Sui dynasty

The Sui dynasty ([swěɪ], Chinese: 隋 朝 ; pinyin: Suí cháo) was a short-lived
Chinese imperial dynasty that ruled from 581 to 618. The re-unification of China Sui
proper under the Sui brought the Northern and Southern dynasties era to a close, 隋
ending a prolonged period of political division since the War of the Eight Princes.
581–618[a]
The Sui endeavoured to rebuild the country, re-establishing and reforming many
imperial institutions; in so doing, the Sui laid much of the foundation for the
subsequent Tang dynasty, who after toppling the Sui would ultimately preside over
a new golden age in Chinese history.

The dynasty was founded by Yang Jian (Emperor Wen), who had been a member
of the military aristocracy that had developed in the northwest during the
prolonged period of division.[2] The Sui capital was initially based in Daxing
(Chang'an, modern Xi'an), but later moved to Luoyang in 605, which had been re-
founded as a planned city. Wen and his successor Emperor Yang undertook
various centralising reforms, most notably among them the equal-field system that
aimed to reduce economic inequality and improve agricultural productivity, the
Five Departments and Six Boards system, which preceded the Three Departments
Sui dynasty c. 609
and Six Ministries system, and the standardisation and re-unification of the
coinage. The Sui also encouraged the spread of Buddhism throughout the empire. Capital Daxing (581–
618)
By the dynasty's mid-point, the state experienced considerable prosperity,
enjoying a vast agricultural surplus that supported rapid population growth. Common languages Middle Chinese

Religion Buddhism,
The Sui engaged in many construction mega-projects, including the Grand Canal, Taoism,
the extension of the Great Wall, and the reconstruction of Luoyang.[3] The canal Confucianism,
linked Luoyang in the east with Chang'an in the west, with the eastern economic Chinese folk
and agricultural centres towards Jiangdu (now Yangzhou, Jiangsu) and Yuhang religion,
Zoroastrianism
(now Hangzhou, Zhejiang), and with the northern frontiers (near modern Beijing).
While the initial motivations of the canal were improving grain shipments to the Government Monarchy
capital and military logistics—including the transport of troops—the new, reliable Emperor
inland route would ultimately facilitate domestic trade, the flow of people, and • 581–604 Emperor Wen
cultural exchange for centuries. These mega-projects were led by an efficient • 604–617 Emperor Yang
centralised bureaucracy, but forcibly conscripted millions of workers at a heavy • 617–618 Emperor Gong
human cost. Historical era Post-classical
era
After a series of disastrous military campaigns against Goguryeo on the Korean • Ascension of Yang 4 March 581
peninsula,[4][5][6] ended in defeat by 614, the dynasty disintegrated under a series Jian
of popular revolts culminating in the assassination of Emperor Yang by his • Abolished by Li 23 May 618[a]
minister, Yuwen Huaji in 618. The dynasty, which lasted only thirty-seven years, Yuan
was undermined by ambitious wars and construction projects, which Area
overstretched its resources. Particularly, under Emperor Yang, heavy taxation and 589[1] 3,000,000 km2
compulsory labour duties would eventually induce widespread revolts and brief (1,200,000 sq mi)
civil war following the fall of the dynasty. Currency Chinese coin,
Chinese cash
The dynasty is often compared to the earlier Qin dynasty, who also unified China
after a prolonged period of division. Wide-ranging reforms and construction Preceded by Succeeded by
projects were undertaken to consolidate the newly unified state, with long-lasting Northern Tang
influences beyond their short dynastic reigns. Zhou dynasty
Chen
dynasty
History Western
Liang

