ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT II

LECTURE MATERIAL
EEC 236
 CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPES
Introduction
A cathode ray oscilloscope or simply CRO or oscilloscope is one of the extremely useful and the
most versatile tool used in the sciences, medicine, and engineering and telecommunication industry.
These are commonly used to observe the exact wave shape of an electrical signal. In addition to the
amplitude of the signal, an oscilloscope can show distortion, the time between two events (such as
pulse width, period, or rise time) and relative timing of two related signals.
General purpose oscilloscopes are used for maintenance of electronic equipment and laboratory
work. Special purpose oscilloscopes may be used for such purposes as analyzing aircraft cockpit
instruments, automotive ignition system or to display the waveform of the heartbeat.
In electronics engineering/telecommunication industry, the cathode ray oscilloscopes are used
extensively for design, build and test of electronic circuits. The engineers and technicians study the
wave shapes of alternating currents and voltages as well as for measurement of voltage, current,
power and frequency. The oscilloscope allows the user to observe the amplitude of electrical signals
as a function of time on the screen.
Originally all oscilloscopes used cathode ray tubes (CRTs) as their display element and linear
amplifiers for signal processing. However, modern oscilloscopes have LCD or LED screens, fast
analog-to-digital converters and digital signal processors. Some oscilloscopes use storage CRTs to
display single events for a limited time. These days oscilloscope peripheral modules are available
for general purpose laptop or desktop personal computers which allows the laptop or desktop
computers to be used as test instruments.
Oscilloscope allows us to observe the constantly varying signal, usually as a two-dimensional graph
of one or more electrical potential differences using the vertical or „Y‟ axis, plotted as a function of
time, (horizontal or „X‟ axis). Although an oscilloscope displays voltage on its vertical axis, any
other quantity that can be converted to a voltage can be displayed as well. In most instances,
oscilloscopes show events that repeat with either no change or change slowly.
Whatever is the type of an oscilloscope, whether CRT or LCD or LED screen, its front panel
normally has control sections divided into Vertical, Horizontal, and Trigger sections. There are also
display controls and input connectors.
CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT)
The main part of the CRO is Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). It generates the electron beam, accelerates
the beam to a high velocity, deflects the beam to create the image and contains a phosphor screen
where the electron beam eventually becomes visible. The phosphor screen is coated with „aquadag‟
to collect the secondary emitted electrons. For accomplishing these tasks, various electrical signals
and voltages are required, which are provided by the power supply circuit of the oscilloscope. Low
voltage supply is required for the heater of the electron gun for generation of electron beam and
high voltage, of the order of few thousand volts, is required for cathode ray tube to accelerate the
beam. Normal voltage supply, say a few hundred volts, is required for other control circuits of the
oscilloscope.
Horizontal and vertical deflecting plates are fitted between the electron gun and screen to deflect the
beam according to the input signal. The electron beam strikes the screen and creates a visible spot.
This spot is deflected on the screen in the horizontal direction (X-axis) with constant time dependent
rate. This is accomplished by a time base circuit provided in the oscilloscope. The signal to be
viewed is supplied to the vertical deflection plates through the vertical amplifier, which raises the
potential of the input signal to a level that will provide usable deflection of the electron beam. Now
electron beam deflects in two directions, horizontal on X-axis and vertical on Y-axis. A triggering
circuit is provided for synchronizing two types of deflections so that horizontal deflection starts at
the same point of the input vertical signal each time it sweeps. A basic block diagram of a general-
purpose oscilloscope is shown and a schematic of internal parts of a CRT is also shown.

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 Display: In all the modern oscilloscopes it is usually LCD panel. In the old oscilloscopes the
display was a cathode ray tube or CRT. The display whether LCD panel or CRT is laid out
with both horizontal and vertical reference lines referred to as the graticule. In addition to the
screen, most display sections are equipped with three basic controls, a focus knob, an
intensity knob and a beam finder button.
 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT): This is the cathode ray tube which emits electrons that strikes
the phosphor screen internally to provide a visual display of signal. It displays the quantity
being measured.
 Vertical amplifier: It amplifies the signal waveform to be viewed.
 Delay Line. It is used to delay the signal for some time in the vertical sections.
 Horizontal amplifier: This is used to amplify the sawtooth voltage which is then applied to
the X-plates.
 Sweep generator: Produces sawtooth voltage waveform used for horizontal deflection of
the electron beam.
 Trigger circuit: Produces trigger pulses to start horizontal sweep. It converts the incoming
signal into trigger pulses so that the input signal and the sweep frequency can be
synchronized.
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  High and low: Voltage power supply.
Two voltages are generated in CRO
 The low voltage supply is from +300 to 400 V.
 The high voltage supply is from –1000 to –1500 V.
Operation Control of Oscilloscope
The operating controls of a basic oscilloscope are shown in Fig. 7.4. The different terminals
provide.
1. Horizontal Amplifier Input
2. Vertical Amplifier Input
3. Synchronous Input
4. Z-Axis Input
5. External Sweep Input.

