
thickness of coating, less is the respiration rate.

7. Surface to volume ratio: Smaller fruits have large surface area leading to high respiration
rate.

8. Growing conditions: Cultural practices, irrigation, fertilizer also influence the respiration
rate. High nitrogen fertilizer increases respiration while high calcium fertilizer decreases
respiration.

9. Application of chemicals: Certain chemicals like malic hydrazide (MH), methyl cyclo-
propene (MCP), polyamines like putrescine, spermidine and spermine slows down the rate
of the ethylene production and respiration while application of ethylene, acetylene,
propylene, ethephon has a positive effect on respiration rate due to positive impact on
ethylene (ripening hormone) generation.
 Chapter 5. Methods of Storage

Evaporative cool storage – This is one of the simple and effective methods for short term
storage of fruits and vegetables at farm level. This reduces shriveling, extend storage life and
prevent losses during marketing and storage. Such type of storage maintains high relative
humidity with temperature nearer to wet bulb and thus reduces the weight loss considerably in
stored fruits and vegetables. It is one of the low cost technologies developed which can be
installed anywhere and any time. Though cold storage is the best yet, due to highly energy
extensive, huge capital investment and perennial power shortage, most of the small farmers find
it difficult and are forced to sell produce at distress price soon after harvest. Under these
conditions the evaporative cool storage help the farmers to get better returns for their produce.

When water evaporates from the liquid phase into the vapour phase energy is required. This
principle can be used to cool stores by first passing the air introduced into the storage room
through a pad of water. The degree of cooling depends on the original humidity of the air and the
efficiency of the evaporating surface. If the ambient air has low humidity and is humidified to
around 100% RH, then a large reduction in temperature will be achieved. This can provide cool
moist conditions during storage.

Zero Energy Cool Chambers –

Zero energy cool chambers are based on the principal of evaporative cooling and developed for
short term storage of fruits and vegetables. The raw materials used for construction of cool
chambers are bricks (400 bricks) and river bed sand (10 bags) to hold about a quintal of fruits
and vegetables. The floor of the storage space is made with a single layer of bricks. The side wall
is made with a double layer of bricks leaving a space of 7.5 cm between the bricks which are
filled with sand. The top cover of storage space is made with gunny bags or khas in bamboo
frame structure. After the construction, the brick, sand and top cover of cool chamber are kept
completely wet by sprinkling water prior to storage. Sprinkling of water once in the morning and
once at evening maintain the temperature (with ± 2°C internal temperature) and humidity (90%)
throughout the year.
Controlled Atmosphere (CA) storage
The CA storage technique is the most important innovation in fruit and vegetable storage. CA is
a supplement and not as a substitute for proper temperature and relative humidity management.
Such storage works on the principle of maintaining an artificial atmosphere in storage rooms
which have a higher concentration of CO2 and lower concentration of O2 than normal
atmosphere. It is important to control the level of CO2 since at very high level anaerobic reaction
leads to fermentation. CA storage reduces the rate of respiration and thus delays aging. Such
storage is very effective when combined with low temperature storage. Some simple methods for
controlling or modifying the composition of air in the storage environment are given below.
Air coming into the store room is being recirculated within the room and must pass through a
monitoring and control system. Carbon dioxide CO2 can be increased through dry ice and
pressurized cylinder. Level can be decreased by sodium hydroxide scrubber and hydrated lime
@0.6 kg to treat air used to ventilate 100 kg of fruits and vegetables. Oxygen can be decreased
through purging with nitrogen from liquid nitrogen through an evaporator. Ethylene gas can be
controlled by potassium permanganate and activated charcoal.

Modified atmosphere storage

Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) has been defined as packaging of food ‘in an
atmosphere which has been modified so that its composition is other than that of air’. Modified
atmosphere storage also requires a decrease in O2 and an increase in CO2 or N2 but there is no
control of atmosphere at specific concentration. Hence, it differs with CA storage only in degree
and control method. Active MAP involves modification of the gas composition through initial
gas flushing or the introduction of a gas scavenging system within the package; in passive
MAP the gas composition is altered due to the combined effects of product
respiration and permeability (diffusion) of the packaging film.