Foundation and Emperor Wen Today part of China

During the late Northern and Southern dynasties period, the Xianbei-ruled Vietnam
Northern Zhou conquered the Northern Qi in 577, reunifying northern China. By
this time, Yang Jian, a Northern Zhou general who would later found the Sui dynasty, Sui dynasty
became the regent to the Northern Zhou court.[2] Yang Jian's clan, the Yang clan of
Hongnong, had Han origins and claimed descent from the Han dynasty general Yang
Zhen,[7] [8][9][10] [11] but had intermarried with the Xianbei for generations.[2] Yang
Jian's daughter was the Empress Dowager, and her stepson, Emperor Jing of Northern
"Sui dynasty" in Chinese characters
Zhou, was a child. After crushing an army in the eastern provinces, Yang Jian usurped
the throne from the Northern Zhou rulers, and became Emperor Wen of Sui. While
Chinese 隋朝
formerly the Duke of Sui when serving at the Zhou court, where the character 隨 literally Transcriptions [show]
means 'to follow', implying loyalty, Emperor Wen created a unique character 隋 , Standard Mandarin
morphed from that in his former title, as the name of his new dynasty. In a bloody Hanyu Pinyin Suí cháo
purge, Wen had 59 Zhou princes eliminated, in contrast to his later reputation as the Bopomofo ㄙㄨㄟˊ ㄔㄠˊ
"Cultured Emperor".[12] Emperor Wen emphasized Han cultural identity during his
Gwoyeu Romatzyh Swei chaur
reign,[2] abolishing the anti-Han policies of Northern Zhou and reclaiming his Han
surname of Yang. Having won the support of Confucian scholars who held power in Wade–Giles Sui2 ch'ao2
previous Han dynasties (abandoning the nepotism and corruption of the nine-rank Tongyong Pinyin Suéi cháo
system), Emperor Wen initiated a series of reforms aimed at strengthening his empire IPA [swěɪ ʈʂʰǎʊ]
for the wars that would reunify China. Wu

In his campaign for southern conquest, Emperor Wen assembled thousands of boats to Romanization Zoe zau
confront the naval forces of the Chen dynasty on the Yangtze River. The largest of these Yue: Cantonese
ships were very tall, having five layered decks and the capacity for 800 non-crew Yale Romanization Chèuih chìuh
personnel. They were outfitted with six 50-foot-long booms that were used to swing and Jyutping Ceoi4 ciu4
damage enemy ships, or to pin them down so that Sui marine troops could use act-and-
IPA [tsʰɵy˩ tsʰiːu˩]
board techniques.[12] Besides employing Xianbei and other Chinese ethnic groups for
Southern Min
the fight against Chen, Emperor Wen also employed the service of people from
Tâi-lô Suî-tiâo
southeastern Sichuan, which Sui had recently conquered.[12]
Middle Chinese
In 588, the Sui had amassed 518,000 troops along the northern bank of the Yangtze Middle Chinese ziuᴇ ʈˠiᴇu

Stone sarcophagus of Li Jingxun (Beilin Museum, Xi'an), a young Sui dynasty princess who died in 608 AD, with some of the artifacts and the
epitaph.

River, stretching from Sichuan to the East China Sea.[13] The Chen dynasty could not withstand such an assault. By 589, Sui
troops entered Jiankang (now Nanjing) and the last emperor of Chen surrendered. The city was razed to the ground, while
Sui troops escorted Chen nobles back north, where the northern aristocrats became fascinated with everything the south had
to provide culturally and intellectually.

Although Emperor Wen was famous for bankrupting the state treasury with warfare and construction projects, he made
many improvements to infrastructure during his early reign. He established granaries as sources of food and as a means to
regulate market prices from the taxation of crops, much like the earlier Han dynasty. The large agricultural surplus
supported rapid growth of population to a historical peak, which was only surpassed at the zenith of the Tang dynasty more
than a century later.

The capital of Daxing (Chang'an, modern Xi'an), while situated in the militarily secure heartland of Guanzhong, was remote
from the economic centres to the east and south of the empire. Emperor Wen initiated the construction of the Grand Canal,
with completion of the first (and the shortest) route that directly linked Chang'an to the Yellow River (Huang He). Later,
Emperor Yang enormously enlarged the scale of the Grand Canal construction.
 Externally, the emerging Turkic Khaganate in the north posed a major threat to the
newly founded dynasty. With Emperor Wen's diplomatic manoeuvre, the Khaganate
split into Eastern and Western halves. Later the Great Wall was consolidated to further
secure the northern territory. In Emperor Wen's late years, the first war with Goguryeo,
ended with defeat. Nevertheless, the celebrated "Reign of Kaihuang" (era name of
Emperor Wen) was considered by historians as one of the apexes in the two millennium
imperial period of Chinese history.