As seen from this diagram, different controls permit the following adjustment.
1. Intensity: For correct brightness of the trace on the screen. This adjusts trace brightness.
Slow traces on CRT scopes need less, and fast ones, especially if they don‟t repeat very
often, require more. On flat panels, however, trace brightness is essentially independent of
sweep speed, because the internal signal processing effectively synthesizes the display from
the digitized data.
2. Focus: For sharp focus of the trace. This control adjusts CRT focus to obtain the sharpest,
most-detailed trace. In practice, focus needs to be adjusted slightly when observing quite
different signals, which means that it needs to be an external control. Flat-panel displays do
not need a focus control; their sharpness is always optimum.
3. Horizontal centering: For moving the pattern right and left on the screen. The horizontal
position control moves the display sidewise. It usually sets the left end of the trace at the left
edge of the graticule, but it can displace the whole trace when desired. This control also
moves the X-Y mode traces sidewise in some „scopes, and can compensate for a limited DC
component as for vertical position.
4. Vertical centering: For moving the pattern up and down on the screen. The vertical position
control moves the whole displayed trace up and down. It is used to set the no input trace
exactly on the center line of the graticule, but also permits offsetting vertically by a limited

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 amount. With direct coupling, adjustment of this control can compensate for a limited DC
component of an input.
5. Horizontal gain (also Time/div or Time/cm): For adjusting pattern width. This section
controls the time base or “sweep” of the instrument. The primary control is the Seconds-per-
Division (Sec/Div.) selector switch. Also included is a horizontal input for plotting dual X-Y
axis signals. The horizontal beam position knob is generally located in this section.
6. Vertical gain (also volt/div or volt/cm): For adjusting pattern height. This controls the
amplitude of the displayed signal. This section carries a Volts-per-Division (Volts/Div.)
selector knob, an AC/DC/Ground selector switch and the vertical (primary) input for the
instrument. Additionally, this section is typically equipped with the vertical beam position
knob.
7. Sweep frequency: For selecting number of cycles in the pattern.
8. Sync, Voltage amplitude: For locking the pattern. The different switches permit selection
of:
 sweep type
 sweep range
 Sync. type
A CRO can operate up to 500MHz, can allow viewing of signals within a time span of a few
nanoseconds and can provide a number of waveform displays simultaneously on the screen. It also
has the ability to hold the displays for a short or long time (of many hours) so that the original signal
may be compared with one coming on later.
Working of CRO
In the past, CRO consists mainly of a vacuum tube which contains a cathode, anode, grid, X & Y-
plates, and a fluorescent screen. When the cathode is heated (by applying a small potential
difference across its terminals), it emits electrons. Having a potential difference between the cathode
and the anode (electrodes), accelerate the emitted electrons towards the anode, forming an electron
beam, which passes to fall on the screen. When the fast electron beam strikes the fluorescent screen,
a bright visible spot is produced. The grid, which is situated between the electrodes, controls the
amount of electrons passing through it thereby controlling the intensity of the electron beam. The X
& Y-plates are responsible for deflecting the electron beam horizontally and vertically. A sweep
generator is connected to the X-plates, which moves the bright spot horizontally across the screen
and repeats that at a certain frequency as the source of the signal. The voltage to be studied is
applied to the Y-plates. The combined sweep and Y voltages produce a graph showing the variation
of voltage with time.
Applications of a CRO
As stated earlier, no other instrument in electronic industry is as versatile as a CRO. In fact, a
modern oscilloscope is the most useful single piece of electronic equipment that not only removes
guess work from technical troubleshooting but makes it possible to determine the trouble quickly.
Some of its uses are as under:
a. In Radio Work
1. To trace and measure a signal throughout the RF, IF and AF channels of radio and television
receivers.
2. it provides the only effective way of adjusting FM receivers, broadband high-frequency RF
amplifiers and automatic frequency control circuits;
3. to test AF circuits for different types of distortions and other spurious oscillations;
4. to give visual display of wave shapes such as sine waves, square waves and their many
different combinations;
5. to trace transistor curves
6. to visually show the composite synchronized TV signal
7. to display the response of tuned circuits etc.

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 b. Scientific and Engineering Applications
1. measurement of ac/dc voltages,
2. finding B/H curves for hysteresis loop,
3. for engine pressure analysis,
4. for study of stress, strain, torque, acceleration etc.,
5. frequency and phase determination
6. radiation patterns of antenna,
7. amplifier gain,
8. modulation percentage,
9. complex waveform as a short-cut for Fourier analysis,
10. Standing waves in transmission lines etc.
TIME BASE GENERATOR
Generally, oscilloscopes are used to display a waveform that varies as a function of time. For the
waveform to be accurately reproduced, the beam must have a constant horizontal velocity. Since the
beam velocity is a function of the deflecting voltage, the deflecting voltage must increase linearly
with time. A voltage with this characteristic is called a ramp voltage. If the voltage decreases
rapidly to zero with the waveform repeatedly reproduced, as shown in Figure 9.3, the pattern is
generally called a sawtooth waveform.
During the sweep time, Ts, the beam moves from left to right across the CRT screen. The beam is
deflected to the right by the increasing amplitude of the ramp voltage and the fact that the positive
voltage attracts the negative electrons. During the retrace time or flyback time, Tr, the beam returns
quickly to the left side of the screen. This action would cause a retrace line to be printed on the CRT
screen. To overcome this problem the control grid is generally „gated off‟, which blanks out the
beam during retrace time and prevents an undesirable retrace pattern from appearing on the screen.

