Basic Aerodynamics: 8.3 Theory of Flight

Module 8
Basic Aerodynamics
8.3 Theory of Flight
Use and/or disclosure is

governed by the statement For Training Purposes Only
on page 2 of this chapter. ST Aerospace Ltd
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Table of Contents
Module 8.3 Theory of Flight ___________________________________________________ 9

Lift Augmentation _________________________________________________________ 9
Introduction _____________________________________________________________ 9
Flaps __________________________________________________________________ 9
Leading Edge Slots ______________________________________________________ 12
Slats __________________________________________________________________ 12
The Boundary Layer _____________________________________________________ 16
Slat and Slotted Flap Combination___________________________________________ 18
Wing Planforms __________________________________________________________ 21
Introduction ____________________________________________________________ 21
Aspect Ratio ___________________________________________________________ 21
Aspect Ratio and Induced (Vortex) Drag ______________________________________ 21
Aspect Ratio and Stalling Angle _____________________________________________ 22
Use of High Aspect Ratio __________________________________________________ 23
The Effects of Taper _____________________________________________________ 23
Stall Patterns ___________________________________________________________ 26
Sweepback ____________________________________________________________ 27
Alleviating the Tip Stall____________________________________________________ 34
Pitch-up _______________________________________________________________ 35
Forward Sweep _________________________________________________________ 38
Delta Wings ____________________________________________________________ 39
Polymorphic Aircraft ______________________________________________________ 42
Canard Design __________________________________________________________ 44
Summary ______________________________________________________________ 44
Flight Controls ___________________________________________________________ 47
Introduction ____________________________________________________________ 47
Aerodynamic Balancing ___________________________________________________ 48
Power Operated Control __________________________________________________ 50
Mass Balance __________________________________________________________ 51
3-Axis Control __________________________________________________________ 52
Tabs __________________________________________________________________ 57
Flight Forces ____________________________________________________________ 61
Introduction ____________________________________________________________ 61
Pitching Moments _______________________________________________________ 61
Climbing, Gliding and Turning ______________________________________________ 63
Turning and Manoeuvres: Points to Note______________________________________ 72
Basic Manoeuvres ________________________________________________________ 83
Lift ___________________________________________________________________ 83
Stalling Angle ___________________________________________________________ 85
Stalling Speed __________________________________________________________ 85
Multi-Engined Aircraft_____________________________________________________ 85
Module 8.3 Theory of Flight 3-5

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V-Speeds ______________________________________________________________ 90
High Speed Flight ________________________________________________________ 93
Introduction ____________________________________________________________ 93
Definitions _____________________________________________________________ 93
Airflow ________________________________________________________________ 94
Speed of Sound _________________________________________________________ 94
Shock Waves ___________________________________________________________ 97
Wave Drag _____________________________________________________________ 99
Effects of Compressibility on Lift ___________________________________________ 100
Supersonic Fall in CL ____________________________________________________ 104
Effects of Increasing Mach No on Stability____________________________________ 104
Mach Trim ____________________________________________________________ 106
Key Points ____________________________________________________________ 106
3-6 Module 8.3 Theory of Flight

For Training Purposes Only governed by the statement
ST Aerospace Ltd on page 2 of this chapter.
© Copyright 2012
Module 8.3 Theory of Flight
Lift Augmentation-升力增强
Introduction
High lift devices are incorporated on aircraft wings to reduce the distance required for take-off
and landing. The distance used by an aircraft either to take off or land depends on the speed
involved, and this speed in its turn is related to the stalling speed of the aircraft. An aircraft
cannot approach to land at a speed below its stalling speed, therefore the higher the stalling
speed the longer the distance required to complete the landing run. The same applies for take-
off, the aircraft not being able to leave the ground until it has achieved flying speed, i.e. above
the stalling speed, therefore the lower the stalling speed under these circumstances the less
distance is required. All high lift devices produce the same effect, which is to increase the
coefficient of lift of the wing. The methods used for increasing the CL are:
∀ Flaps
∀ Slats
∀ Boundary layer control
A flap is a hinged aerofoil section which can be mechanically lowered either from the trailing
edge or the leading edge of a wing. The effect of lowering a flap is to increase the overall
camber of the wing and thus increasing the coefficient of lift. Some types of flap also increase
the wing area, thus augmenting the additional camber and producing even more lift.
Flaps
There are many different types of flap in common use and some of the more usual ones are
shown below.
Plain Flap
The plain flap is an aerofoil section merely hinging down from the trailing edge of the wing.
Figure 3.1 – Plain Flap

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Split Flap
As Illustrated below, the split flap hinges down- 下摆 from the undersurface of the trailing
edge. This has the advantage that the camber of the upper surface of the wing is not
disturbed but, at the same time the flap will produce a considerable amount of drag.
Figure 3.2 – Split Flap

Slotted Flap
One of the problems with flaps in general is that at large flap angles the air tends to separate
away from the flap upper surface, thus reducing its effectiveness. This can be minimized by
putting a small slot between the trailing edge of the wing and the leading edge of the flap, as
illustrated below. The slot produces a venturi which speeds the air up, thus giving it more kinetic
energy and enabling it to follow the contour of the flap farther rearwards before breaking away.
Figure 3.3 – Slotted Flap
Fowler Flap
The Fowler flap, in addition to moving downwards, also moves rear-wards in sections when it is
lowered. Whilst increasing the camber of the wing this also enlarges the wing area, and will
result in a very large increase in the coefficient of lift. It is quite usual for Fowler flaps also to
have slats, and this type is illustrated below.
Figure 3.4 – Fowler Flap

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Krueger Flap
This is a leading edge flap which increases the leading edge camber, and is illustrated in below.
Figure 3.5 – Krueger Flap
Leading Edge Droop

In this system the entire leading edge of the wing is mechanically lowered, as shown below.
This has the effect of increasing the leading edge camber. As can be imagined, the mechanism
for lowering the leading edge must be extremely complicated, and this type of high lift device
has not found general favour.
Figure 3.6 – Leading Edge Droop
The increase in camber caused by the lowering of flaps produces more lift from the given wing
section. If we consider straight and level flight, on lowering of flaps the greater lift will enable
either the angle of attack to be reduced or the speed to be reduced. Generally speaking, a
compromise-妥协 is reached between these two factors and the speed is considerably reduced
with a small reduction in the angle of attack. The effect of lowering flaps is not constant from
zero angle down to their full deployment. A selection of flaps down to approximately 30o will
give a very large increase in lift for a comparatively small penalty in drag, but further lowering,
to say 60o, will not produce much increase in lift but will produce a considerable increase in
drag. When considering the distance required for take-off one might first feel that the lowest
speed for takeoff would give the shortest distance, the whole effect being achieved by large flap
angle.
Unfortunately, as already mentioned, a large flap angle incurs a very high drag penalty which
reduces the acceleration of the aircraft, so you would end up with a rather long distance before
you could reach the un-stick speed. A lower flap angle would give a higher un-stick speed, but,
with less drag, better acceleration would be achieved. In practice, a compromise is reached
between these two limits and a flap setting of somewhere in the region of 10o to 12o is used for
take-off.

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The distance required to land depends on the touch-down speed. The lowest speed will be
given by selection of full flap, this giving the lowest stalling speed. In addition the selection of full
flap will produce a very considerable amount of drag which will assist in decelerating the aircraft
on landing.
Leading Edge Slots

The leading edge slot, when opened, prevents the airflow from breaking away at the normal
stalling angle. This allows the wing to be used at higher angles of attack, giving higher CL and
so lower speeds.
Figure 3.7 – Leading Edge Slot – closed and open
Slats
Slats are lift augmentation devices that take the form of a small auxiliary aerofoil, highly
cambered, adjacent to the leading edge of a wing (forming a slot), usually along the complete
span. They are adjustable, control being either automatic or manual by the pilot. The effect on
the CL and angle of stall may be seen on Figure 3.8, CL being increased by approximately 70%,
and angle of stall by some 10o.
The effect of the slat is to prolong the lift curve by delaying the stall until a higher angle of
attack. When operating at high angles of attack the slat is generating a high lift coefficient
because of its marked camber. The resultant action, aerodynamically, is to flatten the marked
peak of the low pressure envelope, changing it to one with a more gradual gradient, as may be
seen on Figure 3.9. This flattening means that the boundary layer does not undergo the sudden
thickening due to negotiating the steep pressure gradient that existed behind the former peak,
so retaining its energy and enabling it to penetrate almost the full chord before separating.
Figure 3.10 also shows that although the pressure distribution is flatter, the area of the low
pressure region is unchanged or even increased. The passage of the boundary layer over the
wing is assisted by the air flowing through the slot (between slat and leading edge) accelerating
through the venturi effect, thus adding to the kinetic energy and so helping it to penetrate
against the adverse pressure gradient.

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Figure 3.8 – Change in stall angle with slot open
Figure 3.9 – Change in stall angle with flap and slat

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Figure 3.10 – Slat’s effect on pressure distribution
To summarize the foregoing thus far, slats have the effect of:
• Delaying separation until an angle of attack of 25o to 28o is attained, during which time:
• Lift coefficient has increased by approximately 70%. It should be evident that the stalling
speed of a slatted wing is significantly reduced, e.g. if an un-slatted wing stalls at 100 kts,
its fully slatted counterpart would stall at approximately 80 kts. The exact amount of
reduction depends on the length of leading edge covered by the slat, and the chord of
the slat.
Automatic slats are often located at the wing leading edge in front of ailerons in order to
increase the stalling angle by being automatically extended when the aileron moves down.
Normally the action of a down going aileron will reduce the stalling angle of the wing at that
point.
Slat Control
Since slats are of use only at high angles of attack, some method must be used to fair the slats
with the leading edge, thus precluding increased drag at normal flight configuration.
non-automatic. Large
If the slats are small and the drag is negligible they may be fixed, i.e. non-
slats, however, are invariably of the automatic type. They are usually of the mechanical control,
hydraulically actuated kind, their selection being mechanically matched to the selection of flap,
the linkage being such that slats are extended before flap and before the speed reaches that
used for approach and landing. The reverse occurs on takeoff,
takeoff, when slats are fully in only after
flap is up, and at the correct airspeed.
In the event of malfunction either of flaps or slats, it is usual to be able to ‘split’ the linkage
between the two, thus isolating the inoperative control, allowing the serviceable unit to operate
normally. On some aircraft the stall sensing unit may be used to extend slats only if the sensor
is activated by approach to the stall angle. Figure 3.11 illustrates a typical slat segment of the
kind more common to aircraft with swept back wings.

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Figure 3.11 – Slat closed and open

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The Boundary Layer
This may be best described as the layer of air extending from the surface to the point where no
drag effect is discernible, or, that region of flow in which the speed is less than 99% of the free
stream flow, and it usually exists in two forms — laminar and turbulent. Figure 3.12 illustrates
the boundary layer.
Figure 3.12 – Airflow within the Boundary Layer
In general, the flow at the front of a body is laminar and becomes turbulent at a point some
distance along the surface, known as the transition point. From Figure 3.12 it may be seen that
the rate of change of velocity is greater at the surface in the turbulent flow than in the laminar.
This higher rate of change of velocity results in greater surface friction drag.
It can be seen that the nature of the boundary layer is a controlling factor in the determination of
surface friction drag, but more important still, the nature of the boundary layer also determines
the maximum lift coefficient, the stalling characteristics of a wing, the value of form drag and, to
some extent, the high speed characteristics of an aircraft.
The boundary layer cannot be eliminated entirely, though some measure of control of it may be
afforded by wing devices, one already dealt with being LE slots, which have the effect of re-
energizing the boundary layer. Others are:
• Boundary layer fences to restrict the boundary layer outflow. They also check the
spanwise growth of the separation ‘bubble’ along the leading edges.
• Boundary layer suction; suitably placed suction points draw off the weakened layer so
that a new high energy layer can take its place.
• Boundary layer blowing; high velocity air injected into the boundary layer to increase its
energy.
• Vortex generators; these re-energise the boundary layer, and are usually positioned
ahead of control surfaces.

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• LE extension, also known as a ‘sawtooth’ LE - restricts the outward flow of the boundary
layer.
• LE notch has the same effect as LE extension.
Figure 3.13 – Typical slat and flap positions on a transport category aircraft

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Slat and Slotted Flap Combination
The combination shown on the previous page will provide a 75% increase of maximum lift with a
basic aerofoil angle at max lift of 25o. This will provide more control of the boundary layer with
an increase of camber and wing area. The pitching moment that a trailing edge flap will produce
on its own, can be neutralized.
Figure 3.14 – Slat mechanism
Figure 3.15 – Effect on stall angles with flaps and slots

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Figure 3.16 – Effect on airflow of slot

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Wing Planforms
Introduction
The previous chapters have considered the basics of lift, drag and stalling, and explained the
causes of these phenomena. It is however, also necessary to study another important aspect of
the design of wings, i.e. the planform. The planform is the geometrical shape of the wing as
viewed from above; it largely determines the amount of lift and drag obtainable from a given
wing area, and has a marked effect on the value of the stalling angle of attack.
This chapter is concerned mainly with the low-speed effects of various wing planforms.
Aspect Ratio
The aspect ratio (A) of a wing is found by dividing the square of the wing span by the area of the
wing:
Span2
A=
Area
If a wing has an area of 250 square feet and a span of 30 feet, the aspect ratio is therefore 3.6.
Another wing with the same span but with an area of 150 square feet would have an aspect
ratio of 6. An alternative method of determining aspect ratio is by dividing the span by the mean
chord of the wing. Thus, a span of 50 ft with a mean chord of 5 ft gives an aspect ratio of 10.
From the preceding examples it can be seen that the smaller the area or mean chord in relation
to the span, the higher is the aspect ratio. A rough idea of the performance of a wing can be
obtained from knowledge of the aspect ratio.
Aspect Ratio and Induced (Vortex) Drag

The origin and formation of trailing edge and wing tip vortices was explained earlier and it was
shown that induced downwash was the cause of induced drag. The induced drag produced by a
wing is proportional to the lift generated.
The amount of induced drag under a given set of conditions can be found from the formula:
2
kC L
Induced drag = qS
πA
2
kC L
Where the coefficient of induced drag, and A = aspect ratio.
πA
From the formula it can be seen that induced drag is inversely proportional to aspect ratio. A
graph showing the curves of two different aspect ratio wings plotted against CD and angle of
attack is given below.

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Figure 3.17 – CD variation with angle of attack (∞)
Aspect Ratio and Stalling Angle

From the previous paragraph it can be seen that as the aspect ratio is decreased, so the
induced drag is increased. It was also stated that the stall occurs when the effective angle of
attack reaches the critical angle. Thus for a given aerofoil section the higher the aspect ratio,
the lower is the stalling angle of attack. For a simple example, consider a wing in level flight: if
there were no induced downwash (and hence no induced drag) then the wing would stall when
the angle of attack reached its critical angle relative to the ‘horizontal’ total airstream past the
wing.
However, all wings have vortices and so induce a downward component in the direction of the
total airflow; thus the lower the aspect ratio, the larger the vortices and the greater the induced
downwash. The stall will therefore occur when the effective angle of attack, which now has a
downward component, reaches the critical angle. In the two cases which have been considered,
the stalling angle of the wing with no induced drag is the lower by, approximately, the angular
degree of the induced downwash.
The reduced effective angle of attack of very low aspect ratio wings can delay the stall
considerably. Some delta wings have no measurable stalling angle up to 40o or more inclination
to the flight path. At this sort of angle the drag is so high that the flight path is usually inclined
downwards at a steep angle to the horizontal. Apart from a rapid rate of descent, and possible
loss of stability and control, such aircraft may have a shallow attitude to the horizon and this can
be deceptive. The condition is called the super stall or deep stall, although the wing may in fact
be far from a true stall and still be generating appreciable lift.