The Sui emperors were from the northwest military aristocracy, and they cited as their
ancestors the Yang of Hongnong 弘 農 楊 氏 , a Han clan.[14][15] They emphasised their
Sui divisions under Yang (western
Han ancestry, and claimed descent from the Han official Yang Zhen.[16] The New Book of
regions not depicted)
Tang traces their patrilineal ancestry to the Zhou dynasty kings via the Dukes of Jin.[17]
The Li of Zhaojun and the Lu of Fanyang hailed from Shandong and were related to the
Liu clan, which was also linked to the Yang of Hongnong and other clans of
Guanlong.[18]

The Yang of Hongnong, Jia of Hedong, Xiang of

Henei, and Wang of Taiyuan from the Tang dynasty
were later claimed as ancestors by Song dynasty
lineages.[20] Information about these major political
events in China were somehow filtered west and
Administrative divisions c. 610 reached the Byzantine Empire, the continuation of
the Roman Empire in the east. From Turkic peoples
of Central Asia the Eastern Romans derived a new
name for China after the older Sinae and Serica: Taugast (Old Turkic: Tabghach), Tomb of Yu Hong, a Sogdian
during its Northern Wei (386–535) period.[21] The 7th-century Byzantine historian merchant buried in Taiyuan in 592.
Theophylact Simocatta wrote a generally accurate depiction of the reunification of China Shanxi Museum.[19]
by Emperor Wen of the Sui dynasty, with the conquest of the rival Chen dynasty in
southern China. Simocatta correctly placed these events within the reign period of
Byzantine ruler Maurice.[22] Simocatta also provided cursory information about the geography of China, its division by the
Yangzi River and its capital Khubdan (from Old Turkic Khumdan, i.e. Chang'an) along with its customs and culture,
deeming its people "idolatrous" but wise in governance.[22] He noted that the ruler was named "Taisson", which he claimed
meant "Son of God", perhaps Chinese Tianzi (Son of Heaven) or even the name of the contemporary ruler Emperor Taizong
of Tang.[23]

Emperor Yang and re-conquest of Vietnam

Emperor Yang of Sui (569–618) ascended the throne after his father's death, possibly by
murder. He further extended the empire, but unlike his father, did not seek to gain
support from the nomads. Instead, he restored Confucian education and the Confucian
examination system for bureaucrats. By supporting educational reforms, he lost the
support of the nomads. He also started many expensive construction projects such as the
Grand Canal of China, and became embroiled in several costly wars. Between these
policies, invasions into China from Turkic nomads, and his growing life of decadent
luxury at the expense of the peasantry, he lost public support and was eventually
assassinated by his own ministers.

Both Emperors Yang and Wen sent military expeditions into Vietnam as Annam in
northern Vietnam had been incorporated into the Chinese empire over 600 years earlier
during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD). However the Kingdom of Champa in central
Vietnam became a major counterpart to Chinese invasions to its north. According to
Ebrey, Walthall, and Palais, these invasions became known as the Linyi-Champa
Campaign (602–605).[24] Tomb of An Bei panel showing a Sui
dynasty banquet with Sogdian whirl
The Hanoi area formerly held by the Han and Jin dynasties was easily retaken from the dance and music, 589

Early Lý dynasty ruler Lý Phật Tử in 602. A few years later the Sui army pushed farther
south and was attacked by troops on war elephants from Champa in southern Vietnam.
The Sui army feigned retreat and dug pits to trap the elephants, lured the Champan troops to attack then used crossbows
against the elephants causing them to turn around and trample their own soldiers. Although Sui troops were victorious
many succumbed to disease as northern soldiers did not have immunity to tropical diseases such as malaria.[24]

War with Goguryeo

The Sui dynasty led a series of massive expeditions to invade Goguryeo, one Paleo-Siberians 600
of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Emperor Yang conscripted many soldiers Kyrgyzs
Tungus

for the campaign. This army was so enormous it recorded in historical texts AVAR
KHAGANATE EASTERN Khitans
WESTERN
that it took 30 days for all the armies to exit their last rallying point near BYZANTINE
TURKIC KHAGANATE TURKIC KHAGANATE
GOGU-
RYEO