Synchronization means that the time base signal sweeps across the screen in a time that is equal to
an integer number of vertical waveform periods. The vertical waveform will then appear locked on
the CRT screen.
The vertical sector consists of a wideband preamplifier and power amplifier combination that drives
the CRT vertical deflection plates. The vertical amplifier has a high gain, so large signals must be
passed through an attenuator or, in low cost oscilloscopes, a vertical gain controller.
VERTICAL INPUT AND SWEEP GENERATOR SIGNAL SYNCHRONISATION
Several waveforms that are needed to be observed with the help of CRO will be changing at a rate
much faster than the human eye can sense, perhaps many million times per second. To observe such
rapid changes, the beam must retrace the same pattern repeatedly.
If the pattern is retraced in such a manner that the pattern always occupies the same location on the
screen, it will appear as stationary. The beam will retrace the same pattern at a rapid rate. If the
vertical input signal and the sweep generator signal are synchronized, which means that the
frequency of vertical input signal must be equal to or an exact multiple of the sweep generator
signal frequency, as shown in Figure 9.4. If the vertical input frequency is not exactly equal to or an
exact multiple of the sawtooth frequency, the waveform will not be synchronized and the display

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moves across the screen. If the pattern moves towards the right, the frequency of the sawtooth
waveform is too high. Movement of the pattern towards the left indicates that the frequency of the
sawtooth is too low.
The vertical input signal and the sawtooth generator signal can be synchronized in two different
ways:
 Free running sweep
 Triggered sweep
Free Running Sweep
In low-cost oscilloscopes, the time base is said to be free running. In these oscilloscopes, the sweep
generator is continuously charging and discharging a capacitor. One ramp voltage is followed
immediately by another; hence, the sawtooth pattern appears. A sweep generator working in this
manner is said to be „free running‟. In order to present a stationary display on the CRT screen, the
sweep generator signal must be forced to run in synchronization with the vertical input signal. In
basic or low-cost oscilloscopes this is accomplished by carefully adjusting the sweep frequency to a
value very close to the exact frequency of the vertical input signal or a submultiple of this
frequency. When both signals are at same frequency, an internal synchronizing pulse will lock the
sweep generator into the vertical input signal. This method of synchronization has some serious
limitations when an attempt is made to observe low amplitude signals, because it is very difficult to
observe that a very low amplitude signal is stationary or movable in the CRT screen. However, the
most serious limitation is probably the inability of the instrument to maintain synchronization when
the amplitude or frequency of the vertical signal is not constant, such as variable frequency audio
signal or voice.

Triggered Sweep
In free running sweep oscillators, it is not possible to observe the signals of variable frequency. The
limitation is overcome by incorporating a trigger circuit into the oscilloscope as shown below. The
trigger circuit may receive an input from one of three sources depending on the setting of the trigger
selecting switch. The input signal may come from an external source when the trigger selector
switch is set to EXT, from a low amplitude ac voltage at line frequency when the switch is set to
line, or from the vertical amplifier when the switch is set to INT. When set for Internal Triggering
(INT), the trigger circuit receives its input from the vertical amplifier. When the vertical input
signals that is being amplified by the vertical amplifier matches a certain level, the trigger circuit
provides a pulse to the sweep generator, thereby ensuring that the sweep generator output is
synchronized with the signal that triggers it. Schmitt trigger or a voltage level detector circuit is

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frequently used in the „trigger circuit‟. Basically, the Schmitt trigger compares an input voltage, in
this case from the vertical amplifier, with a pre-set voltage.

Measurement of Voltage
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is primary a voltage-measuring instrument. Once we have
measured the voltage, other quantities can be calculated. CRO is a voltage dependent instrument and
can be used for the measurement of voltages at any frequency within the range of the operation of
the CRO.

To measure the voltages

 The input voltage is applied on the vertical deflection plates
 An appropriate sweep is applied to the horizontal plates.
 The amplitude attenuator is than adjusted such that the signal is displayed comfortably on the
screen.
 The amplitude trace of the waveform is then observed on the screen.
 The position of the attenuator knob gives the volts/cm position or volts/ division.
 The peak to peak voltage of the input signal is measured by multiplying this position value
with the number of centimeters the signal is occupying in the vertical direction.
 The peak to peak voltage of the signal is given by

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Measurement of Current
Current cannot be measured directly with a CRO. To measure the current, a known resistance is
taken and the potential drop across the resistance is determined with the help of measurement of
potential at both ends of the resistor. The voltage across resistance is displayed on CRO and
measured as shown below. The voltage divided by the considered resistance value gives the amount
of current flowing in the device.