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Use of High Aspect Ratio
While a high aspect ratio wing will minimize induced drag, long thin wings conversely increase
weight and have relatively poor stiffness characteristics. Also the effects of vertical gusts on the
airframe are aggravated by higher aspect ratio. Broadly it can be said that the lower the cruising
speed of the aircraft, the higher the aspect ratios that can be usefully employed. Aircraft
configurations which are developed for very high speed flight (especially supersonic flight)
operate at relatively low lift coefficients and demand great aerodynamic cleanness. This usually
results in the use of low aspect ratio planforms.
The Effects of Taper

The aspect ratio of a wing is the primary factor in determining the three-dimensional
characteristics of the ordinary wing and its drag due to lift. Certain local effects, however, take
place throughout the span of the wing and these are due to the distribution of area throughout
the span. The typical lift distribution is arranged in some elliptical fashion.
The natural distribution of lift along the span of wing provides a basis for appreciating the effect
of area distribution and taper along the span. If the elliptical lift distribution is matched with a
planform whose chord is distributed in an elliptical fashion (the elliptical wing), each square foot
of area along the span produces exactly the same lift pressure. The elliptical wing planform then
has each section of the wing working at exactly the same local lift coefficient and the induced
down-flow at the wing is uniform throughout the span. In the aerodynamic sense, the elliptical
wing is the most efficient planform because the uniformity of lift coefficient and downwash incurs
the least induced drag for a given aspect ratio. The merit of any wing planform is then measured
by the closeness with which the distribution of lift coefficient (CL) and downwash approach that
of the elliptical planform. The effect of the elliptical planform is illustrated by the plot of the ratio
of the local lift coefficient (Cl) to wing coefficient (CL) against semi-span distance. The elliptical
wing produces a constant value of Cl / CL = 1.0 throughout the span from root to tip. Thus, the
local section angle of attack αo and local induced angle of attack α1 are constant throughout the
span. If the planform area distribution is anything other than elliptical it may be expected that the
local section and induced angles of attack will not be constant along the span.

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Figure 3.18 – Lift distributions and stall propagation characteristics of different wing planforms
A planform previously considered is the simple rectangular wing which has a taper ratio of 1. A
characteristic of the rectangular wing is a strong vortex at the tip with local downwash behind
the wing which is high at the tip and low at the root. This large non-uniformity in downwash
causes similar variation in the local induced angles of attack along the span. At the tip, where
high downwash exists, the local induced angle of attack is greater than the average for the
wing. Since the wing angle of attack is composed of the sum of α1 and αo, a large, local α1

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reduces the local αo , creating low local lift coefficients at the tip. The reverse is true at the root
of the rectangular wing where low local downwash exists. This situation creates an induced
angle of attack at the root which is less than the average for the wing, and a local section angle
of attack higher than the average for the wing. The result is shown by the graph, which depicts a
local coefficient at the root almost 20% greater than the wing lift coefficient.
The effect of the rectangular planform may be appreciated by matching a near elliptical lift
distribution with a planform with a constant chord. The chords near the tip develop less lift
pressure than the root and consequently have lower section lift coefficients. The great non-
uniformity of local lift coefficient along the span implies that some sections carry more than their
share of the load while others carry less. Hence, for a given aspect ratio, the rectangular
planform will be less efficient than the elliptical wing. For example, a rectangular wing of A = 6
would have 16% higher induced angle of attack and 5% higher induced drag than an elliptical
wing of the same aspect ratio.
At the other extreme of taper is the pointed wing which has a taper ratio of zero. The extremely
small area at the pointed tip is not capable of holding the main tip vortex at the tip and a drastic
change in downwash distribution results. The pointed wing has greatest downwash at the root
and this downwash decreases towards the tip. In the immediate vicinity of the pointed tip an
upwash is encountered which indicates that negative induced angles of attack exist in that area.
The resulting variation of local lift coefficient shows low C1 at the root and very high C1 at the tip.
The effect may be appreciated by realizing that the wide chords at the root produce low lift
pressures while the very narrow chords towards the tip are subject to very high lift pressures.
The variation of Cl / CL throughout the span of the wing of taper ratio = 0 is shown on the graph.
As with the rectangular wing, the non-uniformity of downwash and lift distribution results in the
inefficiency of this planform. For example, a pointed wing of A = 6 would have 17% higher
induced angle of attack and 13% higher induced drag than an elliptical wing of the same aspect
ratio.
Between the two extremes of taper will exist planforms of more tolerable efficiency. The
variations of Cl / CL for a wing of taper ratio = 0.5 are similar to the lift distribution of the elliptical
wing and the drag due to lift characteristics are nearly identical. A wing of A = 6 and taper ratio
= 0.5 has only 3% higher α1 and 1% greater CD1 than an elliptical wing of the same aspect ratio.
The elliptical wing is the ideal of the subsonic aerodynamic planform since it provides a
minimum of induced drag for a given aspect ratio. However, the major objection to the elliptical
planform is the extreme difficulty of mechanical layout and construction. A highly tapered plan-
form is desirable from the standpoint of structural weight and stiffness, and the usual wing
planform may have a taper ratio from 0.45 to 0.20. Since structural considerations are important
in the development of an aeroplane, the tapered planform is a necessity for an efficient
configuration. In order to preserve aerodynamic efficiency, however, the planform is tailored by
wing twist and section variation to obtain as near as possible the elliptic lift distribution.

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Stall Patterns
An additional outcome of planform area distribution is the stall pattern of the wing. The desirable
stall pattern of any wing is one where the stall begins at the root sections first. The advantages
of the root stalling first are that ailerons remain effective at high angles of attack, favourable stall
warning results from the buffet on the tailplane and aft portion of the fuselage, and the loss of
downwash behind the root usually provides a stable nose-down moment to the aircraft. Such a
stall pattern is favoured but may, in fact, be difficult to obtain with certain wing configurations.
The various planform effects are separated as follows:
• The elliptical planform has constant lift coefficients throughout the span from root to tip.
Such a lift distribution means that all sections will reach the stall at essentially the same
wing angle of attack and the stall will both begin and progress uniformly throughout the
span. While the elliptical wing would reach high lift coefficients before an incipient stall,
there would be little advance warning of a complete stall. Also, the ailerons may lack
effectiveness when the wing operates near the stall and lateral control may be difficult.
• The lift distribution of the rectangular wing exhibits low local lift coefficients at the tip,
and high local lift coefficients at the root. Since the wing will initiate the stall in the area of
highest local lift coefficients, the rectangular wing is characterized by a strong root-stall
tendency. This stall pattern is of course, favourable since there is adequate stall warning
buffet, adequate aileron effectiveness, and usually strong stable moment changes on the
aircraft. Because of the great aerodynamic and structural inefficiency of this planform,
however, the rectangular wing finds limited application, chiefly to low cost, low speed,
light planes.
• The wing of moderate taper (taper ratio = 0.5) has a lift distribution which is similar to
that of the elliptical wing. Hence the stall pattern is much the same as that of the elliptical
wing.
• The highly tapered wing of taper ratio 0.25 shows the stalling tendency inherent with
high taper. The lift distribution of such a wing has distinct peaks just inboard from the tip.
Since the wing stall is started in the vicinity of the highest local lift coefficient, this plan-
form has a strong ‘tip stall’ tendency. The initial stall is not started at the exact tip but at
that station inboard from the tip where the highest local lift coefficients prevail.
• The pointed tip wing of taper ratio equal to zero develops extremely high local lift
coefficients at the tip. For all practical purposes the pointed tip will be stalled at any
condition of lift unless extensive tailoring is applied to the wing. Such a planform has no
practical application to an aircraft which is definitely subsonic in performance.
• Sweepback applied to a wing planform alters the lift distribution in a way similar to
decreasing the taper ratio. The full significance of sweepback is discussed in the
following paragraphs.

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Sweepback
Swept-back Leading Edges

This type of planform is used on high speed aircraft and may take the form of a swept back
wing, or of a delta with or without a tailplane. The reason for the use of these planforms is their
low drag at the higher speeds. The high speed/low drag advantages are however, gained at the
cost of a poorer performance at the lower end of the speed scale.
Effect of Sweepback on Lift

If a straight wing is changed to a swept planform, with similar parameters of area, aspect ratio,
taper, section and washout, the CLmax is reduced. This is due to premature flow separation from
the upper surface at the Wing tips. For a sweep angle of 45o the approximate reduction in CLmax
is around 30%. Figure 3.19 shows typical CL curves for a straight wing, a simple swept back
wing and a tailless delta wing of the same low aspect ratio.
Figure 3.19 – Lift curves for various levels of wing sweep
The main reason for the lowering of the CL slope is best explained by examination of the
Figures 3.20 and 3.21. From the first it can be seen that the velocity V can be divided into two
components V1 parallel to the leading edge which has no effect on the lift, and V2 normal to the
leading edge which does affect the lift and is equal to V cos Λ. Therefore, all other factors
being equal, the CL of a swept wing is reduced in the ratio of the cosine of the sweep angle.
Figure 3.21 shows that an increase in fuselage geometric incidence ∆ will only produce an
increase in the angle of attack ∆ cos Λ in the plane perpendicular to the wing quarter chord line.
Since it has already been said that it is airflow in the latter plane which effects CL, the full incre-
ment of lift expected from the ∆ change is reduced to that of a ∆ cos Λ change.

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Figure 3.20 – The effect of sweep angle on effective airflow
Considering the graph of Figure 3.19, the stall occurs on all three wings at angles of attack
considerably greater than those of wings of medium and high aspect ratios. On all aircraft it is
desirable that the landing speed should be close to the lowest possible speed at which the
aircraft can fly; to achieve this desirable minimum the wing must be at the angle of attack
corresponding to the CLmax

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Figure 3.21 – The effective incidence change when an aircraft’s pitch changes
Figure 3.22 – Three levels of sweep, and corresponding aspect ratio reduction
On all wings of very low aspect ratio, and particularly on those with a swept-back planform, the
angles of attack giving the highest lift coefficients cannot be used for landing. This is because
swept-back planforms have some undesirable characteristics near the stall and because the
exaggerated nose-up attitude of the aircraft necessitates, among other things, excessively long
and heavy undercarriages. The maximum angle at which an aircraft can touch down without
recourse to such measures is about 15o and the angle of attack at touch-down will therefore
have to be something of this order. The CL corresponding to this angle of attack is lower than
the CLmax for each wing. Compared with the maximum usable lift coefficient available for
landing aircraft with unswept wings, those of the swept and delta wings are much lower, neces-
sitating higher landing speeds for a given wing loading. It is now apparent that, to obtain a
common minimum landing speed at a stated weight, an unswept wing needs a smaller area
than either of the swept planforms. The simple swept wing needs a greater area, and so a lower

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wing loading, in order that the reduced CL can support the weight at the required speed. The
tailless delta wing needs still more area, and so a still lower wing loading, to land at the required
speed. Figure 3.22 shows typical planforms for the three types of wing under consideration, with
areas adjusted to give the same stalling speed. The much larger area of the delta wing is
evident.
Effect of Sweepback on Drag

The main reason for employing sweepback as a wing planform is to improve the high speed
characteristics of the wing. Unfortunately this has adverse effects on the amount of drag
produced at the higher range of angles of attack. The induced drag increases approximately in
1
proportion to . This is because, as already explained, CL is reduced by sweeping the
cos A
wing, and therefore to maintain the same lift the angle of attack has to be increased. This
increases the induced downwash and hence the induced drag.
The practical significance of this high increase in drag is the handling problems it imposes
during an approach to landing. Because of the greater induced drag, the minimum drag speed
is higher than that for a comparable straight wing, and the approach speed is usually less than
the minimum drag speed. Therefore, if a pilot makes a small adjustment to the aircraft’s attitude
by, for example raising the nose slightly, the lift will be increased slightly, but there will be a
large increase in drag, which will result in a rapid fall off in speed, with a large increase in power
needed to restore equilibrium. In fact, the stage may be reached where even the use of full
power is insufficient to prevent the aircraft from descending rapidly.
Figure 3.23 – Differences in drag at Approach Speed (VApp) of a swept and straight wing
On some aircraft this problem is overcome by employing high drag devices, such as airbrakes
or drag-chutes, to increase the profile drag. This results in a flatter drag curve with the minimum
drag speed closer to the approach speed. A further advantage is that more power is required on
the approach, which on turbojet aircraft, means better engine response.

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Effect of Sweepback on Stalling
When a wing is swept back, the boundary layer tends to change direction and flow towards the
tips. This outward drift is caused by the boundary layer encountering an adverse pressure
gradient and flowing obliquely to it over the rear of the wing. The pressure distribution on a
swept wing is shown by isobars in Figure 3.24. The velocity of the flow has been shown by two
components, one at right angles and the other parallel to the isobars. Initially, when the
boundary layer flows rearwards from the leading edge it moves towards a favourable pressure
gradient, i.e. towards an area of lower pressure. Once past the lowest pressure however, the
component at right angles to the isobars encounters an adverse pressure gradient and is
reduced. The component parallel to the isobars is unaffected, therefore the result is that the
actual velocity is reduced (as it is over an unswept wing) and also directed outwards towards
the tips.
Figure 3.24 – Isobars on the upper surface of a wing, and resultant airflow spanwise drift
The direction of the flow continues to be changed until the component at right angles to the
isobars is reduced to zero, whilst the parallel component, because of friction, is also slightly
reduced. This results in a ‘pool’ of slow moving air collecting at the tips.

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The spanwise drift initiates a tendency towards tip stalling, since it thickens the boundary layer
over the outer parts of the wing and makes it more susceptible to separation, bringing with it a
sudden reduction in CLmax over the wing tips.
At the same time as the boundary layer is flowing towards the tips, at high angles of attack, the
airflow is separating along the leading edge. Over the inboard section it re-attaches behind a
short ‘separation bubble’, but on the outboard section it re-attaches only on the trailing edge or
fails to attach at all. The separated flow at the tips combines with the normal wing tip vortices to
form a large vortex (the ram’s horn vortex). The factors which combine to form this vortex are:
• Leading edge separation

• The flow around the wing tips
• The spanwise flow of the boundary layer.
Figure 3.25 – Leading edge separation at high angles of attack
These factors are illustrated in Figure 3.25 and the sequence of the vortex development and its
effect on the airflow over the wing is shown in Figure 3.26. From the latter it can be seen that
the ram’s horn vortex has its origin on the leading edge, possibly as far inboard as the wing
root.
The effect of the vortex on the air above it (the external flow) is to draw the latter down and
behind the wing, deflecting it towards the fuselage (See Figure 3.26)
The spanwise flow of the boundary layer increases as angle of attack is increased. This causes
the vortex closer inboard to become detached from the leading edge (see Figure 3.26). As a
result, outboard ailerons suffer a marked decrease in response with increasing angle of attack.