Shanhaiguan before invading Goguryeo. In one instance the soldiers—both EMPIRE TUYUHUN

SASANIAN TIBETAN
SUI
EMPIRE ALCHONS EMPIRE
DYNASTY
conscripted and paid—listed over 3000 warships, up to 1.15 million infantry, PUSHYABHUTIS

50,000 cavalry, 5000 artillery, and more. The army stretched to 1000 li, or CHAM-

about 410 km (250 mi), across rivers and valleys, over mountains and hills. PA
CHENLA

◁▷
Each of the four military expeditions ended in failure, incurring a substantial
The Sui dynasty and main Asian polities circa
financial and manpower deficit from which the Sui would never recover.
600.[25]

Collapse
One of the major work projects undertaken by the Sui was construction activities along
the Great Wall of China; but this, along with other large projects, strained the economy
and angered the resentful workforce employed. During the last few years of the Sui
dynasty, the rebellion that rose against it took many of China's able-bodied men from
Chinese swords of the Sui dynasty rural farms and other occupations, which in turn damaged the agricultural base and the
dated c. 600, found near Luoyang. economy further.[27] Men would deliberately break their limbs in order to avoid military
The P-shaped furniture of the
conscription, calling the practice "propitious paws" and "fortunate feet."[27] Later, after
bottom sword's scabbard is similar
the fall of Sui, in the year 642, Emperor Taizong of Tang made an effort to eradicate this
to and may have been derived from
sword scabbards of the Sarmatians
practice by issuing a decree of a stiffer punishment for those who were found to
and Sassanians.[26] deliberately injure and heal themselves.[27]

Although the Sui dynasty was relatively short (581–618), much was accomplished during
its tenure. The Grand Canal was one of the main accomplishments. It was extended
north from the Hangzhou region across the Yangtze to Yangzhou, and then northwest to
the region of Luoyang. Again, like the Great Wall works, the massive conscription of
labour and allocation of resources for the Grand Canal project resulted in challenges for
Sui dynastic continuity. The eventual fall of the Sui dynasty was also due to the many
losses caused by the failed military campaigns against Goguryeo. It was after these
Strolling About in Spring, by Sui-era defeats and losses that the country was left in ruins and rebels soon took control of the
artist Zhan Ziqian
government. Emperor Yang was assassinated in 618. He had gone South after the capital
being threatened by various rebel groups and was killed by his Yuwen clan advisors.
Meanwhile, in the North, the aristocrat Li Yuan (李淵) held an uprising after which he ended up ascending the throne to
become Emperor Gaozu of Tang.

There were Dukedoms for the offspring of the royal families of the Zhou dynasty, Sui dynasty, and Tang dynasty in the Later
Jin (Five Dynasties).[28] This practice was referred to as èrwáng-sānkè (二王三恪).

Culture
Although the Sui dynasty was relatively short-lived, in terms of culture, it represents a transition from the preceding ages,
and many cultural developments which can be seen to be incipient during the Sui dynasty later were expanded and
consolidated during the ensuing Tang dynasty, and later ages. This includes not only the major public works initiated, such
as the Great Wall and the Great Canal, but also the political system developed by Sui, which was adopted by Tang with little
initial change other than at the top of the political hierarchy. Other cultural developments of the Sui dynasty included
religion and literature, particular examples being Buddhism and poetry.

Rituals and sacrifices were conducted by the Sui.[29]

Taoism
The Sui court pursued a pro-Taoist policy. The first reign of the dynasty saw the state
promoting the Northern Louguan school of Taoism, while the second reign instead
promoted the Southern Shangqing school of Taoism, possibly due to Emperor Yang's
preference for Southern culture.[30]

Buddhism
Buddhism was popular during the Sixteen Kingdoms and Northern
and Southern dynasties period that preceded the Sui dynasty,
spreading from India through Kushan Afghanistan into China during
the Late Han period. Buddhism gained prominence during the
period when central political control was limited. Buddhism created
a unifying cultural force that uplifted the people out of war and into
the Sui dynasty. In many ways, Buddhism was responsible for the
rebirth of culture in China under the Sui dynasty.