Oxygen scavengers – iron powders- ferrous compounds, ascorbic acid

Carbon dioxide scavengers – Activated charcoal, Sodium hydroxide, Calcium hydroxide, Lime
Ethylene scavengers – Potassium permanganate, silicones
Hypobaric storage
This is also known as reduced atmospheric/low pressure storage/ sub atmospheric storage/
vaccum storage. The principles of such storage is to remove ethylene gas from the storage
atmosphere and lowering the partial pressure of O2 which leads to slow ripening, hence fruits can
be kept longer. It is a type of CA storage with emphasis on reducing the pressure of O2and
ethylene gas. Low oxygen reduces the respiration rate and low ethylene delays the ripening, as a
result fruits are stored for longer time. In such storage fruits like mango, banana, pineapple,
guava, apple, pear, avocado, and lemon fruits have better storage life. This system is used in
transportation of fruits also. Low pressure of O2 (102 mm Hg) reduces the growth of pathogenic
disorders such as Rhizopus nigricans, Aspergillus niger, Botrytis species and Alternaria species.

Cold Storage
Cold or low temperature storage is most reliable and extensively used for retention of freshness
and extending the shelf life of fruits and vegetables for a long period. Low temperature storage
employs the principles of maintaining a low temperature which reduces the rate of respiration,
thermal decomposition and thus delays ripening. Each fruit and vegetable has to be kept at an
optimum temperature. Both temperature and relative humidity are controlled in such storage. The
basic equipment for mechanical refrigeration consists of compressure (compressed refrigeration),
condenser (cooling) expansion valve (for expansion) and evaporator (evaporation of a
compressed liquefied gas).
 Chapter 6 Principles and methods of preservation

Preservation: Preservation means just protect the foods against the spoilage, but scientifically it
may be defined as a science which deals with the process for prevention of decay or spoilage of
the food is called preservation.
Principles of preservation--- There are three main principles:
1. Prevention or delay the microbial decomposition of the food.
2. Prevention or delay the self decomposition of the food.
3. Prevention or damage by insects, animals, mechanical causes.
1. Prevention/delay the microbial decomposition of the food:
1. By keeping out the micro organisms ---Asepsis
2. By removal of micro organisms ---Filtration
3. By hindering the growth and activity of micro organisms ---Anaerobic condition
4. By killing the micro organisms ---Exposing at high temperature
A. Asepsis: It means preventing the entry of micro organisms by maintaining of general
cleanliness, while picking, grading, packing and transporting of fruits and vegetables, increase
their keeping quality and the product prepared from them will be superior quality.
B. Filtration: Fruit juice, bear, soft drinks, wines etc. enter through a bacteria proof filter which
is made of asbestos pad or unglazed porcelain type of materials. These filters contain the micro
organisms and allow the water or juice to percolate through with or without pressure.
C. Anaerobic conditions: It can be maintained by:
� Replacing the O2 by CO2 ---------- Carbonation
� Evacuating the sealed container (fruit juice)
� Use of oils from top of the food (pickles)
D. Exposing at high temperature: Fruits can be exposed to high temperature such as;
� Canning: Food is exposed to a high temperature (>100OC) which reduces spoilage and
inactivate the enzyme present in the food. The process of sealing food stuffs hermitically (air
tight, protecting from out side agencies) in containers and sealing them by heat for longer storage
is called canning.
� Irradiation: In case of irradiation, the food is exposed to the radiations to kill the surviving
micro organisms by ionising and non-ionising radiation like α, β and γ rays. Here, food is
exposed to electromagnetic or ionizing radiation or various frequencies ranging from low
frequency electromagnetic rays to high frequency i.e. gamma rays which destroy the micro
organisms present in the food.
2. prevention/delay the self decomposition:
a. By destruction or inactivating the enzyme – Blanching.
b. Prevention / delay the non-enzymatic chemical reactions – Antioxidant
A. Blanching: Treatment of fruits and vegetables with boiling water or steam for short periods
followed by cooling prior to canning is called” blanching”.
� It is a primary treatment which has to soften the tissues to facilitate packaging.
� To preserve the original colour and flavour.
� To destroy certain enzymes which are undesirable.
� Elimination of the air.
� Mostly done for vegetables.
� Remove micro organisms
� Remove astringent taste and toxins.
B.Antioxidant: Anti-oxidants are substances which are used to protect the food
against deterioration caused by exposure to the air.
� BHA- Butylactic Hydroxy Anisole & BHT- Butylactic Hydroxy Toluene (vegetable oils)
� Gellales : Animal fat, Vegetable oil
� Tocopherols: Animal fat
� Ascorbic acid: Fruit juices, Citrus oil, Wine, Beer etc.
� Lactic acid: Processed fruits and vegetables, canned fruits.
� Phosphoric acid: Vegetable oil, Animal fat and Cola drinks.
3. Prevention or damage by insects, animals, mechanical causes: This principle of
preservation deals with the prevention of damage caused by various external agencies other than
micro-organisms and enzymes i.e. animals, man, insects, rodents etc.These agencies generally
cause physical damage to the food material eg.rats may eat peels of oranges in a storage, animals
may also eat the food if kept within their reach etc. But in none of these cases these damages are
deleterious to human health. If you consume a half eaten apple or orange you are generally never
going to die or experience any health risks, but if the food is spoilt by micro organisms, and you
consume the spoilt food your health shall definitely be at risk. The damage of food by animals,
man, insects, rodents etc. may later on give way for the initiation of microbial and self
decomposition. Proper packing of the food is predominantly the effective solution for prevention
of damage caused by the agencies considered under this principle of preservation. Over all from
the food processors point of view the three principles are to be considered in decreasing order of
importance and emphasis. Highest emphasis is given on control of microbial decomposition
followed by self decomposition, ultimately followed by damage caused by animals, insects,
rodents etc