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This, in turn, means that comparatively large aileron movements are necessary to manoeuvre
the aircraft at low speeds; the aircraft response may be correspondingly sluggish. This effect
may be countered by limiting the inboard encroachment of the vortex as described on page 34,
or by moving the ailerons inboard. Another possible solution is the use of an all-moving wing tip.
Figure 3.26 – Development of the Ram’s Horn vortex

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Alleviating the Tip Stall
Most of the methods used to alleviate the tip stall aim either at maintaining a thin and therefore
strong boundary layer, or re-energizing the weakened boundary layer:
Boundary Layer Fences

Used originally to restrict the boundary layer out-flow, fences also check the spanwise growth of
the separation bubble along the leading edge.
Leading Edge Slots

These have the effect of re-energizing the boundary layer.
Boundary Layer Suction

Suitably placed suction points draw off the weakened layer; a new high-energy layer is then
drawn down to take its place.
Boundary Layer Blowing

High velocity air is injected into the boundary layer to increase its energy.
Vortex generators
The purpose of these devices is to re-energise the boundary layer by making it more turbulent.
The increased turbulence results in high-energy air in layers immediately above the seriously
retarded layer being mixed in and so re-energizing the layer as a whole. In effect, the laminar
flow is ‘tripped’ to turn it into turbulent flow, effectively forcing the transition point further towards
the leading edge, at critical sections of the wing.
Vortex generators are most commonly fitted ahead of control surfaces to increase their effect by
speeding up and strengthening the boundary layer, thus delaying separation point at such areas
of high camber, albeit at the expense of a slight increase in drag. Vortex generators also
markedly reduce shock-induced boundary layer separation, and reduce the effects of the upper
surface shockwave.
Leading Edge Extension

Also known as a ‘sawtooth’ leading edge, the extended leading edge is a common method used
to avoid the worst effects of tip stalling. The effect of the extension is to cut down the growth of
the main vortex. A further smaller vortex, starting from the tip of the extension, affects a much
smaller proportion of the tip area and in lying across the wing, behind the tip of the extension, it
has the effect of restricting the outward flow of the boundary layer. In this way the severity of the
tip stall is reduced and with it the pitch-up tendency. Further effects of the leading edge
extension are:
• The thickness-chord ratio of the tip area is reduced, with consequent benefits to the
critical Mach number.
• The CP of the extended portion of the wing lies ahead of what would be the CP position if
no extension were fitted. The mean CP position for the whole wing is therefore farther
forward and, when the tip eventually stalls, the forward shift in CP is less marked,
therefore reducing the magnitude of the nose-up movement.

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Leading Edge Notch
The notched leading edge has the same effect as the extended leading edge in so far as it
causes a similar vortex formation thereby reducing the magnitude of the vortex over the tip area
and, with it, the tip stall. Pitch-up tendencies are therefore reduced. The leading edge notch can
be used in conjunction with an extended leading edge, the effect being to intensify the inboard
vortex behind the devices to create a stronger restraining effect on boundary layer outflow. The
choice whether to use either or both of these devices lies with the designer and depends on the
desired flight characteristics of the aircraft.
Pitch-up
Longitudinal Instability
Longitudinal instability results when the angle of attack of a swept wing increases to the point of
tip stall. The instability takes the form of a nose-up pitching moment, called pitch-up, and is a
self-stalling tendency in that the angle of attack continues to increase once the instability has
set in. The aerodynamic causes of pitch-up are detailed in the following paragraphs.
Centre of Pressure Movement

When the swept-back wing is installed, the CP lies in a certain position relative to the CG, the
exact position being the mean of the centres of pressure for every portion of the wing from the
root to the tip. When the tip stalls, lift is lost over the outboard sections and the mean CP moves
rapidly forward; the wing moment (Figure 3.27) is reduced and a nose-up pitching moment
results which aggravates the tendency.
Figure 3.27 – Pitch-up tendency of swept wings during tip-stall
Change of Downwash over the Tailplane

Figure 3.28 shows that the maximum downwash from a swept-back wing in unstalled flight
comes from the tip portions; this is to be expected since the CL is highest over these parts of the
wing. When the wing tips stall, effective lift production is concentrated inboard and the
maximum downwash now operates over the tailplane and increases the tendency to pitch up.
This effect can be reduced by placing the tailplane as low as possible in line with, or below, the
wing chord line, so that it lies in a region in which the downwash changes with angle of attack
are less marked.

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Figure 3.28 – Downwash effects on the tailplane during tip-stall
Washout due to Flexure

When a swept wing flexes under load, all chordwise points at right angles to the main spar are
raised to the same degree, unless the wing is specially designed so that this is not so.
Therefore in Figure 3.29, the points A and B rise through the same distance and the points C
and D rise through a same distance but one that is greater than A and B. Therefore C rises
farther than A and there is a consequent loss in incidence at this section. This aeroelastic effect
is termed ‘washout due to flexure’, and it is obviously greatest at the wing tips.
Figure 3.29 – Washout due to flexure

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It is most noticeable during high-G manoeuvres when the loss of lift at the tips and the
consequent forward movement of the centre of pressure causes the aircraft to tighten up in the
manoeuvre. A certain amount of washout due to flexure is acceptable provided the control in
pitch is adequate to compensate for it, but it can be avoided by appropriate wing design.
Pitch-up on Aircraft with Straight Wings

On aircraft with low aspect ratio, short-span wings, pitch-up can be caused by the effect of the
wing tip vortices. As the angle of attack is increased the vortices grow larger until, at or near the
stall, they may be large enough to affect the airflow over the tailplane. As each vortex rotates
inwards towards the fuselage over its upper half, the tailplane incidence is decreased giving rise
to a pitch-up tendency.
Rate of Pitch-up
From the pilot’s point of view, pitch-up is recognized when the pull force on the control column
which is being applied to the aircraft near the stall has to be changed to a push force to prevent
the nose from rising further; the more the speed decreases the farther forward must the control
column be moved to restrain the nose-up pitch. Pitch-up in level flight or in any 1G stall is
usually gentle, since the rate at which the stall is spreading is comparatively slow and is usually
accompanied by the normal pre-stall buffeting. When the stall occurs in a manoeuvre incurring
accelerations due to ‘G’ force, the onset of pitch-up can be violent and sudden, corresponding
to the rate of spread of the stall.
The Crescent Wing

The crescent wing planform combines variable sweep with a changing thickness/chord ratio. At
the root section where the wing is thickest, the angle of sweep is greatest. As the t/c ratio is
reduced spanwise, so is the angle of sweep, so that the outboard sections are practically
unswept. Hence there is little or no outflow of the boundary layer at the tips. The advantages of
the crescent wing are:
• The critical drag rise Mach number is raised.

• The peak drag rise is reduced.
• Because of the lack of outflow of the boundary layer at the tips, tip-stalling is prevented.

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Forward Sweep
General
The benefits of wing sweep can be achieved by sweeping the wing backwards or forwards, yet
only in recent years has the forward swept wing (FSW), become a serious alternative to
sweepback. The reason for this lies in the behaviour of wing structures under load.
The main advantages lie in the sub/transonic regime. Taking the 70% chordline as the average
position for a shock-wave to form when the critical Mach number is approached, the sweep
angle of this chordline influences wave drag.
The FSW can maintain the same chord-line sweep as the swept-back wing (SBW) but due to a
geometric advantage, achieves this with less leading edge sweep and enjoys the advantages
accruing from this subsonically.
The decision to employ FSW or SBW will depend, inter alia, on the speed regime envisaged for
the design. Due to better lift/drag ratio in the sub-sonic and near transonic speed range - typical
combat air patrol - fuel consumption is improved over the SBW. For a high speed supersonic
interception the higher supersonic drag is a disadvantage.
Wing Flexure
Under flexural load the airflow sees a steady increase in effective angle of attack from root to
tip, the opposite effect to aft-sweep. Under g loading, lift will be increased at the tips, leading to
pitch-up as the centre of pressure moves forwards. Additionally, the increased angle of attack at
the tips now leads to increased wing flexure, which itself leads to increased effective angle of
attack at the tips. The result of this aeroelastic divergence is likely to be structural failure of the
wing, so it is not surprising that sweepback was considered to be a better option until
comparatively recently. What changed the situation was the development of carbon fibre
technology, which made possible controlled wing twist under load; so allowing the effect
described to be eliminated.
Vortex Generation
Figure 3.30 shows the difference in ram’s horn vortex behaviour. In the swept forward design
the ram’s horn vortex develops inwards towards the root, not outwards towards the tips.
There will, of course, still be vortices from the wing tips, but these no longer reinforce and
aggravate the ram’s horn vortex, which now lies along the fuselage, or slightly more outboard if
a small section of the wing root is swept back.

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Figure 3.30 – Spanwise drift of forward and rearward swept wings
Stalling
A swept forward wing will tend to stall at the root first. This stall can be controlled in a number of
ways. Since a conventional tailplane would tend to lie in a vortex, the popular option is to
combine forward sweep with a canard foreplane. Downwash from a carefully placed canard can
delay root stall, and even the vortices from the canard can be used to energise the airflow over
inboard sections of the wing, maintaining lift up to higher angles of attack.
The root-stall characteristics give better control at the stall as aileron control is retained, but may
incur a penalty in directional control as the fin and rudder are acting in the chaotic turbulence
from the root separation.
Delta Wings
Tailless Delta
On aircraft using this type of wing the angle of attack is controlled by movement of the trailing
edge of the wing: an upward movement produces a downward force on the trailing edge and so
increases the angle of attack. When compared with an identical wing which uses a separate
tailplane to control the angle of attack, the tailless delta reveals two main differences:
• The CLmax is reduced

• The stalling angle is increased
Reduction of CLmax
The chord line of a wing is defined as being a straight line joining the leading edge to the trailing
edge. If a given wing/aerofoil combination has a hinged trailing edge for use as an elevator,
then when the trailing edge is moved from one angular position to another, the effective aerofoil
section of the wing has been changed.
When such a wing reaches its stalling angle in level flight, the trailing edge elevator must be
raised to impose a downward force on the trailing edge to maintain the wing at the required
angle of attack. The raised trailing edge has two effects: it deflects upwards the airflow passing

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over it and so reduces the downwash (the amount of which is proportional to the lift) and it
reduces the extent both of the low-pressure area over the upper surface of the wing and the
high-pressure area below, thereby lowering the CL
The curves of Figure 3.31 show that any section with a raised trailing edge must suffer a
decreased CLmax compared to the basic section.
Figure 3.31 – Decreasing CLmax with raising trailing-edge
Increase in Stalling Angle

The planform of the delta wing gives it an inherently low aspect ratio and therefore a high
stalling angle and a marked nose-up attitude at the stall in level flight, If a given delta wing is
used without a tailplane, i.e. the trailing edge is used as an elevator, then the stalling angle is
higher than when the same wing is used in conjunction with a tailplane.
Figure 3.32 – Effect on stalling angle of delta without and with a tailplane

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All else being equal (planform, aspect ratio, area, etc), changes in the amount of camber (by
altering the angular setting of the trailing edge elevator) do not affect the stalling angle
appreciably. That is, the angle between the chord line and the direction of the airflow remains
constant when at maximum CL irrespective of the setting of the hinged trailing edge. Figure 3.32
illustrates this point and it can be seen that for both the ‘tailed’ and ‘tailless’ aircraft the stalling
angle is the same when measured on the foregoing principles.
It is however, normal practice and convention to measure the stalling angle with reference to the
chord line obtained when the moveable trailing edge is in the neutral position, and not to
assume a new chord line with each change in trailing edge movement. When the stalling angle
is measured with reference to the conventional fixed chord line, it can be seen from Figure 3.32
that the angle is greater. The diagram also shows that, because the wing proper is set at a
greater angle at the stall when a trailing edge elevator is used, the fuselage attitude is more
nose-up, giving a more exaggerated attitude at the stall in level flight.
Since it is easier to refer to angle of attack against a fixed chord line, the basic chord line is
always used as the reference datum. This convention is the reason for the apparently greater
stalling angles of tailless delta wings; it is perhaps a more realistic method, as the pilot is
invariably aware of the increased attitude of his aircraft relative to the horizontal, but is not
always aware of increases in the angle of attack.
The CL Curve
The peak of the curve for the lift coefficient is very flat and shows little variation of CL over a
comparatively wide range of angles. This very mild stalling behaviour enables the delta wing to
be flown at an angle of attack considerably higher than that of the CLmax, possibly with no ill
effects other than the very marked increase in the drag. The flat peak denotes a gradual stall,
with a consequent gradual loss of lift as the stalling angle is exceeded.
The Slender Delta

The slender delta provides low drag at supersonic speeds because of its low aspect ratio. This,
combined with a sharp leading edge, produces leading edge separation at low angles of attack.
Paradoxically, this is encouraged. Up to now the vortex so produced has been an embarrass-
ment as it is unstable, varies greatly with angle of attack, causes buffet, increases drag and
decreases CLmax . By careful design, however, the vortex can be controlled and used to
advantage.

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Vortex Lift
The vortex on a slender delta is different in character from that on a wing of higher aspect ratio
(greater than 3). On the slender delta the vortex will cover the whole leading edge from root to
tip, rather than start at the tip and travel inwards at higher angles of attack. Its behaviour is
therefore more predictable, and, as it is present during all aspects of flight, the following
characteristics may be exploited:
• Leading edge flow separation causes CP to be situated nearer mid-chord. Hence there
will be less difference between CP subsonic and CP supersonic than before, and
longitudinal stability is thereby improved.
• The vortex core is a region of low pressure, therefore an increase in CL may be expected.
On the conventional delta this cannot be utilized as the vortex seldom approaches
anywhere near the wing root and most of its energy appears in the wake behind the
wing, where it produces high induced drag. On the slender delta the low pressure in the
vortex is situated above the wing and can result in an increase in CL of as much as 30%
under favourable conditions.
Polymorphic Aircraft
General
An aircraft which is designed to fly at supersonic speeds most of the time usually has poor low
speed characteristics which have to be accepted, although various high lift devices are available
for reducing take-off and landing speeds and improving the low speed handling qualities. In
order to achieve the desired high speed performance, the aircraft has thin symmetric wing
sections and highly swept or delta wing planforms; these wings are very inefficient at low
speeds where unswept wing planforms and cambered wing sections are required.
In the case of an aircraft which is required to be operated efficiently at both high and low
speeds, variable wing sweep is a desirable feature to be incorporated in the design. The wings
can thereby be swept back when the aircraft is being flown at high speeds and swept forward
again when flying at low speeds. Such aircraft are often labeled ‘swing wing’.
Stability and Control Problems

When the wing of an aircraft is swung backwards the aerodynamic centre moves rearwards.
The CG of the aircraft also moves back at the same time, but, since most of the weight of an
aircraft is concentrated in the fuselage, the CG movement is less than that of the aerodynamic
centre. The rearwards movement of the aerodynamic centre produces a nose-down change of
trim and an increase in the longitudinal static stability of the aircraft. Additional up-elevator is
required to trim the aircraft and this results in additional drag called ‘trim drag’. This extra drag
can form a relatively large part of the total drag of an aircraft at supersonic speeds and it is
essential that it should be kept as small as possible. Various design methods are available for
reducing or eliminating the trim changes produced by sweeping the wings.
Wing Translation
The aerodynamic centre can be moved forward again by translating the wing forwards as it is
swept back. This method involves extra weight and structural complications.

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Movement
The aircraft can be designed so that the CG moves rearwards in step with the aerodynamic
centre by mounting some weight in the form of engines, etc at the wing tips. As, however,
engines would have to swivel to remain aligned with the airflow, additional weight and other
complications result. Another possible method of moving the CG is by transferring fuel to
suitable trim tanks in the rear fuselage.
Leading Edge Fillet and Pivot Position

Another solution can be obtained by positioning the pivot point outboard of the fuselage inside a
fixed, leading edge fillet, called a ‘glove’. The optimum pivot position for minimum movement of
the CP depends on the wing planform, but it is usually about 20% out along the mid-span.
However, the fixed glove-fairing presents a highly swept portion of the span at low-speed,
minimum-sweep settings. This incurs the undesirable penalties that variable geometry is
designed to overcome. A compromise between sweeping the whole wing and a long glove
giving the minimum CP shift, is usually adopted as indicated in Figure 3.33.
Figure 3.33 – CP shift in a polymorphic aircraft

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Canard Design
A canard-type configuration is one which has a foreplane located forward of the wing instead of
the more conventional tailplane. On an aircraft with a long slender fuselage with engines
mounted in the tail and a CG position well aft, this layout has the obvious geometric advantage
of a longer moment arm. This enables the stability and trim requirements to be satisfied by a
foreplane of smaller area than that of a tailplane. The trim drag problem will also be reduced
because, at high speeds, an up-load will be required on the foreplane to trim the aircraft. There
are, however, certain disadvantages with this layout:
Stalling problems
On a ‘conventional’ tailplane configuration, the wing stalls before the tailplane, and longitudinal
control and stability are maintained at the stall. On a canard layout, if the wing stalls first,
stability is lost, but if the foreplane stalls first then control is lost and the maximum value of CL is
reduced. One possible solution is to use a canard surface and a wing trailing edge flap in
combination, with one surface acting as a trimming device, and the other as a control.
Alternatively, an auxiliary horizontal tailplane at the rear may be used for trim and control at low
speed.
Interference Problems
In the same way as the airflow from the wing interferes with the tail unit on the conventional tail
layout, so the airflow from the foreplane interferes with the flow around the main wing and
vertical fin in a canard layout. This can cause a reduction in lift on the main wing, and can also
result in stability problems. The interference with the vertical fin can cause a marked reduction
in directional static stability at high angles of attack. The stability may be improved by employing
twin vertical fins in place of the single control vertical fin.
Summary
Planform Considerations
Planform is the geometrical shape of the wing when viewed from above, and it largely
determines the amount of lift and drag obtainable from a given area, it also has a pronounced
effect on the stalling angle of attack.
Aspect ratio (A) is found by dividing the square of the wing span by the area of the wing:
Span 2 Span
A= or
Area Mean Chord
The following wing characteristics are affected by aspect ratio:
• Induced drag is inversely proportional to aspect ratio.