Measurement of Time period

The waveform is displayed on the screen such that one complete cycle is visible on the screen.
Note the time/division on the front panel. Then the period of the waveform can be obtained as,

Lissajous Figures
Lissajous Figures (or patterns) are named in honour of the French scientist who first obtained them
geometrically and optically. They illustrate one of the earliest uses to which the CRO was put.
Lissajous patterns are formed when two sine waves are applied simultaneously to the vertical and
horizontal deflecting plates of a CRO. The two sine waves may be obtained from two audio
oscillators as shown below. Obviously, in this case, a sine wave sweeps a sine-wave input signal.

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The shape of the Lissajous pattern depends on the frequency and phase relationship of the two sine
waves.
Two sine waves of the same frequency and amplitude may produce a straight line, an ellipse or a
circle depending on their phase difference.
In general, the shape of Lissajous Figures depends on
 Amplitude
 Phase difference
 Ratio of frequency of the two waves.

Frequency Determination with Lissajous Figures

The unknown signal is applied across one set of deflecting plates and a known signal across the
other. By studying the resultant Lissajous pattern, unknown frequency can be found.
Depending on the frequency ratio, the various patterns obtained are shown below. The ratio of the
two frequencies is given by

In the diagram below (a), there is one point of tangency along the horizontal as well as vertical axis.
Hence, fH = fV (i.e. the signals have the same frequency).

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The ratio of frequencies when open ended Lissajous patterns are obtained can also be found by
treating the open ends as half tangencies as shown in (b).

It should be noted that this method of frequency determination has limitations and is being
discarded gradually because low-cost digital frequency counters are available in the market. The
two main limitations of this method are as under:
 the numerator and denominator of the frequency ratio must be whole numbers,
 the maximum ratio of frequencies that can be used is 10 : 1. Beyond that, the Lissajous
patterns become too complex to analyze.
Phase Determination with Lissajous Figures
A Lissajous pattern is obtained on CRO with an unknown phase difference f. This pattern which is
in the form of an ellipse provides a simple means of finding phase difference between two voltages.
The gains of the vertical amplifiers are adjusted so that the ellipse fits exactly into a square marked
by the lines on the graticule.
If the major axis lies in first and third quadrants
If the major axis of the ellipse lies on the first and third quadrants then its slope is positive and is as
shown in the diagram below. Then the phase angle is either between 0° and 90° or between 270°
and 360°.The sine of the phase angle between the voltages is given by

If the major axis in lies in second and forth quadrants

If the major axis of the ellipse lies on the second and forth quadrants, its slope is negative as shown
below. Then the phase angle is either between 90° and 180° or between 180° and 270°. The sine of
the phase angle between the voltages is given by

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 POWER FACTOR METERS
Introduction
On measuring the current, voltage and power in ac circuit, its power factor can be calculated from
the relationship COS θ = P/IV. The method of determining the power factor of an electric circuit is
however, of low accuracy and is rarely used in practice. It is obviously desirable to an instantaneous
indication of the power factor of an ac circuit, especially where this is varying continuously, without
having resource to mathematical calculation of the readings of several instruments. Power factor
meters indicate directly, by a single reading, the power factor of the circuit to which they are
connected. The accuracy obtained with the use of Pf meters is sufficient for most purpose other than
high precision testing.
Power factor meters like wattmeter have a current circuit and a pressure circuit. The current circuit
the current (or definite fraction of this current) in the circuit whose power factor is to be measured.
The pressure circuit is connected across the circuit whose power is to be measured and is usually
split up into two parallel paths, one inductive and the other non-inductive. The deflection of the
instruments depend upon the phase difference between the main current and current in two paths of
the pressure circuit, i.e. upon the phase angle or power factor at the circuit. The deflection is
indicated by a pointer.
The moving system of power factor meters is perfectly balanced at equilibrium by two opposing
forces and therefore there is no need for controlling devices. Hence when a power factor meter is
disconnected from a circuit the pointer remain at its position which is occupied at the instant of
disconnection.
Wattmeter
Power is defined as the rate at which energy is transformed or made available. The power is a circuit
at any instant is equal to the [product of the current in the circuit and the voltage across its terminal
at that instant. The power in a dc circuit is best measured by separately measuring quantities V and I
and by computing power by formula P = VI. In the case of ac circuit the instantaneous power varies
continuously as the current and voltage of though a cycle of values.
If the voltage and current are both sinusoidal the average power over cycle is given by the
expression P = VI Cos θ watts where V and I are the r.m.s. values of voltage and current.
A wattmeter is a device used to measure how much electrical power a circuit is producing,
expressed in watts. It uses resistance to move a piece of metal, which is carefully calibrated along a
display with wattage numbers on it, the higher the wattage, the more the piece of metal will move.
The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric power in watts of any given circuit.
Wattmeter is the combination of both ammeter and voltammeter. It consists of two coil current coil
and pressure coil. The current coil is inserted in series with the line carrying current to be measured
and the pressure coil in series with a high non-inductive resistance R is connected across the load or
supply terminal. There are different types of wattmeter and they are given below:
Dynamometer Type Wattmeter
A dynamometer is a device for measuring force, moment of force (torque), or power.
For example, the power produced by an engine, motor or other rotating prime mover can be
calculated by simultaneously measuring torque and rotational speed.
A dynamometer can also be used to determine the torque and power required to operate a driven
machine such as a pump. In that case, motoring or driving dynamometer is used. A dynamometer
that is designed to be driven is called an absorption or passive dynamometer. A dynamometer that
can either drive or absorb is called a universal or active dynamometer.
The fixed coil (current coil) which is divided into two equal portion in order to provide uniform
field. It is designed to handle the full load current.
The moving coil is used as a pressure coil. The fixed coil carry the current through the circuit and
the moving coil carries the current proportional to the voltage across the circuit. A high non-
inductive resistance is connected in series with the moving coil in order to limit the current in the
circuit. Since one flux is proportional to load current and the other is proportional to load voltage,
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the torque on the pointer or the moving coil is proportional to the power. The magnetic field of the
fixed and moving coils reacts on one other causing the moving coil to turn about its axis.
The moving coil is carried on a pivoted spindle and the movement is spring controlled.
The moving system carries a pointer and a damping vane, the latter moving in a sector-shaped box.
The current coils are usually laminated when heavy current are to be carried. Damping is provided
by light aluminum vanes moving in air dash pot.