Methods of preservation of fruits and vegetables

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

A. TEMPORARY PRESERVATION B. PERMANT

PRESERVATION
1 Ascepsis 1 Sterilization
2 Low temperature storage 2 By chemical preservative
3 Exclusion of moisture/drying 3 By antiseptics
4 Use of mild antiseptic 4 By fermentation
5 Pasteurization 5 By irradiation
6 By carbonation
7 By filtration
8 By antibiotic

The important methods of preservation of fruits and vegetables are:

A)Temporary preservation
a) Asepsis: prevention of microbial infection during handling processing and till sealing and
during storage of cans by observing strict cleanliness throughout the entire process is kown as
asepsis.
Precautions-
1 Take proper care during picking and packing of fruits and vegetables discarding the diseased
and damaged produce.
2 Removed bruised or damaged fruits and vegetables select the material which is free from
blemishes.
3 Remove the dirt and microorganisms present superficially on fruit and vegetables by through
washing or cleaning for preservation.
4 maintain strict cleaniness and hygienic condition during preparation of produce and during
sealing and processing of cans.
5 Store in cool and dry place. Storing in cool place help to maintain proper misture content in
product as well hamper microbial growth.
(3) Preservation by low temperature-- Low temperature retards the microbial growth and
enzyme reaction because it retards the chemical reactions. This is not a permanent method
because some micro organisms can also grow at low temperature.
1. Cellar storage: (Above 150C)
2. Refrigerated storage: (0 to 50C)
3. Freezing storage: (-18 to -400C)
1) Cellar Storage: Cellar Storage (about 150C). The temperature in cellar ((underground rooms)
where surplus food is stored in many villages is usually not much below that of the outside air
and is seldom lower than 150C. Root crops, potatoes, cabbage, apples, onions and similar foods
can be stored for limited periods during the winter months.
2) Refrigeration: Refrigerated (or) chilling (0.to 50C). Chilling temperature are obtained and
maintained by means of ice or mechanical refrigeration. Most perishable foods, including eggs,
dairy products, meats, sea foods, vegetable and fruits may be held in chilling storage for a
limited time with little change from their original condition. Enzymatic and microbial changes in
the foods are not prevented but are slowed considerably. Fruits and vegetables can be stored for
2-7 days. Semi-perishable crops, such as potatoes, apples etc. can be stored, in the commercial
cold storage with proper ventilation, automatic controlled temperature for one year.
3) Freezing: Freezing (-18 to -400C). At temperature below the freezing point of H2O, growth of
microorganisms and enzyme activity are reduced to minimum. But, sometimes enzymes are
active even below the 00C. In this case before freezing, ‘Blanching’ is necessary for vegetable
freezing. Most perishable foods can be preserved for several months. Fruits, vegetables, juices
and fleshy foods (meat, poultry, fish and sea foods) can be preserved in this method.
(3) Preservation by drying --- Drying is just removal of moisture from the food to a certain
level at which micro organisms cannot grow is called drying, It can be done by two methods:
(i) Application of heat :(a) Sun drying (b) Mechanical drying (c) Vacuum drying (d) Freeze
drying, (ii) Binding the moisture in the food : (a) Use of Sugar & (b) Use of Salt, (i) Application
of heat :
(a) Sun drying: Sun drying is the method in which food is directly exposed to sunlight. It is
generally done in the places where plenty of sunshine is available for long period e.g. Rajasthan.
The dried product in this method is inferior in quality.
(b) Mechanical drying: This is a method of drying where application of heat is applied by a
mechanical dryer under the controlled conditions of temperature, humidity and air flow.
(c) Vacuum drying: The temperature of the food and the rate of water removal are controlled by
regulating the degree of vacuum and intensity of heat input.
(d) Freeze drying: In this method, the food is dried by sublimation process, i.e., just converting
the food into ice without passing through the liquid form of water by means of vacuum plus heat
applied in the drying chamber. In this method, the product is first frozen, then water is removed
by vacuum and application of heat which occurs simultaneously in same chamber.
(4) Use of mild antiseptic: The use of antiseptics in small quantities prevents growth of
microbes either by osmosis or by poison or by both actions for a short time. Sugar, salt, vinegar.
Oil etc are example of mild antiseptic.
(5) Pasteurization: It is a mild heat treatment. By pasteurization milk is pasteurized by HTST at
720C for 15 sec. Fruit juices are pasteurized at such temperature and for such periods as would
render them sterile, without impairing their flavor. Usually, the juices are pasteurized at about
850C for 25-30 min., according to the nature of the juice and the size of container. Acid fruit
juices require lower temperature and less time for pasteurization than the less acid ones.
Juices can be pasteurized in two ways
(1) By heating the juice at a low temperature for a High time (LTHT) and
(2) By heating the juice at high temperature for a short time only (HTST).