• The reduced effective angle of attack of very low aspect ratio wings can delay the stall
considerably. (Some delta wings have no measurable stalling angle up to 40o).

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In the aerodynamic sense, the elliptical wing is the most efficient planform because the
uniformity both of lift coefficient and of downwash incurs the least induced drag for a given
aspect ratio.
Any swept-back planform suffers a marked drop in CLmax when compared with an unswept wing
with the same significant parameters. Also the boundary layer tends to change direction and
flow towards the tips.
The spanwise drift of the boundary layer sets up a tendency towards tip stalling on swept wing
aircraft. This may be alleviated by the use of one or more of the following:
• Boundary layer fences.

• Leading edge slots.
• Boundary layer suction.
• Boundary layer blowing.
• Vortex generators.
• Leading edge extension.
• Leading edge notch.
The factors effecting pitch-up are:
• Longitudinal instability.
• Centre of pressure movement.
• Change of downwash over the tailplane.
• Washout due to flexure.
The advantages of a crescent wing are:
• The critical drag rise Mach number is raised.

• The peak drag rise is reduced.
• Because of the lack of outflow of the boundary layer at the tips, tip-stalling is prevented.
A FSW stalls at the root first, prolonging aileron control. The configuration may offer an
advantage in LID ratio over sweepback in the appropriate speed range.
When compared with a delta which uses a separate tailplane to control angle of attack, the
tailless delta reveals two main differences:
• The CLmax is reduced.

• The stalling angle is increased.
Vortex lift has the following characteristics:
• Leading edge flow separation causes the CP to be situated nearer to mid-chord.

• The vortex core is a region of low pressure, therefore an increase in CL may be expected.

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The canard configuration has the following advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages
• The control surface is ahead of any shocks which may form on the mainplane.
• On an aircraft with a long slender fuselage with engines mounted in the tail and the CG
position well aft, the fore-plane has the advantage of a long moment arm.
• The stability and trim requirements can be satisfied with a smaller foreplane area.
• Because up-loads will be required, the trim drag problem is reduced.
Disadvantages
• If the wing stalls first stability is lost.

• If the foreplane stalls first control is lost.
• In the same way as the airflow from the wing interferes with the tail unit on the
conventional tail layout, so the airflow from the foreplane interferes with the flow around
the main wing and vertical fin of the canard configuration.

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Flight Controls
Introduction
The purpose of flight controls is to enable the aircraft to be rotated about its three axes. Control
in pitch is exercised by elevators which move the aircraft about its lateral axis, control in roll by
the ailerons which move the aircraft about its longitudinal axis and control in yaw by the rudder
which moves the aircraft: about it’s normal, or vertical, axis. Controls usually take the form of
hinged aerofoils mounted on the trailing edge of the wing, the horizontal stabilizer or tailplane
and the rudder normally attached to the trailing edge of the fin. When they are moved they alter
the effective camber of the section to which they are attached and therefore alter the amount of
lift being generated. Within reason, controls are positioned as far away as possible from the axis
of rotation about which they are effective, so that they create the largest moment for the least
amount of force.
When a control surface is deflected the forces acting on it try to return it to the neutral position.
The total returning force is the lift force on the control surface multiplied by the distance of the
centre of pressure of the control surface to the hinge. This force is called the hinge moment and
is shown in Figure 3.34.
Figure 3.34 – Hinge moment of a flight control surface
Obviously this hinge moment has to be opposed by some force if the control is to remain
deflected, and this force is supplied by the pilot through the control column or rudder bar. The
degree of lift force generated by a control surface will depend on the square of the speed, and
as the speed increases it can reach considerable magnitude. Because of this, on any but very
low speed aircraft the amount of control force required will be far too high for easy operation of
the controls without some form of assistance. This assistance is called aerodynamic control
balancing. Various forms of aerodynamic balancing are used, and they all operate on the
principle of either reducing the hinge moment or producing a force which will help to balance the
hinge moment by acting in the opposite direction. The various types of aerodynamic balancing
used on current aircraft are discussed in the following paragraphs:

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Aerodynamic Balancing
Inset Hinge
This type of aerodynamic balancing is commonly used on modern aircraft and achieves its
reduction of control column loading by positioning the hinge so that part of the control surface
leading edge moves in the opposite direction to the remainder of the control surface. Figure
3.35 shows an example of this type of aerodynamic balance.
Figure 3.35 – Inset Hinge
Care must be taken in the design of this type of balance to ensure that the centre of pressure is
not too near the hinge line. When a control surface is deflected its centre
centre of pressure moves
forward, and if the margin between the centre of pressure and the hinge line is too small it is
possible that the centre of pressure will move forward of the hinge line and so lead to the
surface overbalancing.
Horn Balance
In this type of system a portion of the control surface itself acts ahead of the hinge line, so
producing a force in opposition to the hinge moment. Such a balance is shown in Figure 3.36.
Figure 3.36 – Horn Balance

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Balance Tab
This type of system has the same effect as the horn balance but is produced by attaching a
small aerofoil to the trailing edge of the control surface and is arranged so that when the control
surface is moved the balance tab is automatically moved in the opposite direction mechanically.
Figure 3.37 – Balance Tab
The balance tab, although quite small, is acting at a considerable distance from the hinge line of
the main control surface, and therefore produces a considerable assistance in moving it. There
is some loss of overall effect of the control in this system and also a small drag penalty is
incurred. It should be noted that when the main control surface is deflected the tab moves in the
opposite direction, but, the chord line of the tab remains parallel to the chordline of the fixed
surface as shown in Figure 3.37. This balanced motion achieves the required objectives whilst
avoiding any excessive drag penalties.
Servo Tab
This type of tab is used on larger subsonic aircraft as an aid to the pilot in overcoming heavy
control loads. With this type of system when the control column is moved the tab is moved by
the control input which then causes the airflow to be deflected which
which in turn moves the control
surface. The system is shown in Figure 3.38.
Figure 3.38 – Servo Tab

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Anti-Balance Tab
This type of tab is used to increase the load on the control column when the control surface is
deflected. It operates automatically in a similar way to a balance tab but in the opposite
direction. The anti-balance tab is often used to increase the ‘Feel’ in a control system. Figure
3.39 shows an example of an anti-balance tab.
Figure 3.39 – Anti-Balance Tab
Internal Balance
Although fairly commonly used this form of aerodynamic balance is not obvious because it is
contained within the contour of the parent control surface. When the control is moved, a
pressure difference is generated between upper and lower surfaces. This difference will try to
deflect the beak ahead of the hinge-line on the control producing a partial balancing moment.
The effectiveness is controlled in some cases by venting air pressure above and below the
beak.
Figure 3.40 – Internal Balance
Power Operated Control

The types of aerodynamic balance discussed so far are quite suitable for slow and medium
speed aircraft but when considering the requirements of high speed aircraft they are no longer
of very much value. The problems involved in flying at high true airspeeds and high Mach
numbers make it virtually impossible for satisfactory control to be achieved by manual controls
In view of this, power operation of all control surfaces is desirable. In a conventional control
system the control column forces felt by the pilot conveys a considerable amount of information
on control deflection but as there is no direct connection between the control column and the
control surface in a powered control system, the ‘Feel’ felt on the control column due to the air
loads acting upon it will not be felt as in manual system. In order to maintain accurate control of
the aircraft and to prevent overstressing of the aircraft artificial feel must be provided. As the
control surface is being operated by hydraulic power the tabs as previously mentioned will have
little or no effect. An example of a simple power operated control system is shown in Figure
3.41.

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Figure 3.41 – A simple power operated control system
Mass Balance
Problems can arise with oscillatory movements of the control surface caused by variation in the
moment of the control surface centre of gravity about the hinge. This variation can be brought
about through the flexing of the entire structure when a load is applied to it. It is possible under
some circumstances for these oscillations to be divergent and cause complete failure of the
structure.
This form of oscillation is called ‘Flutter’, and as the main factor involved is the moment of the
centre of gravity about the control surface hinge, the possibility of it being reduced by moving
the centre of gravity nearer to the hinge line must be considered. This is usually achieved by
adding weights to the control surface so positioned that they act in front of the hinge line and
thereby move the control surface centre of gravity to, or just in front of, the hinge line, as shown
in Figure 3.42. On modern aircraft the mass balance weights are normally housed inside the
control surface structure.
Figure 3.42 – Typical position of mass balance

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3-Axis Control
It was stated previously that each set of controls operates around one of the three axes of
movement.
Elevators control the aircraft about the lateral axis - that is in pitch.
Ailerons control the aircraft about the longitudinal axis - that is in roll.
Rudder controls the aircraft about the normal or vertical axis - that is in yaw.
Adverse Aileron Yaw

Unfortunately the operation of some controls causes additional movement about another axis,
and the most obvious example of this is the effect of ailerons which are designed to give a
rolling moment about the longitudinal axis. In order to achieve this, one aileron must be lowered
and the other one raised, and the one which is lowered will always cause additional drag and so
produce yawing moment in the opposite direction to the intended turn. This effect is called
‘adverse aileron yaw’, and it is most marked when aileron deflection angles are large, usually at
low speeds. There are two methods of correcting the condition, the first being differential
ailerons. In this system the up-going aileron moves through a greater angle than the down-
going and the drag is therefore, balanced on each side of the aircraft. The other method is by
use of what is called a Frise aileron.
Figure 3.43 – Differential ailerons and Frise ailerons
The excess drag from ailerons is generated by the down-going aileron so in the Frise system
the up-gong aileron is mechanically arranged to project below the undersurface of the wing
when raised. This creates the additional drag to balance the increased drag of the down-going
aileron. Frise ailerons are not in general use today as, in particular, they are most unsuited to
high speed aircraft.

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Adverse Roll Due to Rudder Deflection
Reference to Figure 3.44 (a) shows that if the rudder is deflected to the right, the lift force
generated by the fin and rudder will yaw the aircraft to thethe right. The fin will have a centre of
pressure as does the wing, and depending on the vertical distance between the fin centre of
pressure and the centre of gravity on the longitudinal axis of the aircraft, there will be a
tendency for the aircraft to roll to the left in this case.
(Figure 3.44 (b)).

A tall fin will clearly produce a greater tendency to roll than a short one, (Figure
The phrase ‘tendency to roll’ is emphasized, in view of the fact that the roll is normally totally
masked by the extra lift from the faster moving wing. Clearly this masking effect will depend
(Figure 3.44 (c)).
upon the span of the aircraft; a greater span producing more lift, (Figure
If, on certain aircraft (e.g. Britannia and Belfast) there is a noticeable roll due to yaw, this can be
eliminated by interlinkage of ailerons and rudder. It is therefore, most unlikely that any pilot
would ever notice any adverse roll when yawing the aircraft.
Figure 3.44 – Adverse roll tendency due to rudder deflection
Wing Flexure
The wing structure of an aircraft is flexible and the varying loads brought about by operating a
control surface will tend to twist or bend the structure. This effect is particularly noticeable with
ailerons, and when an aileron is deflected downwards the resultant force on the aileron passes
through its centre of pressure as illustrated in Figure 3.45.

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Figure 3.45 – Wing flexure with aileron deployment
This force has a moment about the main structural member of the wing which will cause the
wing to twist, decreasing its angle of incidence. This will, of course, decrease the lift being
produced by the wing when the required effect of deflecting the aileron down is to increase the
lift. If the wing twist is such that these two forces cancel each other out then the aileron will have
no effect. If the process is continued further the application of aileron will produce a roll in the
opposite direction to that intended. This is known as aileron control reversal. The force
generated by the aileron is proportional to the square of the speed, so this effect will be most
marked at high speeds. In fact, the effect can be so marked that on some high speed transport
aircraft above a certain speed the ailerons are locked and roll control is vested in spoilers alone.
Elevator Problems
One of the major problems associated with the use of the conventional elevator is that the
application of trim in the longitudinal plane reduces the effect of the elevator control. Trim tabs
will be dealt with in the next section, but suffice it to say here that to allow an aircraft to be flown
straight and level a certain amount of continuous deflection of the elevator may be necessary,
this deflection being maintained by a trim tab. Whichever way the elevator is deflected its full
range of movement will be consequently reduced in this direction.
On large jet transport aircraft the changes in longitudinal trim due both to use of fuel and to
speed changes can be large, and a conventional elevator and trim tab system is not suitable. It
is replaced by a horizontal stabilizer which can move in its own right. Operated by electro-
hydraulic jacks it produces a very powerful leverage about the lateral axis to cope with the very
large trim changes involved. It has the immense advantage that, whatever position it is set in, it
leaves full elevator control available.
These days, the idea of the all-moving tailplane has been adopted for use on low speed aircraft
as well. The additional force that it generates enables a smaller horizontal stabilizer to be used
with a consequent reduction in weight and drag.

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Spoilers
Mention was made earlier of a type of control called a spoiler. As shown in Figure 3.46, spoilers
are panels in the upper surfaces of the wing that are hinged at their leading edges and can be
opened and shut so that, when open they reduce the amount of lift being generated by the wing.
Figure 3.46 – Spoilers
Spoilers have three normal uses:
• When operated through small angles independently on one wing or the other they can be
used to augment aileron control, or even replace it.
• On landing. After the aircraft has actually contacted the runway, if the spoilers on both
wings are fully opened the lift is completely destroyed; this is called ‘lift dumping’. It
enables the aircraft to sit more firmly on the ground and thus reduce the distance
required to stop and it is also of considerable value in crosswind landings.
• Lift dumping in high level flight.
Airbrakes
Modern jet transport aircraft have extremely low drag coefficients in the cruising configuration.
This makes them somewhat reluctant to slow down from high speeds, and on some aircraft
airbrakes are fitted.
An airbrake usually consists of a flat section which can be raised into the airflow so that it
creates the maximum amount of drag whilst at the same time not damaging the lift. Airbrakes
are not all that common however, and resort usually has to be made to other means of slowing
down rapidly when required. One of the most commonly used methods is the lowering of the
main gear to create additional drag, but on some aircraft reverse thrust from the engines may
be selected in the air as well as on the ground.
Elevons and Ruddervators

Some aircraft, notably delta wing types, have a system whereby the ailerons and elevators are
combined into one control called an elevon. When the control column is moved backwards or
forwards both surfaces move up and down together, but when the control column is moved
sideways one elevon comes up and the other goes down. Another combination of controls is
that of elevator and rudder to produce a V or butterfly tail. This is then called a ruddervator.