Where, K is a constant. In dc circuit the power is given by the product of the voltage and current.
Hence the torque is directly proportional to power. In ac circuit the mean deflecting torque Tm is
given by,

Advantages
1. It gives a very degree of accuracy.
2. Scale is not uniform
3. It can be used on both ac and dc supply.
Disadvantages
1. Errors due to voltage drop in the circuit.
2. Errors due to the current taken by the voltage coil.

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Induction Type Wattmeter
It consists of two laminated electromagnets. One of them is excited by the load current of main
circuit, series or current magnets and its exciting coil (current coil) is connected in series with
circuit. The other is excited by a current proportional to the voltage of the circuit called shunt
magnet. Its exciting coil known as voltage of pressure coil is connected in parallel with the circuit.
A thin aluminum disc is mounted of such a way that is cuts the fluxes of both magnets, and the
deflecting torque is produced by the interaction between these fluxes and the eddy current which
they induce in the disc.

The two or three copper rings are fitted on the central limb of the shunt magnet and can be adjust to
make the resultant flux in the shunt magnet lag behind the applied voltage by 90°. The two pressure
coils are joined in series and are so wound that both send the flux through the central limb in the
same direction. The series magnet also carries two coils joined in series and are so wound that they
magnetize their respective magnetic cores in the same direction. Desired phase shift between the
two magnets fluxes can be obtained by adjusting the position of the copper shading rings. The
controlling torque in induction wattmeter is provided by a spring fitted to the spindle of the moving
system which also carries the pointer. The damping in these instruments is provided by the eddy
current induced in the aluminum disc due to the fluxes produced by a permanent magnet.
The current coil carries the line current I1 so that the flux produced by it is directly proportional to
the line current I1 and is in phase with it.

The pressure coil of the shunt magnet is made highly inductive, having an inductance L and
negligible resistance. This is connected across the supply voltage V,

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Advantages
1. Have large scales
2. Can handle current up to 100 amperes.
3. Free from the effects of stray fields.
4. Practically free from frequency errors.
Disadvantages
1. Scale is not uniform.
2. Temperature errors.
3. Used only when the frequency and the supply voltage are constant.

Measurement of Power in Three Phase Circuit

In the three phase circuit the quantity may be of two types phase quantity and line quantity. The
voltage and current both phase and line values are r.m.s values.
The voltage may be measured between either two phases or one phase and one neutral and similarly
current may be flow between either two phases or one phase and one neutral. When the quantity is
being measured phase to phase is called line quantity. When the quantity is being measured phase to
neutral called phase quantity.
Let three phase are R, Y and B and neutral N them phase voltage for R phase Y phase and B
phase can be represented as VRN, VYN and VBN respectively or simply can also be represented as
VR, VY and VB respectively. Line voltage VRY means the voltage between the phase R and phase Y
keeping in mind that R is the forward path and Y is the reverse path here in this way the line voltage
can be taken for any two phases.
Power in Three Phase Circuit with Balanced Load
The power input to a single phase ac circuit is VI Cos θ. Thus the per phase in a 3-phase system is
VP IP Cos θ. Where VP and IP are the r.m.s value of per phase voltage and current respectively and
θ is the angle between the phase current and phase voltage caused by the load. Hence the total
power fed to a three phase system with balanced load,
= 3 power per phase
= 3VPIP Cos θ
In the three phase system the voltages and current are given as line voltage normally.
For a star connected three phase circuit,

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The power fed to the load through three phase circuit is independent of the connection of the circuit.
The power of single phase circuit can be measured by using the wattmeter. It is necessary to know
how it operated for measurement of power which is the product of two phasor quantity voltage and
current. The wattmeter is such calibrated that the current coil responds to the current of the circuit
and pressure coil responds to the voltage in circuit and the overall reading is equal to the VI Cos θ.
To measure the power in three phase circuit we can use three arrangements of wattmeter they are
given below:
 Three wattmeter method
 Two wattmeter method
 One wattmeter method
Three-Wattmeter Method
In this method three-Wattmeter are used. Each wattmeter is connected between a phase and neutral.
This method is employed for measurement of power in 3- phase 4-wire circuit. Figure 3.27 shows
the connection of three wattmeter method. As the neutral wire is common to the three phase each
wattmeter reads power in its own phase and the total power of the load circuit is given by the sum of
the reading of the three-Wattmeter.