B) Permant preservation
1 1. Preservation by high temperature
Sterilization: Process of killing of all the form of microbial life is called as sterilization.
Sterilization products are sealed to prevent empty of live microbes from outside. The temperature
and time required for sterilization varies with the types of product. The various methods of
sterilization are as follow.
 a) Sterilization below 100OC- eg used for fruit juices.
b) One time heating at 100oC –for long period
c) Intermitted processing- at 100oC.
eg Canning: Canning is done at or above 1000C. In case of fruits which are acidic, they are
canned at 1000C, while in case of vegetables those are non-acidic; they are canned at above
1000C. Here, high temperature can be obtained by using steam pressure; time varies according to
the type of foods. Due to anaerobic condition any survivable organism would not grow.
(2)Preservation by use of chemical preservatives-- Chemical preservatives are substances
which are added to food just to retard, inhibit or arrest the activity of micro organisms such as
fermentation, pacification and decomposition of the food.
Chemical preservatives are of two types:
Class-1 preservatives: common salt, sugar, dextrose, spices, vinegar, Ascorbic acid etc.
Class-2 preservatives : Benzoic acid and its salt, SO2 and the salts of sulphuric acid, nitrates,
ascorbic acid and its salts, propeonic acid and its salts, lactic acid and its salts. Among the class-2
preservatives, only two chemical preservatives are used in fruits and vegetables preservation:
(i) KMS(Potassium Meta bisulphate) :
(1) It releases the SO2 and it is unstable.
(2) It is used for the fruit which have non water solvent pigment (colourless).
(3) It can not be used in naturally coloured juices such as phalsa, jamun because they have the
Anthocynin pigment.
(4) It can not be used in the product which is packed in container because it acts on the tin
containers and oil, Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) which has an unpleasant smell and also form a
black compound with the base plate of containers.
(5) Best to control moulds than bacteria.
(6) 350 ppm KMS is mostly used in fruit juice products.
(ii) Sodium Benzoate :
(1) It is a salt of benzoic acid and soluble in water.
(2) It delays the fermentation in the juices.
(3) It is commonly used in the product which are having natural colour such as anthocynin
pigment.
(4) It is more effective against the yeast.
(5) 750 ppm Sodium benzoate is mostly used in fruit juices, squashes and cordials.
(3) Preservation by use of antiseptics (Sugar, Salt, acids and vinegar):
Food additives are substances or mixture of substances other than basic foodstuffs, which are
present in the foods as reagent of any aspects of production, processing, storage, packaging etc.
Food additives are (i) sugar, (ii) salt, (iii) acids, (iv) spices.
In case of sugar and salts, they exert osmotic pressure and water diffuses from the product
through a semi-permeable membrane until the concentration reached equilibrium. They kills the
micro organisms or do not allow them to multiplly.
(i) Sugar: The concentration of 68-70% is used for preparation of jam, jelly, marmalades etc.
Sugar act as a preservative by osmosis and not as a true poison for micro organisms. It absorbs
most of the available water, so little water available for the growth of micro organisms.
(II)Salt: The concentration of 15-20% is used for the preparation such as pickles. Salt inhibits
enzymatic browning and discolouration and also acts as an anti-oxidant. It exerts its preservative
action by:
(i) Causing high osmotic pressure resulting in the plasmolysis of microbialcells.
(ii) Dehydrating food and micro organisms by tyeing up the moisture.
(iii) Ionizing to yield the chloride ion which is harmful to micro organisms, and
(iv) Reducing the solubility of oxygen in water, sensitizing, and the cells against CO2.
(III)Acids: Many processed foods and beverages need the addition of acids to impart their
characteristic flavor and taste in the final product because acids provide desired flavour and taste.
They adjust the sugar and acid ratio in the food .proper balance of flavor of the food. They are
also playing the role for controlling the pectin-gel formation.