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Figure 3.47 – An example aircraft control surface configuration
Control Surface Variations

In the example aircraft shown in Figure 3.47, all primary control surfaces are operated by
hydraulic activators which, in turn, are controlled by electronic signals originating from the flight
deck controls and the auto flight systems.
Aileron operation is confined to the lower airspeed envelope and at high speed the ailerons are
locked out of action and lateral (Roll) control is a function of the spoilers and flaperons. This
later function is to reduce wing flexure at high speed.
Some aircraft employ two sets of ailerons, one outboard for lower speeds and the other inboard
for high speed. In such cases the outboard ailerons are locked out at high speeds.

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Tabs
Introduction
Tabs are small aerofoil sections hinged to the trailing edges of control surfaces. The main
purposes for which they are used are:
• Trimming
• Aerodynamic balancing
• Servo operation
Trim Tabs
For aircraft in flight to be in equilibrium, the moments about each of the three axes of the aircraft
must balance. If they do not balance then an additional force must be supplied by deflection of
the controls to keep the aircraft in equilibrium. It is most desirable that continuous control
surface deflection be applied at the control column because of the physical effort involved, and
to overcome this problem trimming tabs are provided. The action of a trim tab is best
understood by considering the situation with an aircraft which tends to fly nose down
continuously. To correct this the elevator must be deflected upwards and maintained in this
position.
Figure 3.49 – The tab’s effect on elevator deflection
To bring this about, the trim tab attached to the trailing edge of the elevator is deflected
downwards as shown in Figure 3.49. This diagram indicates that the total force exerted
downwards by the elevator is F1 x d. the distance of the elevator’s centre of pressure from its
hinge, A. The trim tab, having been moved in the opposite direction, exerts a force F2 upwards

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through its centre of pressure, and although this force is smaller than F1 it has a much longer
arm from the hinge of the main control, B. therefore its total moment is able to balance out that
of the main control. It should be noted that the action of the trim tab also slightly reduces the
effect of the main control surface. The final force exerted is F1 - F2 and this will necessitate a
slightly larger deflection of the main control surface with a subsequent small increase in drag.
Trimming tabs are normally controlled either by trim wheels in the cockpit or, alternatively, by
electrical switches activating motors. These controls are usually arranged so that they act in a
natural sense, that is to say with the control wheel moved in the direction in which the aircraft is
required to be trimmed, i.e. aircraft nose high, move the top of control wheel forward towards
the nose to bring it down. On some light aircraft fixed trimming tabs may be fitted and they
consist of small sheets of metal which can be bent permanently to correct known out-of-trim
forces, but they cannot, of course, be adjusted in flight. As with any other aerodynamic control
surface the effect of a trim tab is proportional to the square of the speed. At high speeds very
small trim adjustments will achieve the desired effect whereas at low speeds a considerable
movement may be required.
Figure 3.50 – Fixed and adjustable trim tabs
Balance and Anti-Balance Tabs

A Balance tab (sometimes called a Flettner tab after its inventor Anton Flettner) is a small
hinged device installed on an aircraft control surface to assist the movement of the control
surface. Balance tabs move in the opposite direction of the control surface. The tab has a
leverage advantage, being located closer to the trailing edge of the surface and thus can lever
the control surface in the opposite direction. This has the effect of reducing the control force
required by the pilot to move the controls.
In some aircraft, far from requiring assistance in moving a control surface against the
aerodynamic loads, the hinge moment is too small. This results in very low loads at the control
column, a lack of feel and the possibility of over-stressing the airframe due to an excessive
inadvertent deflection of the control surface. It occurs because of the hinge being too close to
the centre of pressure of the control surface. In order to improve the situation an anti-balance
tab is fitted which operates in the same direction as the control surface, such as illustrated
above.

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Figure 3.51 – Balance and Anti-balance tabs
Spring Tab
On some aircraft, aerodynamic balance is not considered necessary at low speeds but is
required at higher speeds when the aerodynamic loads increase considerably. A type of
balance tab to deal with this situation is called a spring tab. The basis of the system is illustrated
in Figure 3.52. The movement of the control column is transmitted to a lever pivoted on the
main control surface but not directly operating it. Operation of the surface is through springs,
and at low aerodynamic loads the movement of this pivot arm is transmitted to the main control
surface through the springs, and no alteration in the geometry between the pivot and balance
tab takes place. When the aerodynamic loads increase, however, transmission of control
column movement, via the pivot arm, to the control surface compresses the spring. This upsets
the geometry of the system and brings into operation the balance tab on the trailing edge, thus
giving some assistance in moving the control surface.
Figure 3.52 – A Spring tab and Servo tab
When manual controls are used to operate very large control surfaces the loads involved, even
with the assistance of balance tabs, may be unacceptable. Under these circumstances servo
tabs are used to operate the control surfaces. A servo tab is a small aerofoil section, once again
attached to the trailing edge of the main control surface, which is directly operated by the control
column. In this system there is no direct connection between the control column and the main
control surfaces, the control column only operating the servo tabs. As the system depends
entirely upon aerodynamic forces, any movement of the control column when the aircraft is on
the ground will produce no control surface movement, only the servo tabs will move. This
system is illustrated in Figure 3.52. Care must be exercised in pre-flight checks for full and free
movement of control surfaces when servo tabs are used.

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Variable Incidence Tailplane
In the section on flight controls, mention was made of the variable incidence horizontal
stabilizer. In this system the incidence of the entire horizontal stabilizer is changed, as required,
to adjust for longitudinal trim requirements instead of using a conventional trim tab. The
horizontal stabilizer is pivoted about its central point and moved by electro-hydraulic jacks. The
change in longitudinal trim which this system can exert, compared to an ordinary trimming tab,
is very considerable, and in view of this precautions have to be taken against the result of a
runaway in the operating system, winding the horizontal stabilizer either fully up or fully down
This is usually achieved by having the left and right halves of the horizontal stabilizer entirely
separate from each other and each being operated by two separated systems. This will obviate
the possibility of both sides of the stabilizer running away together and also produces a multiple
redundancy in the event of partial failure of one of the electro-hydraulic systems. This form of
longitudinal trimming is a necessity on large jet aircraft where the conventional system of
elevator and trim is unable to cope with the large trim changes brought about by, firstly, large
centre of gravity movements; secondly, wide operating speed range and. finally, high lift
devices. It will be remembered that as the elevator is not deflected in any way for the purposes
of trimming, the full range of control is always available from it.
Fuel Transfer (Concorde)

On supersonic aircraft, for instance, Concorde, the deflection of control surfaces at high
subsonic and supersonic speeds is undesirable due to the aerodynamic effects involved. One
way of overcoming this problem is to use fuel in various tanks to trim the aircraft. When passing
from subsonic to supersonic speeds there is a marked rearward movement of the centre of
pressure which can cause a severe out-of-trim situation. This can be overcome by pumping fuel
to move the centre of gravity to be coincident with the centre of pressure, and in Concorde this
is in fact done automatically.
Control locks
All aircraft require some mechanical means of locking the controls in the neutral position when
on the ground to prevent possible damage from gusts in high winds when parked. On smaller
aircraft these may take the form of wood or metal devices which can be slid over the control
surfaces to lock them in position and prevent their movement. On larger aircraft it is common
practice to have internal locking systems, but obviously either type of control lock must be
removed prior to take-off. In this context it should be borne in mind that external locks fitted to a
servo tab operating system will permit the movement of the control column on the flight deck
with the locks in place as only the tabs are being operated, therefore, on aircraft with this type of
equipment it is essential to confirm that any external locks fitted have been removed. Most
modern aircraft with hydraulically operated controls have integral hydraulic locks.

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Flight Forces
Introduction
The four forces acting in level flight are lift, weight, drag and thrust. The lift acts through the
centre of pressure. The weight is through the centre of gravity. The drag and thrust act along
lines parallel to the longitudinal axis and this is illustrated in Figure 3.53.
Figure 3.53 – The four forces in flight
For straight and level flight these forces must be in equilibrium but if the points through which
these forces act are coincident then the opposing pairs must be equal.
Lift = Weight
Thrust = Drag
Pitching Moments
The positions of the CP and CG vary throughout flight, and under most conditions are not
coincident, CP varying with angle of attack and CG varying as fuel is used. The result is that the
opposing forces (Lift and Weight) set up a couple causing either a nose-up pitch, or a nose-
down pitch, depending on the relative positions of CP and CG. This is illustrated in the two
diagrams of Figure 3.54.

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Figure 3.54 – Pitching moments due to the Lift-Weight couple
Ideally, the pitching moments arising from the Thrust and Drag couples should neutralize each
other in level flight, but the ideal is difficult to attain and, as far as possible, the forces are
arranged as in the first diagram. With this arrangement, the T/D couple causes a nose-up
moment, and the L/W couple a nose-down moment, the lines of action of each couple, being
such that the strength of each couple is equal. If, now, the engine is throttled back, the T/D
couple is weakened, and the L/W couple pitches the nose down.
The tailplane and/or elevator has a stabilizing function in that it supplies the force necessary to
counter any residual pitching moments. If any nose-up or nose-down pitch occurs, the elevator
deflection can be altered to provide an up or down load to trim the aircraft. This is also shown in
Figure 3.54.
If the elevator has to produce a down load balancing force, this effectively increases the aircraft
weight. So to maintain level flight at the same speed, the angle of attack must be increased to
maintain lift. The increase in drag is known as trim drag.

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The relationship between Angle of Attack, lAS and Altitude assuming that in level flight lift
equals weight then:
Lift = Weight = ½ ρV2S CL
I.e. our normal theory of flight formula + angle of attack where:
ρ = density
V=TAS
S = wing area
CL = a constant coefficient of lift
As for a given weight lift will be constant, then the equation must also be constant. The only
variables in the equation are density, TAS and angle of attack. It must be remembered that the
expression ½ ρV2 is dynamic pressure or lAS. In view of this, for a fixed lAS and weight the
angle of attack will be constant for any altitude.
Looking at it from a different point of view, if lAS (½ ρV2S) is increased then, to keep the
equation balanced, the angle of attack must be decreased and vice versa. To summarize:
• At constant weight and lAS, angle of attack is fixed regardless of altitude.

• If lAS is increased, angle of attack must be decreased and vice versa.
For optimum aerodynamic efficiency, the maximum amount of lift will be produced for the least
amount of drag. This, of course, means flying at the maximum lift/drag ratio which has already
been shown to occur at a fixed angle of attack, usually around 4o. It was also shown that for a
given weight this will represent a fixed indicated airspeed, regardless of height. If however, the
weight decreases due to use of fuel, then it will be necessary to decrease the indicated airspeed
to maintain the same angle of attack.
Climbing, Gliding and Turning
Climbing
During a climb, an aircraft gains potential energy by virtue of elevation, achieved by one or a
combination of two means, viz:
• Use of propulsive energy above that required for level flight.

• Expenditure of the aircraft’s kinetic energy.
In a climb, although the weight continues to act vertically downwards the lift does not. The lift is
now it right angles to the flight path of the aircraft, and effective weight can now be resolved into
two components, one supported by the lift and the other acting in the opposite direction to the
flight path, in the same direction as drag. From this, two things can be seen: firstly the lift is now
less than that required in straight and level flight, W cos y, and secondly, the thrust has to be
equal and opposite to the sum of drag and weight components along the flight path
T = D + W sin y. This is shown in Figure 3.55. It is still considered sufficiently correct to assume
L = D up to about 15o climb angle (cos 15° = 0.9659, i.e. the error is l ess than 2%).

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Rate and Angle of Climb
Figure 3.55 show that rate of climb is determined by the amount of excess power, and angle of
climb by the amount of excess thrust left after opposing drag.
Figure 3.55 – Forces acting on a climbing aircraft
Rate of Climb
Vc Rate of C lim b
Diagram (a) Sin γ = =
V Speed of C lim b
Thrust − Drag
Diagram (b) Sin γ =
Weight
Weight
Vc Thrust − Drag
Therefore =
V Weight
V (Thrust − Drag)
Therefore Vc =
Weight
Power (available ) − Power (required )

=
Weight

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Excess Power
=
Weight
Pt − Pd
or where Pt = Thrust Horsepower
W
Pd = Drag Horsepower
Angle of Climb
From Figure 3.55 (b) above it can be seen that for the maximum angle of climb, where
Thrust − Drag
Sin γ = ,
Weight
the aircraft should be flown at a speed which gives the maximum difference between Thrust and
Drag. Alternatively, if climb angle = 0, i.e. level flight, then
Thrust − Drag
= 0
Weight
But if climb is vertical, i.e. 90°, then
Thrust = Drag + Weight
or
Thrust − Drag
= 1
Weight
So, it can be deduced, the factor controlling the angle of climb will be the excess of thrust over
drag.
Power Available and Power Required

The thrust power curve for a piston engine differs from that of a jet engine, as shown in Figure
3.56. The main reason for this is that the thrust of a jet remains virtually constant at a given
altitude, regardless of speed, whereas the piston engine, under the same set of circumstances
and for a given BHP, suffers a loss at both ends of its speed range because of reduced
propeller efficiency.
Thrust (lb) × Speed ( fps)

THP (avail) =
550
The horsepower required to propel in aircraft is found by

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Drag (lb) × TAS ( fps)
Power (required) =
550
The curve depicted in Figure 3.56 can be assumed to apply equally to a piston or a jet propelled
aircraft, i.e. the airframe drag is the same regardless of power and speed. The increase in
power required at the lowest speed is caused by rapidly rising effects of induced drag.
Figure 3.56 – Power Available and Power Required curves (piston and jet)

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Climb Performance
The best climbing speed (highest rate of climb), is that at which the excess power is maximum,
so that after some power is used in overcoming drag, the maximum amount of power is
available for climbing. The vertical distance between power available and power required
represents the power available for climbing at that speed. Note, in Figure 3.57, that this speed
for the piston engine is approximately 175 Kt (TAS), and for the jet approximately 400 Kt. In the
latter, there appears to be a fairly wide band of speeds which would still give the same excess
power; in practice the higher speed is used in the interest of engine efficiency. At points X and Y
all available power is being used to overcome drag, therefore these points are the Vmin and Vmax
for the particular power setting.
Effect of Altitude
The THP of jet and piston engines alike decrease with altitude, due mainly to decreasing air
density, so that the power available curves of both types are lowered. Figure 3.57 and 3.58
shows power available and required curves for both engine types, at MSL and 40,000 ft. In
Figure 3.56, it was indicated that, at altitude, the power required to fly at minimum drag speed is
increased, because though Vmd remains the same at all heights, in EAS terms, the speed used
in calculation of THP is TAS, which increases with altitude for a given EAS. Therefore the THP
required to fly at any EAS increases with altitude. Also, speed for best rate of climb also
decreases with altitude. The altitude at which rate of climb becomes zero is known as the
absolute ceiling. Service ceiling is the altitude at which the rate of climb has dropped to 100
FPM.
Figure 3.57 – Power Available and Power Required curves (piston)

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Figure 3.58 – Power Available and Power Required curves (jet)
Forces in a Glide
For a steady glide, engine giving no thrust, the Lift, Drag and Weight forces must be in
equilibrium (ignoring deceleration effects). Figure 3.59 shows Weight balanced by the resultant
of Lift and Drag. The lift vector, acting perpendicular to the flight (glide) path, is now tilted
forward, whilst the drag vector still acts parallel to the glide path. To maintain airspeed, energy
must be expended to overcome this drag, and the source of this energy is the aircraft’s potential
energy, i.e. altitude.
When the aircraft is placed in a nose down attitude, as in a descent, the component of weight in
the direction of the flight path augments the thrust, the aircraft will accelerate, lift and drag will
change, so, in order to achieve a balanced condition with a constant airspeed, thrust must be
reduced. From the foregoing, it may be seen that the controlling factor of the glide angle is the
lift/drag ratio of the aircraft. An increase in weight will not affect glide angle as all components
will expand by the same proportion, but an increase in weight will increase speed along flight
path.