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Two-Wattmeter Method
In this power in a 3-phase three wire system having balanced or unbalanced load can be measured
by using two-wattmeter. The load mat be start or delta connected. The current coil of the two-
wattmeter is connected in any of the two phase wires and the pressure coil is connected between
three phase wires.

The first wattmeter is connected the phase R and Y. The current coil in R phase while the pressure
coil is across the phase R and Y. So the value of the wattmeter,
W1 = VRY IR Cos θ1
Where θ1 is the angle between the vector VRY and IR
The second wattmeter is connected between the phase B and Y. The current coil in B phase while
the pressure coil is across B and Y. So the value of the wattmeter,
W2 = VBY IB Cos θ2
To find the value θ we have to draw the phasor diagram. The phasor for star connected system is
shown below, it including the three phase currents IR, IY and IB. If the load power factor is cos θ
lagging this means the phase current IR, IY and IB will lag by θ angle with their corresponding phase
voltage VR, VY and VB respectively.
Now we can find out the require angle θ1 and θ2. First we draw the phase voltages VR, VY and VB.

Then the three phases current IR, IY and IB corresponding to phase voltage VR, VY and VB each
current will lag by θ angle corresponding to its voltage. The angle θ1 and θ2 are,

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We can conclude that the sum of two wattmeter value will be equal to the resultant power of three
phase circuit.

One Wattmeter Method

This method is same as two-wattmeter method except only one wattmeter is used with ON-OFF
switches connection in pressure coil with rest two phase wires. The current coil of the wattmeter is
connected in R phase. The pressure coil of the wattmeter can be connected in the phase Y or phase
B with the help of ON-OFF switches S1 and S2. If the switch S1 is ON, the wattmeter reads the
power between phase R and Y.
W = VRY. IR cos θ1
If the switch S2 is ON the wattmeter reads the power between R and B,
W = VRB. IB cos θ2
The total power of three phase circuit can be calculated by adding these two-wattmeter reading
same as in two wattmeter methods.

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 INSTRUMENTS SELECTION AND SPECIFICATION
Introduction
The considerations for selecting an instrument may be regarded as falling into two categories: either
an engineer is selecting the most suitable instrument from those within a department or
establishment to perform a particular measurement, or he is undertaking the purchase of a new
instrument to perform a particular measurement and possibly at the same time extend the
measurement capabilities of the department or establishment in which he works. Many of the
criteria in selecting an instrument are the same, whether an engineer is selecting an instrument off
the shelf or purchasing new equipment.
The general criteria for selecting an instrument may be summarized by the following factors, which
although it will be more suitable when considering a moderately sophisticated instrument, could
prove valuable as a guide in selecting the right instrument on every occasion.
FACTORS OF AN INSTRUMENT SELECTION
The important factors of selecting measurement instruments are explain as follows.
1. Range: The difference between the greatest and the least values of data.
 what are the maximum and minimum magnitude of the values to be measured?
 Will a single range or multi-range instruments be the most suitable?
 Is a linear scale required?
2. Accuracy: This is the closeness in which an instrument approaches the true of the quantity
being measured.
 What is the accuracy required in the measurement?
 Is the same accuracy required over the entire range of measurement?
 What is the maximum tolerance acceptable?
 Is the resolution of the instrument consistent with its specified errors?
Response: This is when the quantity being measured changes with time.
 What response time is required?
 What bandwidth is required?
 For ac instruments, to what aspect of the waveform should the instrument respond i.e. peak,
mean or r.m.s values?
 For auto range instruments must include the time for range and polarity changes.
Stability:
 What is the maximum acceptable time between calibrations?
 Is the instrument to be operated unattended for a long period?
 Is there a built in calibration system?

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Reliability
 What is the required reliability?
 What will be the consequences of failure, and will a standby instrument be required?
 What are the maintenance requirements and will any special equipment be required?
 Are there any cost limitations on the choice of instrument?
Sensitivity
 Is the quantity being measured floating or has it one side earthed?
 Are there likely to be stray electromagnetic or electrostatic fields?
 What are the required common mode and normal mode rejection ration ratio?
On the completion of the above factors for a particular application, the derived specifications for the
desired instrument may not be possible in practical terms, and a compromise between that which is
available within an organization, or can be afforded, will have to be adopted.
If a new instrument is to be purchased, it is essentially to ensure that a “right” instrument is being
purchased. This is particularly relevant, if the instrument is for a permanent installation although it
may be considered as good practice to purchase to a slightly higher specifications if proposed
instrument is for used in a laboratory where the measurement requirement may change with
experience and time.
IMPORTANCE OF INSTRUMENTS IN INDUSTRIES
Measurement can be defined as finding the size, unit, standard, device or system used for obtaining
action taken for a purpose. Many instruments have been invented to measure different quantity, with
different advantages and disadvantages. Instruments are of different ranges and cost all vary by
several orders of magnitude from one instrument design to the next.
 Instrumentation plays a significant role in both gathering information from the field and
changing field parameters, and as such are a key part of control loops.
 Instrumentation can be used to measure certain field parameters (physical values): such as
pressure, either differential or static, flow.
 In addition to measuring field parameters, instrument is also responsible for providing the
ability to modify some field parameters.