Main acids are the following: Acetic acid (Vinegar), Citric acid (Lime juice.
1. Acetic acid: It is commonly used for pickles, chutney, sauce and ketchup, just to inhibit the
growth of micro organisms.
2. Citric acid: It is used for the preparation of jam, jelly, squash, nectar etc. just to increase the
acidity.
(IV) Oil A layer of oil on the surface of any food produces anaerobic conditions which prevent
the growth of moulds and yeasts. Eg., pickles
(4) Preservation by fermentation -- Decomposition of carbohydrates by microorganisms or
enzymes is called fermentation. Foods are preserved by the alcohol or organic acid formed by
microbial action. The keeping quality of alcoholic beverages, vinegars, and fermented pickles
depends upon the presence of alcohol, acetic acid and lactic acid respectively. Wines, beers,
vinegar, fermented drinks, fermented pickles etc., are prepared by these processes. In wines –
14% alcohol acts as a preservative. About 2% acetic acid prevents spoilage in many products.
(5) Preservation by irradiation-- Sterilization of food by ionizing radiations is a recently
developed method of preservation. The unacceptable flavor of some irradiated foods and the fear
that radioactivity might be induced in such food has come in the way of its greater use. When
gamma rays (or) electron beams pass through foods there are collisions between the ionizing
radiation and food particles at atomic and molecular levels, resulting in the production of ion
pairs and free radicals. The reactions of these products among themselves and with other
molecules results in physical and chemical phenomena which inactivate microorganism in the
food. Thus irradiation of food can be considered to be a method of “Cold Sterilization” i.e. food
is free of microorganism without high temperature treatment. Radiation dose of up to 1 Mrad is
not hazardous. Ionizing radiations can be used For sterilization of foods in hermetically sealed
packs, Reduction of the spoilage organisms in the perishable foods, delays ripening of fruits,
Inhibits sprouting of root vegetables and controls infestation (insects) in stored cereals
(6)Preservation by Carbonation -Carbonation is the process of dissolving sufficient CO2 in
water or beverage so that the product when served gives off the gas as fine bubbles and has a
characteristic taste. Fruit juice beverages are generally bottled with CO2 content varying from 1
to 8 g/ l, it is sufficient for supplementing that effect of acidity on pathogenic bacteria. For
complete inhibition of microbial activity (14.6 g CO2/ l) creating an anaerobic condition, which
reduces the oxidation of ascorbic acid and prevents browning.
Although carbonated beverages contain sugar much below 66%, the absence of air and the
presence of CO2 in them help to prevent the growth of moulds and yeasts. The keeping quality
of carbonated fruit beverages is enhanced by adding about 0.005% sodium benzoate. The level of
carbonation required varies according to the type of fruit juice and type of flavor.
(7)Preservation by filtration -- Filtration is the only successful method for the complete
removal of organisms and its use is limited to clear liquids. The liquid is filtered through a
previously sterilized ‘bacteria proof’ filter made of sintered glass, diatomaceous earth, unglazed
porcelain, membrane pads, (or) similar material and the liquid is forced through by positive or
negative pressure. This method has been used successfully with fruit juices, beer, soft drinks,
wine and water.
(8) Preservation by Antibiotics--- Certain metabolic products of microorganisms have been
found to have germicidal effect and are termed as antibiotics.
Nisin is an antibiotic produced by Streptococcus lactis. Commonly found in milk, curd, cheese
and other fermented milk products. It is non-toxic. Used in the food industry especially for
preservation of acid foods in which it is more stable. Used in canning of mushrooms, tomatoes
and milk products.
Subtilin - an antibiotic obtained from certain strains of Bacillus subtilis is used in preservation of
asparagus, corn, and peas. It is most effective against grampositive bacteria and spore-forming
organisms.
Pimaricin- an antifungal antibiotic can be used for treating fruits and fruits juices