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Figure 3.59 – Forces acting on a descending aircraft
Gliding (Descent) for Endurance

It can be seen in Figure 3.59 (a) that the minimum rate of descent is achieved by making V sin γ
as small as possible, but, D x V (i.e. power required) = WV sin γ (ignoring deceleration effects),
thus for a given weight the rate of descent is least, at the speed where the power required (DV)
is least.
Gliding (Descent) for Range

If distance is to be maximum, glide angle must be minimum, as evident in Figure 3.59 (b).
D = Max = W Cos γ
γ = Min = W sin γ
Therefore
W Cosγ
= Max
W Sinγ
but
W Cosγ L
=
W Sinγ D
The best angle of glide therefore depends on maintaining an angle of attack which gives the
best Lift/Drag ratio, or for maximum endurance the aircraft should be flown for minimum drag.
Effect of Wind
Gliding for minimum rate of descent, or for endurance, is unaffected by wind, because the
position at the end of glide is unimportant. But when gliding for range, the target is the point of
arrival, thus the aim is maximum distance over the ground.

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Gliding for range is achieved as explained previously, i.e. by flying for minimum drag. However,
that applies only in still air conditions. The effect of a headwind will be to decrease ground
distance by approximately the ratio of
WS
TAS
An increase of airspeed could reduce the time the wind effect would act, and thus improve
ground distance. Similarly, if there were a tailwind, ground distance would be increased, a
reduction of speed would improve the distance, since the wind effect time would be increased.
Effect of Weight
Variation in weight will not affect glide angle, provided speed is adjusted to suit the all-up-weight
(AUW). A simple method of estimating speed changes, to compensate for weight changes (up
to about 20%), is to adjust speed (EAS) by half the percentage change in AUW. e.g. a weight
reduction of 10% would necessitate a decrease in speed of 5%.
Although range is unaffected by weight, glide endurance decreases with weight increase.
Penetration Speed is the optimum gliding speed for any wind speed.
Turning
During a turn weight still acts vertically downwards but a second force, centrifugal force, occurs
from the aircraft traveling along a curved path. This centrifugal force has to be opposed by a
centripetal force which can only be obtained as a resolved part of the lift force. Because the lift
also has to balance the weight in addition to the centripetal force, it is evident that in turn the lift
has to be increased to a greater value than weight. This is illustrated in Figure 3.60.
Figure 3.60 – Forces acting on a turning aircraft
If the aircraft is banked, with the angle of attack constant, the vertical component of lift will be
too small to balance the weight, thus the aircraft will descend. Therefore, as angle of bank
increases, angle of attack must be increased, the vertical component is then sufficient to

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maintain level flight, whilst the horizontal component is sufficient to produce the required
centripetal force.
Effect of Weight
If the lAS in a turn is maintained at a constant figure the increased lift can only be obtained by
an increase in the angle of attack. The increase in lift will, of course, produce more induced drag
which will require an increase in thrust. As the angle of attack has been increased the wing is
nearer to its stalling angle, therefore the stalling speed will be increased. The increase in the
value of lift is, in fact, equivalent to increasing the aircraft’s weight. The amount by which this is
apparently increased is called the load factor or ‘n’. For instance, if the weight is apparently
doubled ‘n’ becomes two and this is called a 2g turn. The increase in stalling speed associated
with the load factor may be calculated from the following formula:
Stalling speed = normal stalling speed x g load (n)
For example an aircraft with a normal stalling speed of 100 kts carrying out a 2g turn would
have its stalling speed increased by 100 x 2 = 140 kts approximately.
In a steady level turn, thrust being ignored, lift is providing both a force to balance weight, and a
centripetal force to turn the aircraft. If the same TAS and angle of bank can be sustained, the
turn radius is basically independent of weight or aircraft type.
Minimum Radius Turn

To achieve a minimum radius turn, it can be shown that:
• Wing loading must be as low as possible.

• Air must be as dense as possible, i.e. as at MSL.
• The maximum value of product of CL and angle of bank must be obtained.
NOTE: not maximum angle of bank, since angle of bank is increased to increase the lift force
required for the centripetal force. To do this, at the critical angle of attack, speed must be
increased, but an increase in speed may cause a fall in maximum value of CL.
The Maximum Rate Turn

To achieve a maximum rate turn, it can be shown that:
• Wing loading must be as low as possible.

• Air must be as dense as possible, as at MSL.
• The maximum value of the product of angle of bank, speed and CL must be obtained.
Note, as for the same reasons given in preceding paragraph.
Altitude
With increase in altitude, there is an increase in the minimum radius, mainly due to the
EAS/TAS relationship. An additional increase is caused by the reduction in CLmax, because
Mach No is higher at altitude for a given TAS.
An increase in altitude will cause the rate of turn to decrease.

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Effect of Thrust
Even in level flight, it can be seen that some aircraft have their thrust line inclined to the
horizontal, thus reducing a component of thrust augmenting lift. In the minimum radius turn, and
maximum rate turns discussed, the aircraft is flown for CL max which is obtained at the critical
angle, the thrust component assists lift, so either less lift is required from the wing, or the turn
can be improved. However, the reduction of thrust with increasing altitude will cause a reduction
in turning performance, in addition to that caused by the EAS/TAS relationship and the greater
CL max reduction.
Effect of Flap
Lowering of flap produces more lift, also more drag at any given EAS. A smaller radius of turn
may thus be achieved with flap, providing the flap limiting speed is not a critical factor, and the
available power is sufficient to overcome the extra drag.
Turning and Manoeuvres: Points to Note
Centripetal force:
Consider an object swinging around at the end of a piece of string — the object travels along a
curved path produced by the pull of the string acting on the object. Since this radial force is
directly towards the centre the acceleration must also be towards the centre. This centre-
seeking force is called centripetal force, and in accordance with the third law of motion. is
opposed by an equal force called the centrifugal force. Centripetal force in the case we are
considering is also called Horizontal Component of Lift.
Although the object on the string is following a curved path of motion, it is continually trying to
obey the first law of motion, i.e. to continue traveling in a straight line . . . true or false? True —
should the string be released, centripetal force is removed and the opposite reaction (centrifugal
force) disappears simultaneously. In this instance, the object at once obeys the first law of
motion and flies off in a straight line at a tangent to its previous circular path.
It is important to realize that, without centripetal force, no object whether a car or aircraft can be
made to turn, and the first law of motion applies.
Centripetal force during a given turn is directly proportional to the mass of the body, the square
of its speed and is inversely proportional to the radius of the turn. It is calculated from the
formula:
W V2
Centripetal force = (in lb)
gr
Or
mV 2
Centripetal force = (in Newtons )
r
Where:

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W = the weight/or m is the mass
V2 = the square of the TAS in feet/sec or m/sec
r = the radius in feet or metres
g = the gravitational force of 9.81 m/s2 (or 32.2 ft/sec2)
To calculate the acceleration towards the centre, the following formula applies:
V2
Acceleration =
r
Where V2 = the velocity in feet/sec or metres/sec
r = the radius in feet or metres
Turning
For an aircraft to turn, centripetal force is required. This centripetal force is derived by resolving
the inclined total lift force into two components, namely:
• Vertical lift component

• Horizontal lift component
Thus, it is the horizontal lift component that provides the centripetal force required to pull the
aircraft towards the centre of the turn as it moves along a path of circular motion. (Refer to
Figure 3.61). However, during a turn, lift has a double role to play. Not only is it resolved into a
horizontal component to provide centripetal force, but also has to provide a lifting force such
that the aircraft maintains a constant height during the turn. It will be seen from the Figure 3.61
that any inclination of total lift from the vertical results in a smaller vertical component of lift,
which would then be too small to balance the weight of the aircraft.

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Figure 3.61 – Total Lift is the vector sum of Lift and Centripetal Force
Therefore, to prevent the aircraft from descending, the angle of attack must be progressively
increased to maintain a greater total lift. Once this has been accomplished, the vertical
component of lift is large enough to maintain level flight, while the horizontal component is large
enough to generate the required centripetal force. However, an increase in angle of attack
results in an increase in drag, which must be balanced by an increase in power if the speed is to
remain constant.
Steep Turns
A steep turn is classified as a turn having an angle of bank in excess of 45o. Larger bank angles
require a larger angle of attack to produce the required total lift increment. However, the penalty
of large angles of attack is drag. Eventually, the aircraft will reach a speed so low, that any
further increase in angle of attack will result in a stall. At this instant, angle of attack and induced
drag are so high that full power is usually necessary to keep the speed constant.

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Figure 3.62 – Aircraft in a steep turn

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Wing Loading
Wing loading is the weight of the aircraft divided by the wing area.
Since L = W and L = CL ½ ρV2 S, then W = CL ½ ρV2S
Thus wing loading (i.e. the weight carried by a wing of given area) affects both the maximum
and minimum stalling speeds.
However, modern tendency is to increase the wing loading by decreasing the wing area and
increasing the speed, and to use flap to reduce landing speeds.
Load Factor
The load factor of a given aircraft in a given condition of flight is defined as the lift divided by the
weight. It is denoted by n.
In straight and level flight, L = W; therefore n = 1. In any manoeuvre where lift is greater or
smaller than weight, L = nW.
In any manoeuvre, the stalling speed is proportional to the square root of the load factor (Vn)
(Limit load factor).
Calculation of centripetal force and loading during a turn:

Consider an aircraft weighing 11500 lb, flying at 200 knots (338 ft/sec) in a turn having a radius
of 2000 feet.
W V2
Centripetal force = (in lb)
gr
11500 × 338 2
so: =
32.2 × 2000
Centripetal force = 20,400 lb
Refer to Figure 3.63 for the wing loading calculation. The wing loading which is equal to lift may
be calculated by Pythagoras’ Theorem, where:
TL2 = F2 + L2
TL = F 2 + L2
TL = 20400 2 + 11500 2
TL = 23418 lb

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Accelerated or ‘g’ stalls in a turn.
As already discussed, any increase in bank angle (tightening of the turn) adversely affects the
stalling speed. Eventually, the angle of attack reaches the critical angle, resulting in the buffet.
However, should one wing stall before the other, the aircraft would tend to roll in or out of the
turn, due to unequal lift distribution. This roll may in some, cases result in a ‘flicking movement’.
Recovery is initiated by moving the control column forward and, in doing so, decreasing the
angle of attack, thereby unstalling the aircraft. This occurrence is known as a ‘high speed’ or
‘accelerated’ stall.
Minimum Radius and Maximum Rate of Turns

As the angle of bank is increased, the horizontal component (i.e. centripetal force) consequently
increases. The greater this centre-seeking force, the less the radius becomes (i.e. minimum
radius).
HCL
Figure 3.63 – Balance of forces on a turning aircraft
Figure 3.63 demonstrates that:
L W V2
tan ø = = =
HCL WV 2 gr gr

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Figure 3.64 – Formula for centripetal force
A vertical banked turn is impossible because even if Total Lift becomes infinity no vertical
component can be obtained. However, even with a vertical bank there is a limit to the radius of
the turn because (apart from side slipping), the wings must provide all the horizontal force (i.e.
CL½ V 2S), represented by the formula:
Centripetal force = W V2/g r (i)
but - Centripetal force = CL ½ ρV2 S (vertical bank) (ii)
Therefore: W V2/g r = CL ½ ρV2 S (iii)
or r = 2W/(CL ρ S g) (iv)
Straight and level stalling speed is given by the equation:
W = L = CL max ½ ρ V2S (v)

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Therefore, by substituting this value of W into the equation (iv), we get:
ρV 2 S
1
r = (2 CLmax) 2
CL ρSg
 V 2  CL(max)
r =   × (vi)
 g  CL
Equation (vi) shows that when CLmax is equal to the CL, the radius of the turn will be minimum.
Obviously, when CL is at a maximum value, the angle of attack is the stalling angle and the
V 2S
radius of turn =
gr
Total weight 23418

Load factor: = = 2 .0
Aircraft Weight 11500
The loading on the aircraft is thus 2.0.

 1 
 
Furthermore, it is true to say that the load factor varies as the secant  Co sin e  of the bank
angle.
Consider an aircraft in a 60o bank turn.
Cosine 60 degrees = 0.5
Secant 60 degrees = 2.0
Thus, the aircraft has a load factor of 2.0 during a 60o bank turn.
Determination of the stalling speed during a turn:

Any manoeuvre which requires additional lift consequently increases the load factor and thus
raises the stalling speed. This is true of any turn and the stalling speed may be calculated from
the formula:
New stalling speed = Old stalling speed x Load factor
From the foregoing example, let us assume the aircraft had a basic stalling speed of 85 knots at
gross weight. The new stalling speed during the turn is therefore:
New V = old Vs x n
= 85 x 2

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= 120 knots.
As an exercise, answer the following questions:
I During a turn having a bank angle of 45o, the stalling speed is 100 knots. Calculate the
basic stalling speed.
Answer: 84 knots
2 Assume an aircraft weighing 11,500 pounds pulling out of a dive. If a force of 4g was
registered, what was the centripetal force and the new stalling speed if the basic stalling
speed was 78 knots?
Answer: 46,000 pounds; 156 knots.
Thus, the minimum radius of turn settled by the stalling speed of that aircraft. However, engine
power is the final deciding factor in settling the minimum radius.
Maximum Rate Turns

In this turn, the angular velocity of the aircraft during a turn must be as high as possible:
Velocity ( ft / sec)
i.e. = time
radius ( ft )
Thus, the minimum time will result if the radius is kept at a minimum value and the aircraft is
flown at a minimum speed (i.e. where CL is maximum).
To provide maximum rate turn
• fly at the stalling speed.

• fly at maximum load factor.
• air must be as dense as possible.

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Climbing and Descending Turns
During a climbing turn, the outer wing travels a greater distance than the inner wing. This results
in the outer wing having a larger angle of attack which leads to an over-bank situation.
Bank must therefore be held off during climbing turns. The opposite applies for descending
turns, where bank must be held on.
Figure 3.65 – Angles of attack of the inner and outer wings of a climbing and turning aircraft

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Basic Manoeuvres
Lift
Example: Increased weight whilst maintaining level flight

An increase of weight will require an increase of lift to maintain level flight, which will normally
be initiated by aft movement of the control column to produce an up deflection of the elevators.
The movement of the elevators UP will produce a down load on the tailplane, resulting in the
longitudinal axis rotating about the lateral axis to increase the angle of attack.
The increase in angle of attack will result in the following:
• Centre of Pressure:
Will move forward.
• Transition Point:
Will move forward.
• Boundary Layer:
Will become thicker.
• Separation Point:
Will move forward
• Stagnation Point:
Will move down and aft towards the underside of the wing.
• Induced Drag:
Will increase as the angle of attack and the resultant lift increases.
• Upwash and Downwash:

Will increase as the angle of attack is increased.
• Power:
In order to maintain level flight with increased angle of attack and maintaining
constant airspeed, then power must be increased to balance the increase in drag.
• Power Required:
It may also be said Power Available reduces and Power Required increases.
• Stalling:
Whilst the stalling angle will remain the same, due to the weight increase the
stalling speed increases.

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Lift Related to Camber
Whilst different cambers are used for wing sections to satisfy individual type requirements, a
number of basic principles must be appreciated.
Example: High Camber wing at zero angle of attack:
• Will produce some lift and some drag

• High Camber wing sections will produce some lift and some drag even when at small
negative angles of attack.
Example: Symmetrical wing sections:
• Will produce no lift and some drag at zero angle of attack.