IMPORTANCE OF MEASUREMENT IN INDUSTRY

Measurement involves using a measuring instrument such as a ruler or scale, which is calibrated to
compare the object to some extent.
1. Measurement is important because is the process of estimating the magnitude of some
attribute of an object such as its length or weight, relative to some standard (unit of
measurement), such as a meter or a kilogram.
2. Measurement is another process use to indicate the number that results from the process.
Metrology is the scientific study of measurement. The act of measuring usually involves
using a measuring instrument, such as a ruler weighing scale, thermometer, speedometer or
voltmeter, which is calibrated to compare the measured attribute to a measurement unit. Any
kind of attributes can be measured, including physical quantities such as distance, velocity
energy, temperature or time.
3. Measurement is important because it is the assessment of attitudes or perception in surveys or
the testing of aptitudes of individuals is also considered to be measurements. Indeed, surveys
and tests are considered to be “measurement instructions”.
4. Measurement is important because is fundamental in science; it is one of the things that
distinguish science from pseudoscience. It is easy to come up with a theory that predicts
measurement with great accuracy. Measurement is also essential in industry, commerce,
engineering, construction, manufacturing, pharmaceutical production, and electronics.
The following factors are also important of measurement in an industry

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  Pressure
 Temperature
 Level
 Flow rate
 Density
 Viscosity
 Humidity

Measurement of Temperature
Temperature is a physical property of any matter that quantitatively expresses the common notions
of hot and cold. Heat spontaneously flows from bodies of a higher temperature to bodies of lower
temperature, at a rate that increases with the temperature difference and the thermal conductivity.
No heat will be exchanged between bodies of the same temperature; such bodies are said to be in
“thermal equilibrium”.
Many methods have been developed for measuring temperature. Most of these rely on measuring
some physical property of a working material that varies with temperature. One of the most
common devices for measuring temperature is the glass thermometer. This consists of a glass tube
filled with mercury or some other liquid, which acts as the working fluid. Temperature increase
causes the fluid to expand, so the temperature can be determined by measuring the volume of the
fluid. Such thermometers are usually calibrated so that one can read the temperature simply by
observing the level of the fluid in the thermometer.
But in industries we use different type of temperature measurement instrument for measuring
temperature. When measuring the temperature we ensure that the measuring instrument
(thermometer, thermocouple, etc.) is really the same temperature as the material that is being
measured. Under some conditions heat from the measuring instrument can cause a temperature
gradient, so the measured temperature is different from the actual temperature of the system. In such
a case the measured temperature will vary not only with the temperature of the system, but also with
the heat transfer properties of the system.
Types of thermometers
The existence of different types of thermometer comes from taking advantage of the responsiveness
of certain physical properties to change in temperature. Areas where use is made of such physical
properties to slight change in temperature are in:
1. Expansion of liquid due to increase in temperature e.g. liquid in glass thermometer.
2. Expansion of gas volume at constant pressure e.g. gas thermometer.
3. Change in electric resistance of a metal such as platinum e.g. resistance thermometer.
4. Change in electric current generated by a thermocouple e.g. thermoelectric thermometer.
5. Difference in expansion of the two metals that make up a bimetallic strip, e.g. bimetallic
thermometer.
Importance of temperature measurement
The existence of the different types of thermometer comes from taking advantage of the
responsiveness of certain physical properties to change in temperature. Areas used of such physical
properties to slight change in temperature are in:
1. Expansion of liquid due to increase in temperature e.g. liquid in glass thermometer.
2. Expansion of gas volume at constant pressure e.g. gas thermometer.
3. Change in electric resistance of a metal such as platinum e.g. resistance thermometer.
4. Change in electric current generated by a thermocouple e.g. thermoelectric thermometer.
5. Difference in expansion of the two metals that make up a bimetallic strip, e.g. bimetallic
thermometer.