While early Buddhist teachings were acquired from Sanskrit sutras,

it was during the late Six dynasties and Sui dynasty that local
Chinese schools of Buddhist thoughts started to flourish. Most
notably, Zhiyi founded the Tiantai school, and completed the Great Sui statuette of a pipa player
treatise on Concentration and Insight, within which he taught the
principle of "Three Thousand Realms in a Single moment of Life" as
the essence of Buddhist teaching outlined in the Lotus Sutra.
A Sui stone
statue of the Emperor Wen and his empress had converted to Buddhism to legitimise imperial authority over China
Avalokitesvara and the conquest of Chen. The emperor presented himself as a Cakravartin king, a Buddhist monarch
boddhisattva
who would use military force to defend the Buddhist faith. In the year 601 AD, Emperor Wen had relics
(Guanyin)
of the Buddha distributed to temples throughout China, with edicts that expressed his goals, "all the
people within the Four Seas may, without exception, develop enlightenment and together cultivate
fortunate karma, bringing it to pass that present existences will lead to happy future lives, that the sustained creation of
good causation will carry us one and all up to wondrous enlightenment".[31]: 89 Ultimately, this act was an imitation of the
ancient Mauryan Emperor Ashoka of India.[31]: 89

Confucianism
Confucian philosopher Wang Tong wrote and taught during the Sui dynasty, and even briefly held office as Secretary of
Shuzhou.[32] His most famous (as well as only surviving) work, the Explanation of the Mean (Zhongshuo, 中 說 )[33] was
compiled shortly after his death in 617.

Poetry
Although poetry continued to be written, and certain poets rose in prominence while
others disappeared from the landscape, the brief Sui dynasty, in terms of the
development of Chinese poetry, lacks distinction, though it nonetheless represents a
continuity between the Six Dynasties and the poetry of Tang.[34] Sui dynasty poets
include Yang Guang (580–618), who was the last Sui emperor (and a sort of poetry
critic); and also, the Lady Hou, one of his consorts.

Rulers
Posthumous name
Birth Name Period of Reign Era name, with range
Convention: "Sui" + name

Kāihuáng (開皇) 581–600

Wéndì (文帝) Yáng Jiān (楊堅) 581–604
Rénshòu (仁壽) 601–604

Yángdì (煬帝) or
Yáng Guǎng (楊廣) 604–618[a] Dàyè (大業) 605–618
Míngdì (明帝)

Gōngdì (恭帝) Yang You 617–618[a] Yìníng (義寧) 617–618

[a] Yang Guang depicted as Emperor of
Gōngdì (恭帝) Yang Tong 618–619 Huángtài (皇泰) 618–619
Sui. Painted by Yan Liben (600–
673)
Family tree of the Sui emperors
 Sui dynasty [show]
Dugu Xin
獨孤信

SUI DYNASTY
Li
Bing
Yang Jian 楊坚 541–604 Dugu Qieluo 李昺
Wendi 文帝 獨孤伽羅 544–602 Duchess Dugu d. 572
581–604 Empress Xian 獻皇后 Duke of
Tang 唐
國公

1 2 3 4 5 TANG DYNASTY
Yang
Yang Yong 楊勇 Yang Guang 楊廣 569–618 Yang Jun 楊俊 Liang Li Yuan 李淵 566–635
Yang Xiu 楊秀
d. 604 Yangdi 煬帝 571–600 楊諒 Gaozu 高祖
573–618
Prince of Fangling 房陵王 604–617 Prince of Qin 秦孝王 575– 618–626
605

1 2 3

Yang Zhao 楊昭 Yang Hao

Yang Jian 楊暕 Yang Gao
584–606 楊浩 d. 618
585–618 楊杲 607–618
Cr.Prince Yuande Prince of Qin 秦王
Prince of Qi 齊王 Prince of Zhao 趙王
元德太子 618?