• Must have a positive angle of attack to produce lift.
Yaw to Port (Conventional Fin and Keel Surface)

The following principles are applied to an aircraft when it is yawed to port.
• Left rudder pedal pushed forward causing rudder trailing edge to move to port.
• Some part of the leading edge of the rudder will move to starboard.
• This action will cause the aircraft to yaw about the normal or vertical axis to port.
• The airflow over the starboard wing is now at a greater velocity than that over the port
wing and so more lift is being generated by the starboard wing than the port wing, the
result being a roll to port.
• So a yaw to port will also result in a roll to port.
Yaw to Port (Large Fin and Keel Surface)
• Left rudder pedal pushed forward causing rudder trailing edge to move to port and rudder
leading edge to starboard.
• Aircraft yaws to port about the normal or vertical axis.
• Action of rudder on a large fin causing a lift force of high magnitude to cause the fin to
move about the longitudinal axis towards the right in a clockwise rotational movement
when viewed from the rear, hence a roll to starboard.
• So it can be said on an aircraft with a large fin and keel surface when the aircraft is
yawed to port it will tend to roll to starboard.
Note: It can therefore be said that an aircraft with a normal or conventional sized fin and keel
surface is spirally stable in that when yawed to port it will readily roll to port and allow a spiral to
be executed in a stable manner.
If, however, the aircraft has a large fin and keel surface, when yawed to port it will tend to roll to
starboard and will resist a spiral to port by rolling out of it and so can be said to be spirally
unstable.

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Increase of Speed Whilst Maintaining Level Flight at a constant altitude
An increase of speed for a given angle of attack will result in an increase of lift and so in order to
maintain a constant altitude:
• The angle of attack must be reduced by pushing the control column forward.
• The reduction in angle of attack will result in the Centre of Pressure moving aft.
• The induced drag reducing.
• The Transition Point and Separation Point moving aft.
• The Stagnation Point moving forward and up towards the leading edge.
• The Boundary Layer becoming thinner.
Note: Induced drag will reduce as the square of the speed. Profile drag will increase as the
square of the speed.
Stalling Angle
It must be noted that for a given wing shape the stalling angle will remain the same regardless
of speed, weight, altitude or any other factor and can generally be regarded as being in the
order of 14° to 15°.
Stalling Speed
Unlike the stalling angle the stalling speed is a variable quantity.
• The stalling speed will be increased if the C of P is forward of the neutral point.
• The stalling speed will be reduced if the C of P is aft of the neutral point.
• The stalling speed will be reduced if a power-on approach is made with a propeller-driven
aircraft due to an increased thrust component from the propeller and the airflow tending
to re-energise the wing boundary layer.
Multi-Engined Aircraft
Before describing the various procedures involved in multi-engined aircraft we are going to look
at the aerodynamics of engine failure and asymmetric flight.
Under normal conditions of flight, thrust is provided in equal proportions to provide Total Thrust
which is opposed to total drag, the two forces acting through the aircraft centreline. (Figure
3.66.)
Consider that the right-hand engine fails. Immediately, Total Thrust moves from the aircraft
centreline to the thrust line of the left engine. Furthermore, the right hand propeller not only
ceases to produce thrust but generates a considerable amount of drag until the propeller is
feathered! With Total Thrust moving to the left and Total drag moving to the right, the opposing
forces cause a yaw towards the failed engine. (Figure 3.66 and 3.67)

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Figure 3.66 – Total Thrust and Total Drag in Normal Flight
The events that follow if no corrective action is taken are as follows:
The yaw produces a roll in the same direction (like further effects of rudder), and the aircraft
nose will follow the down-going right wing tip into a spiral dive. It has a similar effect to putting a
boot full of right rudder in and then leaving the aircraft to sort itself out without any help from
other controls.
Figure 3.67 – Total Thrust and Drag. Right Engine Failed

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Minimum Control Speed
In a multi-engined aircraft the aerodynamic consequences of engine failure are dealt with by
applying rudder to oppose yaw to prevent the yaw/roll/spiral dive sequence.
The rudder, however, like any other flying control, is only as effective as the airflow over it and
herein lies a problem. If you let the speed drop too low the rudder will lose its effectiveness and
will be incapable of combating the yawing force of the live engine, aided and abetted by drag
from the failed engine.
The minimum speed at which it is possible to maintain direction on one engine (known as
minimum control speed), cannot be quoted as a single figure for any particular aircraft as it
varies according to circumstances. The following are the primary factors that affect it:
Altitude:
Since more power means more asymmetric thrust (and therefore yawing action) it follows that
minimum control speed will be at its highest at full throttle altitude where maximum power can
be developed.
Load:
A fully loaded aircraft must, speed for speed; fly at a higher angle of attack than when nearly
empty. A higher angle of attack means more drag and that in turn demands more power. So,
back to square one; more power, more yaw, more yaw and, in consequence, a higher minimum
control speed.
Drag:
This takes us back to Point 2. More drag means more power means more yaw, etc. Drag is
mentioned here as a separate item to draw attention to the fact that flying with cooling flaps
open and the landing gear extended will demand more power from the live engine - and will
therefore mean an increase in minimum control speed.
Flaps:
Use of flap spoils the lift/drag ratio even though some flaps give very little drag increase until
after the first 10 to 15 degrees of depression. As a guideline it is probably best to regard the
flaps as coming under the heading of ~drag’ and leave them up, unless the aircraft manual
specifically advises otherwise.
Windmilling:
While some of the early light twins had fixed-pitch propellers, these days constant
speed/feathering types are universal.
The drag from a windmilling propeller is very considerable however, and since it will provide a
great deal of ‘anti-thrust’ (i.e. drag). Minimum control speed will be appreciably higher than
usual until the propeller is feathered. Remember that windmilling drag is asymmetric drag —
and that is Poison.

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Pilot limitations:
Modern aircraft are equipped with adequate trim, so the pilot should not be hampered by the
physical limitation of being unable to apply sufficient rudder. Adequate experience and training
in asymmetric procedures will ensure the ability to operate at low minimum control speeds.
Critical Engine:
When both propellers rotate in the same direction, slipstream and torque effects have a natural
tendency to create yaw. In the case of modern piston-engine aircraft, where the propellers turn
clockwise when seen from the rear, the yaw tendency is to the left.
Failure of an engine means loss of power and that, in turn, induces a drop in speed. To maintain
height the angle of attack must be increased so that the aircraft is flying along in a tail-
down/nose-up attitude.
In the tail-down attitude the propshafts are inclined upwards and the tops of the propeller discs
are therefore tilted backwards. If you think about it, that means the down-going propeller blade
(i.e. the one on the right of the disc when seen from astern during clockwise rotation) will have a
bigger angle than the up-going blade on the other side. It is a curse well known to pilots taking
off in a tailwheel aircraft, where, until the tail is raised, the propeller shaft is effectively tilted.
As illustrated in Figure 3.68, and keeping in mind that we are maintaining height on reduced
power in a tail-down flight attitude:
Because the down-going blade has an increased angle, more thrust is being generated by the
right half of the propeller disc than by the left. In effect, the centre of thrust for the port engine is
moved towards the aircraft centreline whilst that for the starboard engine is moved away.
The amount of yawing force that can be generated by an engine depends on the amount of
thrust and the moment arm, through which it acts. Since moment arm B is longer than moment
arm A, the starboard engine will clearly exert more yawing force during engine-out flight than
could the port engine.
Consequently, the greater yaw (and therefore the higher minimum control speed) would in this
instance result from the loss of the port engine. In other words, when the propellers rotate
clockwise, the critical engine is on the left.

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Figure 3.68 – Thrust-line offset creating a critical engine
Figure 3.69 – An exaggerated comparison of forces which shows that from a control standpoint
the port engine is the worse one to lose
It is not always easy to demonstrate a meaningful difference in minimum control speed between
the port and starboard engines, but much ado has been made of the subject. In any case, some
popular light twins now have handed propellers, the left one turning clockwise and the right one
anticlockwise, thus the minimum control speed is the same for both engines.

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V-Speeds
The following is a list of ‘V’ codes relating to multi-engine aircraft handling:
V1 - Decision speed during take-off:

Up to that speed there should be enough runway for the aircraft to stop if, for any reason, you
should decide to abandon the take-off. Beyond V you are committed to press on and take off on
one engine.
Vr - Rotate speed:
At this stage the nose should be lifted to attain the take-off attitude.
V2 - Take-off safety speed:

This is, in fact, minimum control speed with an added safety margin to cater for the following
factors which could apply if an engine fails during or immediately after take-off:
• Element of surprise
• Failure of the critical engine (i.e. the port)
• Landing gear down, flaps in take-off position, propeller windmilling
• Pilot of average strength and ability
Provided the aircraft has attained V2, it should be possible to maintain direction and height while
things are being sorted out.
Vmcg - Minimum Control Speed - Ground:

Should an engine fail during the take-off run, this is the minimum speed at which direction can
be maintained.
Some aircraft with good nosewheel steering can handle the situation at any speed provided the
nosewheel is in contact with the ground.
Vmca - Minimum Control Speed - Air:

This is the minimum speed at which it is possible to maintain direction after failure of the critical
engine. No safety allowance is made for any of the items in V2 so it is of little practical value
other than for demonstration purposes while training multi-engine pilots.
Vmcl - Minimum Control Speed - Landing:

This is the lowest speed at which it is possible to maintain direction when full power is applied
following failure of the critical engine while in the landing configuration. This speed is important
since it relates to the asymmetric overshoot.
Vne - Never Exceed Speed:

The ASI should be marked with a red radial line at this speed.
Vno - Normal Operating Speed:

Also called ‘maximum structural cruising speed’, this is the top of the green arc marked on the
ASI. Beyond this speed we enter the yellow or cautionary area which must be avoided while
flying in turbulence.

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Vyse - Speed for best engine-out rate of climb:
This should be marked on the ASI as a blue radial line and is often referred to as the ‘blue line’
speed.
V3 - The all engines screen speed:

The speed at which the aeroplane is assumed to pass through the screen height with all
engines operating on take-off.
V4 - The all engines steady initial climb speed:

The speed assumed for the first segment noise abatement take-off procedure.
VAT - The target threshold speed:

The scheduled speed at the threshold for landing in relatively favourable conditions.
VTmax - The maximum threshold speed:

The speed above which there is an unacceptable risk of overrunning; normally assumed to be
VAT + 15 knots.
VMU - The minimum demonstrated lift-off speed:

The minimum speed at which it is possible to leave the ground (all engines) and climb out
without undue hazard.
Additional ‘V’ codes relating to general aircraft handling:
VS - Stallspeed:
The speed at which the aircraft exhibits those qualities accepted as defining the stall.
VMS - The minimum speed in the stall:

The minimum speed achieved in the stall manoeuvre.
VSO - Stall speed in landing configuration:
VM0 - Maximum operating speed:

The maximum permitted speed for all operations. MMO — maximum Mach operating speed for
all operations.
VDF - Maximum demonstrated flight diving speed:

The highest speed demonstrated during certification. MDF — highest Mach speed demonstrated
during certification.
VRA - The rough-air speed:

The recommended speed for flight in turbulence. MRA — recommended Mach Number for flight
in turbulence.
VB - Design speed for maximum gust intensity:

One of the parameters used in establishing VFA

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VC - Design Cruising speed:
One of the speeds used in establishing the strength of the aircraft.
VD - Design Diving speed:
Another of the speeds used in establishing the strength of the aircraft.
VF - Flap Limiting speed:

The maximum speed for flight with the flaps extended.
VMD - Speed for minimum drag:
VMP - Speed for minimum power:
Vfe - Maximum speed for flight with flaps extended:
Vfo - Maximum speed for operating flaps:
Vle - Maximum speed for flight with gear extended:
Vlo - Maximum speed for operating gear:
VA - Design Manoeuvring speed:
VA - Maximum speed for full deflection of controls:
Vx - Best angle of climb speed:
Vy - Best rate of climb speed:
Screen speed (and screen height):

The speed assumed at 35 feet above the runway after take-off and at 30 feet above the runway
on approaching to land, which is used in establishing the field performance of the aeroplane.
Zero rate of climb speed:

The speed at which, for a given thrust from the operating engines, the drag of the aircraft
reduces the climb gradient to zero.

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High Speed Flight
Introduction
Low speed aerodynamics is based on the assumption that air is incompressible; the attendant
errors are negligible since at low speeds the amount of compression is negligible. At speeds
approaching that of sound, however, compression and expansion in the vicinity of the aircraft
are sufficiently marked to affect the streamline pattern about the aircraft. At low subsonic
speeds a flow pattern is established about the aircraft, but at high subsonic and supersonic
speeds the flow around a given wing can be controlled, and its behaviour predicted. In the
transonic range where a mixture of subsonic and supersonic flow exists, marked problems of
control and stability arise, necessitating special design features to minimize the effects of
compressibility.
Whilst “Supersonic Flight” is not a part of the EASA Part-66 Module-8 syllabus, the effects of
compressibility are experienced by aircraft flying at speeds considerably lower than the speed of
sound (Mach 1). The term High Speed Flight is used to denote aircraft speeds from about
Mach 0.6 and above. Most transport category aircraft cruise at between Mach 0.7 and 0.85.
Definitions
Speed of Sound - The speed at which a very small pressure disturbance is propagated in a
fluid under certain conditions. Speed of sound is proportional to the absolute temperature (K)
and can be calculated from the formula:
Local speed of sound (LSS) = 39 x Absolute Temperature
Therefore, the higher the temperature, the higher the LSS. In fact, at MSL at ISA LSS = 661 kts,
and at 30,000 ft LSS = 589 kts.
Derivation of the formula for ISA conditions is as follows:
LSS = C x 288K = 661
Therefore
661
C= = 38.95°
288K
For practical purposes, the figure of 39 may be used.

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Mach Number (M) - The ratio of True Airspeed (TAS) to the local speed of sound applicable to
air temperature. Thus
TAS
Mach No (M) = therefore at sea level temperature 15°C TAS = 5 29 kts.
LSS
529
LSS = 661kt. M = = 0.80
661
Free Stream Mach No (MFS): - The Mach number of the flow at a point unaffected by the
presence of the aircraft.
Local Mach Number (ML): - When an aerofoil is placed in a subsonic airflow, the flow is
accelerated in some places, and slowed down in others. The local Mach number is the speed at
some specified region of flow, and may be greater than, the same as, or lower than MFS.
Critical Mach Number (Mcrit): - This is the lowest MFS which for a given aerofoil and angle of
attack, gives rise to a ML of 1.0 on the aerofoil. As will be seen, Mcrit for a wing varies with angle
of attack.
Compressibility Mach Number: - The Mach number at which, because of compressibility

effects, control of an aircraft becomes difficult, and beyond which loss of control is probable.
Critical Drag Rise Mach Number: – This relates the Mach number to an appreciable increase
of drag associated with compressibility effects, usually 10 -15% higher than Mcrit
Airflow
• Subsonic flow when free stream Mach numbers are such that local Mach numbers are
less than M 1.0 at all points.
• Transonic flow, the MFS is high enough to produce ML, some of which are greater than M
1.0.
• Supersonic flow, MFS is such that at all points ML are greater than M 1.0.
• Hypersonic flow, MFS is greater than M 5.0.
Speed of Sound
Anything which moves through the air creates pressure waves and, what may not be generally
realized, these waves not only travel out in all directions from the object but they radiate at the
speed of sound. If the object is moving at a speed less than the speed of sound these pressure
waves will be able to move away from the object. When considering aircraft moving at very high
speed it is possible that the sound wave cannot get away from it, because the aircraft’s speed is
close to the radiation speed of the waves. It is this which gives rise to the problems of high
speed flight.
Figure 3.70 illustrates the situation of an aircraft flying at less than the speed of sound. If its
starting point is A, then the pressure waves set out in all directions from the aircraft are moving
steadily away and by the time point B is reached they will be well clear of the aircraft. This

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should be contrasted with the situation illustrated in (b) where the aircraft is traveling just at the
speed of sound. The pressure waves are also traveling at the speed of sound with the result
that they pile up ahead of the aircraft and form into a pressure wave, also called a shock wave.

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Figure 3.70 – Pressure waves emanating from an object increasing speed
An aircraft traveling substantially faster than the speed of sound will leave its own pressure
waves behind and form a cone of pressure waves as illustrated in (d).

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Shock Waves
When a shock wave is formed the pressure distribution over the wings is materially altered,
causing considerable alterations in the values of lift and drag and also affecting control
operation. It could be argued that few civil passenger transport aircraft are capable of reaching
the speed of sound, however, the air over the upper surface of the wing is deliberately
accelerated in order to produce lift and even though the aircraft itself may be flying below the
speed of sound, some of the air flowing over the wings may be accelerated to Mach 1.0. When
the airflow over the upper surfaces of the wing reaches Mach 1.0, the actual speed of the
aircraft is called the critical Mach Number or Mcrit. When this point is reached a shock wave
forms over the upper surface of the wing because the pressure waves from the rear of the wing
that are trying to move forward are meeting air traveling at exactly the same speed flowing
backward. This is similar to trying to move along a moving walkway in the wrong direction at the
same speed as the walkway is traveling. The point at which this shock wave usually forms is
just aft of the point of maximum camber of the wing where the acceleration of the air is greatest.
In front of the shock wave the flow is at or higher than Mach 1 whilst behind the flow it is still
subsonic.
At the shock wave, the normal laws of physics seem to break down and as the air passes
through the shock wave the pressure increases and the temperature increases. If the speed of
the aircraft is increased still further the region of supersonic flow on top of the wing also
increases and the shock wave will start to move back towards the trailing edge. On the
undersurface the curvature of the wing is usually less than on the upper surface and the shock
wave will form later. However, once having formed, if the actual speed of the aircraft is further
increased, this shock wave will also move rearward and when the actual speed of the aircraft
reaches Mach 1 both shock waves will have migrated to the trailing edge of the wing. At the
same time another shock wave will form close to the leading edge of the wing, this is called the
bow wave. If speed is further increased this bow wave will actually touch the leading edge of the
wing and is then termed an ‘attached bow wave’. This is illustrated in Figure 3.71 and further
speed increases will not change the relative positions of these two shock waves, but will just
bend them backwards.
Figure 3.71 – Shock wave development on an aerofoil
Figure 3.72 illustrates the behaviour of the shock waves from a speed below Mach 1 to one well
in excess of the speed of sound.

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Figure 3.72 – Shock wave development from speed Mach-1

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Wave Drag
For aircraft not designed for transonic and supersonic flight, the formation of these shock waves
will have a marked effect on lift, drag and also on the general stability of the aircraft and its
control. The basic cause of the problems is the separation of the airflow behind the shock wave
due to the rise in pressure. This causes the boundary layer to separate, reducing the amount of
lift produced by the wing and an increase in drag. This increase in drag drag is very marked at Mcrit
and produces ‘wave drag’ - as previously mentioned in the chapter on total drag. If speed can
be increased further against this drag force the shock waves will move towards the trailing
edge, thus reducing the amount of separated air and, in fact, the lift will start to increase again
and the drag decrease. However, this will only occur in aircraft which are designed for transonic
flight but the total developed lift at higher speeds is less than at subsonic speeds for the same
angle of attack. This is because CL is less for any given wing section and angle of attack at
supersonic speeds. The change in both lift and drag are illustrated in the following graphs. It
should be noted that this loss of lift which occurs as a result of thethe shock wave is not dissimilar
in effect to that produced by a low speed stall. For this reason it is sometimes called a ‘high
speed stall’ and gives rise to the first of the control difficulties encountered in flying an aircraft at
or above Mcrit.
Mcrit
Figure 3.73 – Wave drag
Wave drag arises from two sources, viz: energy drag and boundary layer separation.
Energy drag stems from the nature of changes occurring as a flow crosses a shock wave.
Energy lost due to temperature rise across the shock wave becomes drag on the aerofoil. The
more oblique the shock wave the less energy they absorb, but since they become more
extensive laterally and affect more air, energy drag rises as MFS increases.
Boundary layer separation; at certain stages of shock wave

wave movement there is considerable
flow separation. The turbulence represents lost energy and contributes to the drag. As MFS
increases through the transonic range the shock waves move
move to the trailing edge and
separation decreases, thus drag decreases.

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The total effect on drag is shown in the above graph (CD broken line), the hump in the curve
being caused by drag associated with the trailing edge shock arising from energy loss,
separation of the boundary layer and the formation of the bow shock wave above M 1.0.
Reduction of Wave Drag

To reduce the effect of wave drag, shock waves must be as weak as possible. Therefore, wings
must have a sharp leading edge as well as a thin section to keep the deflection angle to a
minimum so producing a weak bow shock wave. The thin wing will have a reduced camber,
thus the adverse pressure gradient across the wing shock waves will be smaller, and the
strength of the shock waves will be reduced. Fuselages may be treated in a similar manner, for
a given minimum cross section, an increase in length (within reason) will reduce wave drag.
Effects of Compressibility on Lift

To consider this aspect it is necessary to start at a speed where compressibility effects become
significant and see how they vary with increasing Mach No.
(a) Subsonic Rise in CL - An increase in velocity is always accompanied by a decrease in

pressure, and since the velocity increase in a compressible flow is greater than that in an
incompressible flow for the same wing, the pressure will be lower, thus lift is greater for a
wing in a compressible flow. At low speed, where air can be considered incompressible,
lift is proportional to V2, i.e. CL can be assumed constant for the same angle of attack. At
moderately high speeds density changes become significant, lift increases at a rate
higher than indicated by V2. i.e. CL increases for the same angle of attack.
Another factor affecting CL is the amount of warning the air gets of the wing’s approach.
As speed increases compressibility effects increase and the reduced upstream warning
causes flow displacement to start closer to the wing. This effectively increases the angle
of attack, so increasing CL. There is a slight loss of lift due to movement of the stagnation
point forward, but overall there is an increase in CL.
(b) Transonic Variations in CL - In considering this aspect, five significant speeds are
selected, A, B, C, D and E (previous graph), and are used in Figure 3.74.

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Mcrit Mach No.
Figure 3.74 – Lift fluctuations as aircraft flies through the transonic region
At A MFS = 0.75, the flow accelerates rapidly from the stagnation point along both upper
pressure, and the wing is above Mcrit. Over the
and lower surfaces, giving a sharp drop in pressure,
top surface of the wing, as yet there is no shock wave, and CL has risen by 60% of its low
speed value for the same angle of attack. Over the bottom surface flow is still subsonic.
At B MFS = 0.81. With the acceleration to this speed, the shock wave has formed and is
strengthened, and will be approximately 60% chord; there is no shock wave on the
undersurface. Behind the shock wave on the rear part of the wing there is no real change
in pressure differential between upper and lower surfaces; ahead of it and behind the
40% (approximately) chord, pressure differential has increased considerably due to
supersonic acceleration up to the shock wave. This effectively increases the CL to
roughly double its incompressible value. It also causes the CP to move rearward to
approximately 30% chord. Flow under the bottom surface becomes sonic.
At C MFS = 0.89. A shock wave has formed on the undersurface and moved to the trailing
edge, while the upper shock wave has remained virtually stationary. The reason for the
differing behaviour is the effect each shock wave has on the boundary layer. Such an
arrangement of shock waves leads to a pressure distribution such that the wing behind
the upper shock wave is producing negative lift, which has to be subtracted from the
positive lift producing area. Lift coefficient has dropped to approximately 30% below its
incompressible value and centre of pressure moves forward to approximately 30% chord.
The reason for the slope between B and C is the relative movement between upper and
lower shock waves.
At D MFS = 0.98. The top surface shock wave is forced to the trailing
trailing edge, the area of
negative lift is replaced by the orthodox pressure differential. The CL is approximately
10% above basic value, and the CP has moved rearward to approximately 45% chord;
this movement of the CP is experienced by all aircraft going through
through the transonic range.

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At E MFS = 1.4. Above M 1.0 the bow shock wave forms, and at M 1.4 is almost attached
to the leading edge. The whole of the wing is producing lift, and the CP is at
approximately mid-chord position. The CL is reduced to a value of 30% less than its
incompressible value due to the stagnation point moving to the most forward point on the
leading edge, and to the loss of pressure energy through the bow shock wave.

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shown in Figure 3.75.
The shock wave positions for each station considered above are shown
Figure 3.75 – Shock wave positions at various increasing speeds

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Supersonic Fall in CL
The full explanation of this aspect is beyond the scope of these notes, but suffice it here to point
out that in practice, any decrease in lift between the upper limit of the transonic range and MFS
1.4 would be masked by trim changes resulting from passing through the transonic range. The
practical result is that the lift curve slope becomes progressively gentler with an increase in MFS
in the supersonic range. The variations in CL at supersonic speeds depend mainly on attendant
compressibility problems with increase of speed, and adverse pressure gradient increases with
speed increase.
Effects of Increasing Mach No on Stability
Transonic Longitudinal Stability

Most aircraft operating in the transonic range experience a nose down pitch with speed
increase, mainly due to two causes:
• Rearward movement of CP which increases longitudinal stability.
• Modification of airflow over the tailplane. The effect of mainplane shock waves is to
modify the flow over the tailplane which will tend to pitch the aircraft nose down.
The effects on an aircraft’s handling characteristics of nose down pitch are two-fold.
(i) At some Mach No an aircraft will become unstable with respect to speed,
necessitating a rearward movement of the control column. This particular problem
is dealt with more fully in Mach Trim.
(ii) The requirement for a large up deflection of elevator/tailplane reduces the amount
of available control deflection for manoeuvres.
This nose-down tendency is known as Mach Tuck, or Tuck-under
Supersonic Longitudinal Stability

The rearward movement of the CP in the transonic range continues as the aircraft accelerates
into full supersonic flight. Thus all aircraft experience a marked increase in longitudinal stability.
Transonic Lateral Stability

Disturbances in the rolling plane are often experienced in transonic flight, on some aircraft one
wing starts to drop when Mcrit is exceeded, due mainly to the difference in lift on the two wings
because shock waves do not form at identical Mach numbers and positions on each wing.
Supersonic Lateral Stability

Lateral stability depends, after sideslip, on the lower wing developing lift. Since CL decreases in
supersonic flight the correcting force is thus reduced and dihedral and sweepback are
consequently less effective. Another adverse effect is the lift/drag ratio decreasing due to
surface friction drag, the decrease in lift/drag ratio being due to pressure differences between
upper and lower surfaces combined with the pressures at the wing tips and their associated
Mach cones.

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Directional Stability
The trend towards rear mounted engines, and consequently an aft CG, has meant a decreased
arm about which the fin can act. Also, the supersonic decrease in CL for a given angle of attack
caused by sideslip means a reduction in fin effectiveness. Subsonically, the fuselage side force
in a sideslip acts in front of the CG and the vertical fin surfaces are able to overcome the
destabilizing condition. In supersonic flight the fuselage side-force moves forward. As long as
the aircraft is in balanced flight no problem arises,
arises, but if the relative airflow is off the longitudinal
axis a destabilizing force at the nose results. This is caused by asymmetry in the strength of the
two shock waves producing a pressure gradient across the nose.
Figure 3.76 – The effect of the shock wave on the fin
The nose force illustrated in Figure 3.76 is tending to prevent the nose being turned into the
relative airflow and is therefore destabilizing. The force increases with speed and has a longer
arm than the fin and rudder. The point of application of the force is difficult to define, but is
located at that part of the fuselage where the cross-sectional area is increasing.
One answer to this problem is to fit longer fins and increase their numbers, but there is a limit if
only for wave drag considerations. A better method is the fitting of yaw dampers, which have
already been dealt with.

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Mach Trim
The device which corrects or compensates for longitudinal instability at high Mach numbers is
the Mach Trimmer. As stated previously, at some Mach number an aircraft will become unstable
with respect to speed; this is potentially dangerous since any inattention on the part of the pilot
in allowing a small increase in Mach No will produce a nose down pitch, which will give further
increase in Mach No, in turn leading to even greater nose down pitch. However, the Mach
Trimmer will in fact correct or compensate for the initial increase in speed.
The Mach Trimmer is sensitive to Mach number and is programmed to feed into the
elevator/stabilizer a signal which is proportional to Mach number so that stability remains
positive. The signal fed into the elevator/stabilizer simply causes their deflection in a direction to
compensate for the trim change.
Mach trim operation in normal conditions will not be shown up by the behaviour of the aircraft,
but will usually be indicated by activation of the trim wheel and/or illumination of a monitor light.
Mach trim operation should be checked against Mach number for any significant change in flight
condition.
Key Points
• Fixed Trim tabs are used to correct permanent out-of-trim faults and can only be adjusted
on the ground.
• Fixed Trim tabs should only be adjusted by an engineer.
• A Balance tab is fitted to assist the pilot in moving the controls in flight.
• A Servo tab is activated by movement of the control column which directly moves the tab
which then aerodynamically moves the control surface.
• On some supersonic aircraft longitudinal trim is achieved by moving fuel from one fuel
tank to another. The tanks are positioned fore and aft under the floor and by pumping
fuel from one to the other the C of G is moved.
• A high aspect ratio wing gives improved lift and reduced drag.
• Employment of swept wings, or wings with swept leading edges, will delay Mcrit.
• For a given wing area at a given angle of attack a swept wing will produce less lift.
• A swept wing is more prone to tip stall.
• Spanwise movement of airflow over a swept wing may be reduced by:
o Wing Fences.
o Leading edge Notches.
o Saw, or Dogtooth Leading edges.
o Vortex Generators.
o Wing Blowing.

© Copyright 2012

Basic Aerodynamics: 8.3 Theory of Flight

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Module 8

8.3 Theory of Flight

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Module 8.3 Theory of Flight ___________________________________________________ 9

Module 8.3 Theory of Flight 3-5

3-6 Module 8.3 Theory of Flight

Figure 3.1 – Plain Flap

Module 8.3 Theory of Flight 3-9

Figure 3.2 – Split Flap

Figure 3.3 – Slotted Flap

Figure 3.4 – Fowler Flap

3-10 Module 8.3 Theory of Flight

Figure 3.5 – Krueger Flap

Leading Edge Droop

Figure 3.6 – Leading Edge Droop

Module 8.3 Theory of Flight 3-11

Leading Edge Slots

Figure 3.7 – Leading Edge Slot – closed and open

3-12 Module 8.3 Theory of Flight

Figure 3.9 – Change in stall angle with flap and slat

Module 8.3 Theory of Flight 3-13

3-14 Module 8.3 Theory of Flight

Module 8.3 Theory of Flight 3-15

Figure 3.12 – Airflow within the Boundary Layer

3-16 Module 8.3 Theory of Flight

Module 8.3 Theory of Flight 3-17

Figure 3.14 – Slat mechanism

Figure 3.15 – Effect on stall angles with flaps and slots

3-18 Module 8.3 Theory of Flight

Module 8.3 Theory of Flight 3-19

Aspect Ratio and Induced (Vortex) Drag

Module 8.3 Theory of Flight 3-21

Aspect Ratio and Stalling Angle

3-22 Module 8.3 Theory of Flight

The Effects of Taper

Module 8.3 Theory of Flight 3-23

3-24 Module 8.3 Theory of Flight

Module 8.3 Theory of Flight 3-25

The various planform effects are separated as follows:

3-26 Module 8.3 Theory of Flight

Swept-back Leading Edges

Effect of Sweepback on Lift

Figure 3.19 – Lift curves for various levels of wing sweep

Module 8.3 Theory of Flight 3-27

3-28 Module 8.3 Theory of Flight

Module 8.3 Theory of Flight 3-29

Effect of Sweepback on Drag

3-30 Module 8.3 Theory of Flight

Module 8.3 Theory of Flight 3-31

• Leading edge separation

Figure 3.25 – Leading edge separation at high angles of attack

3-32 Module 8.3 Theory of Flight

Figure 3.26 – Development of the Ram’s Horn vortex

Module 8.3 Theory of Flight 3-33

Boundary Layer Fences

Leading Edge Slots

Boundary Layer Suction

Boundary Layer Blowing

Leading Edge Extension