1 2 3

Yang Tan 楊倓 Yang Tong 楊侗 605–619 Yang You 楊侑 605–619

603–618 Gongdi 恭帝 Gongdi 恭帝
Prince of Yan 燕王 618–619 617–618

See also
China portal

History portal

Chinese sovereign
Extreme weather events of 535–536
Grand Canal of China
History of China
List of tributaries of Imperial China
Anji Bridge

Notes
a. In 617, the rebel general Li Yuan (the later Emperor Gaozu of Tang) declared Emperor Yang's grandson Yang You
emperor (as Emperor Gong) and "honored" Emperor Yang as Taishang Huang (retired emperor) at the western capital
Daxing (Chang'an), but only the commanderies under Li's control recognized this change; for the other commanderies
under Sui control, Emperor Yang was still regarded as emperor, not as retired emperor. After news of Emperor Yang's
death in 618 reached Daxing and the eastern capital Luoyang, Li Yuan deposed Emperor Gong and took the throne
himself, establishing the Tang dynasty, but the Sui officials at Luoyang declared Emperor Gong's brother Yang Tong
(later also known as Emperor Gong during the brief reign of Wang Shichong over the region as the emperor of a brief
Zheng (鄭) state) emperor. Meanwhile, Yuwen Huaji, the general under whose leadership the plot to kill Emperor Yang
was carried out, declared Emperor Wen's grandson Yang Hao emperor but killed Yang Hao later in 618 and declared
himself emperor of a brief Xu (許) state. As Yang Hao was completely under Yuwen's control and only "reigned" briefly,
 he is not usually regarded as a legitimate emperor of Sui, while Yang Tong's legitimacy is more recognized by historians
but still disputed.

References
1. Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D". Social Science
History. 3 (3/4): 129. doi:10.2307/1170959 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1170959). JSTOR 1170959 (https://www.jstor.org/
stable/1170959).
2. Tanner, Harold Miles (2009). China: A History (https://books.google.com/books?id=VIWC9wCX2c8C&pg=PA167).
Hackett Publishing. pp. 167–168. ISBN 978-0-87220-915-2. "Yang Jian (r. 581–604), the founder of the Sui dynasty, was
a member of the ethnically mixed, militaristic northwestern Chinese aristocracy developed during the period of division.
The Yang clan had served, and intermarried with the Xianbei for generations. (...) Although he was a product of the
mixed-ethnicity northern aristocracy, Yang Jian made a point of emphasizing Han Chinese cultural identity."
3. CIHoCn, p. 114: "dug between 605 and 609 by means of enormous levies of conscripted labor".
4. "Koguryo" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/321038/Koguryo). Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved
15 October 2013.
5. Byeon, Tae-seop (1996). Hangugsa tongnon 韓國史通論 [Outline of Korean history] (in Korean) (4th ed.). Seoul:
Samyŏngsa. ISBN 978-89-445-9101-3.
6. "Complex of Koguryo Tombs" (https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1091). UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved
24 October 2013.
7. Howard L. Goodman (2010). Xun Xu and the Politics of Precision in Third-Century AD China (https://books.google.com/
books?id=dLu4J6ffgWEC&q=hongnong+yang&pg=PA81). Brill. pp. 81–. ISBN 978-90-04-18337-7.
8. Bulletin (https://books.google.com/books?id=rA0iAQAAMAAJ&q=hung+nung+yang). The Museum. 1992. p. 154.
9. Jo-Shui Chen (2006). Liu Tsung-yüan and Intellectual Change in T'ang China, 773–819 (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=jnKdhb6Ct0oC&q=hung+nung+yang&pg=PA195). Cambridge University Press. pp. 195–. ISBN 978-0-521-03010-
6.
10. Peter Bol (1994). 'This Culture of Ours': Intellectual Transitions in T'ang and Sung China (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=Vs9MBxcHUSQC&q=hung+nung+yang&pg=PA505). Stanford University Press. pp. 505–. ISBN 978-0-8047-6575-
6.
11. Asia Major (https://books.google.com/books?id=vbK5AAAAIAAJ&q=hung+nung+yang). Institute of History and Philology
of the Academia Sinica. 1995. p. 57.
12. Ebrey, Patricia; Walthall, Ann; Palais, James (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Houghton Mifflin
Harcourt. p. 89. ISBN 0-618-13384-4.
13. Zizhi Tongjian, vol. 176.
14. Peter Bol (1994). 'This Culture of Ours': Intellectual Transitions in T'ang and Sung China (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=Vs9MBxcHUSQC&pg=PA505). Stanford University Press. p. 505. ISBN 978-0-8047-6575-6.
15. Jo-Shui Chen (2006). Liu Tsung-yüan and Intellectual Change in T'ang China, 773–819 (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=jnKdhb6Ct0oC&pg=PA195). Cambridge University Press. p. 195. ISBN 978-0-521-03010-6.
16. Bulletin (https://books.google.com/books?id=rA0iAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA154). The Museum. 1992. p. 154.
17. New Book of Tang, zh:s:新唐書
18. Jo-Shui Chen (2006). Liu Tsung-yüan and Intellectual Change in T'ang China, 773–819 (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=jnKdhb6Ct0oC&pg=PA43). Cambridge University Press. pp. 43–. ISBN 978-0-521-03010-6.
19. Shanxi, Provincial Institute of Archeology. "The Yu Hong's Tomb of the Sui Dynasty in Taiyuan" (http://www.kaogu.cn/en/
Chinese%20Archaeology/2/Ar_ch258.PDF) (PDF). Chinese Archeology (中国考古). 2: 258.
20. Peter Bol (1994). 'This Culture of Ours': Intellectual Transitions in T'ang and Sung China (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=Vs9MBxcHUSQC&pg=PA66). Stanford University Press. pp. 66–. ISBN 978-0-8047-6575-6.
21. Luttwak, Edward N. (2009). The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire. Cambridge and London: The Belknap Press of
Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03519-5, p. 168.
22. Yule, Henry (1915). Henri Cordier (ed.), Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China,
Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the
Cape Route (https://archive.org/stream/cathaywaythither01yule#page/n3/mode/2up). London: Hakluyt Society.
Accessed 21 September 2016, pp 29–31.
23. Yule, Henry (1915). Henri Cordier (ed.), Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China,
Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the
Cape Route (https://archive.org/stream/cathaywaythither01yule#page/n3/mode/2up). London: Hakluyt Society.
Accessed 21 September 2016, p. 29; also footnote #4 on p. 29.
24. Ebrey, Patricia; Walthall, Ann; Palais, James (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Houghton Mifflin
Harcourt. p. 90. ISBN 0-618-13384-4.
25. Haywood, John (1997). Atlas of world history (https://archive.org/details/atlasofworldhist00hayw/page/n86/mode/1up).
New York : Barnes & Noble Books. p. Map 36. ISBN 978-0-7607-0687-9.
26. Metropolitan Museum of Art permanent exhibit notice.
27. Benn, 2.
28. Ouyang, Xiu (2004). Historical Records of the Five Dynasties (https://books.google.com/books?id=R0QpslzUi50C&pg=P
A76). Richard L. Davis, translator. Columbia University Press. pp. 76–. ISBN 978-0-231-50228-3.
29. John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lü (2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220–589 Ad) (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=q2nWdWbN3MQC&pg=PA84). Brill. pp. 84–. ISBN 978-90-04-17585-3.
30. Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty: His Life, Times, and Legacy. SUNY Press. 2012. p. 225. ISBN 978-0791482681.
31. Ebrey, Patricia; Walthall, Ann; Palais, James (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Houghton Mifflin
Harcourt. ISBN 0-618-13384-4.
32. Ivanhoe, Philip (2009). Readings from the Lu-Wang school of Neo-Confucianism. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub. Co. p. 149.
ISBN 978-0872209602.
33. Explanation of the Mean (中說) (https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E8%AA%AA)
34. Watson, Burton (1971). Chinese Lyricsm: Shih Poetry from the Second to the Twelfth Century. (New York: Columbia
University Press). ISBN 0-231-03464-4, p. 109.

Wright, Arthur F. (1979). "The Sui dynasty (581–617)" (https://books.google.com/books?id=ReCvuwAACAAJ&pg=PA48).

In Twitchett, Dennis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China: Sui and T'ang China, 589–906, Part I. Vol. III. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. pp. 48–149. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
Wright, Arthur F. (1978). The Sui Dynasty (https://archive.org/details/suidynasty00wrig). Knopf. p. 237 (https://archive.or
g/details/suidynasty00wrig/page/237).

External links
Classical Imperial China (https://web.archive.org/web/20070810122650/http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/chin
a/classical_imperial_china/sui.html)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sui_dynasty&oldid=1215866406"