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FLOWRATE MEASUREMENT
Increasing industrialization and population growth has caused tremendous contamination of surface
water during the last decades. As a consequence, the laws regarding environmental protection have
been tightened in many countries. To fulfill these regulations means increasing the number and the
efficiency of waste water treatment plants. Today is necessary to use ongoing treatment processes
and control them by means of measurement and control systems. In service monitoring has become
more extensive and diverse. Waste water treatment not only includes operating. Supervising,
servicing and repairing equipment, it also involves the key topics of operational flow, monitoring
and controlling, measuring, analyzing, recording and evaluating. This ensures that the key
processes, the reduction of hydrocarbons, of nitrate, ammonium and phosphates and carried out in a
most efficient way in a large as well as in small treatment plants.
The driving factor in today‟s investment in waste water treatment most be cost reduction. The only
way to maintain high standards while reducing costs is to invest in highly sophisticated
measurement and process control technology, ideally from a supplier offering the whole basket of
instrument.
MEASUREMENT OF DENSITY
The density of a fluid is its weight per unit volume. Both temperature and pressure affect the density
of fluids and can alter the accuracy of measurements especially for gases and vapors. High
temperatures or lower pressure cause the fluid expand so that molecules move farther apart, which
causes the weight of given volume to be less than it will be at a lower temperature of higher
pressure.
VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT
The viscosity of the coating fluid is important rheological property, which will be accurately
measured and controlled during the development of the product and in manufacturing. This will
insure optimum quality and a reproducible cost effective manufacturing process.
A fluid is defined as substance that undergoes irreversible deformation when subject to a steady
state shear or tensile stress. The viscosity is a parameter to characterize this deformation and is a
measure of the resistance of the solution to flow under mechanical stress. High viscosity solution
will deform and flow rapidly with a minimum of force. For example, water has a low viscosity and
will flow readily out of glass under normal gravity forces, whereas molasses, a high viscosity
material, will take a long time to flow from a glass.
Why is it important to understand viscosity?
Because viscosity is central to the performance of lubricated machinery, such as your car
 If you use high- viscosity engine oil in your car, the oil puddles in your driveway will be
smaller, but your engine will run hotter and it probably won‟t start on a cold winter morning.
 If you use low viscosity engine oil in your car, the position rings may wear out in a few
thousand miles, the crankshaft bearings may seize and the puddles in your drive will amaze
your neighbors!
As we said, the simplest definition of viscosity is resistance to flow. Sir Isaac Newton defined it as
“the resistance that arises from lack of slipperiness in a fluid.” Cold maple syrup is thick and not
slippery, but cold water is thin and slippery.
The importance of characterizing the viscosity behavior over a wider range of shear rates is that
there are a wide variety of shear rates in the coating and ancillary processes process.
Therefore, the behavior needs to determine to insure compatibility.
Importance of viscosity
The fluid viscosity is key variable in the following properties:
 Determine the best coating method to be used.
 Coating weight control in roll coating methods.
 Coating quality level and reproducibility from applicator.
 Coating quality in dryer.
 Level of coating after application.
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Routing measurements of viscosity prior to coating should be part of the normal quality control
determine the source of the problem.
HUMIDITY MEASUREMENT
Humidity measurement instruments and transducers test absolute humidity, relative humidity, or
dew point in air. The range humidity measurement instruments operator in is typically from 0 to
100% humidity. They are sometimes combined with other sensing devices such as temperature
sensors.
Humidity measurement instruments and sensors can sense a number of different factors. Absolute
humidity, expressed as grams of water vapor per cubic meter volume of air, regardless of the air‟s
temperature. Relative humidity (RH), express as percent, also measures water vapor, but also
relative to the temperature of the air. The dew point temperature, which provides a measure of the
actual amount of water vapor in the air, is the temperature to which the air must be cooled in for that
air to be saturated and dew to form. Because of the intertwining of atmospheric measurements,
humidity measurement instruments are sometimes equipped with pressure and temperature sensors
as well. Three main application s for humidity measurement are judging moisture in gas or air, bulk
solids or powders, or else if fuels or other liquids.
There are many technologies for humidity measurement instruments. Capacitive or dielectric
instruments have a material that absorbs moisture, which changes it dielectric properties and
enhance its capacitance. Chilled mirror technology uses a mirror that is chilled to the point that
moisture starts to condense on it. The temperature is the dew point. With electrolytic technology,
moisture is proportional to the current needed to electrolyze it from a desiccant. For resistivity or
impedance style sensors, a material absorbs moisture, which changes its resistivity or impedance. In
strain gauge instruments, a material absorbs water, expands and is measured with a strain gauge.
Psychrometers, often called wet/dry bulbs, measure relative humidity by gauging the temperature
difference between two thermometers, one wet and one dry.
One critical specification for these devices is the humidity for moisture range to be measured or else
the dew point range. Humidity and moisture accuracy is expressed in terms of percentage of
measurement. The dew point accuracy, since this is a temperature reading, express as a variance in
temperature output.
Outputs from humidity measurement instruments can be analog current, voltage, or frequency,
digital, including computer signals; or a switch of alarm. They can have analog, digital or video type
displays and can have a number of different form factors. They can be PCB-amount devices,
standard sensors or transducers, or a simple gauge or indicator. They can also be various types of
instruments, whether handheld, bench top or mounted.
In addition to pressure and temperature compensation, humidity measurement instruments can have
a number of features to make them more useful or easier to use. These can include data logging,
event triggering, self-testing, self-calibration, and battery power.
ELECTRICAL/ELECT.INSTRUMENTS
Electrical energy is being used in the manufacture of many commodities. In order to ensure quality
and efficiency, it is important that we should be able to measure accurately the electrical quantities
involved. The instruments used to measure electrical quantities (e.g. current, voltage power, energy
etc.) are called electrical instruments. These instruments are generally made after the electrical
quantity to be measured. Thus the instruments which measure which measure current, voltage,
power and energy are called ammeter, voltmeter, and wattmeter and energy meter respectively.
Types of Electrical Instruments
Electrical measuring instruments may be classified according to their functions as
1. Indicating instruments
2. Recording instruments
3. Controlling instruments

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Indicating instruments
These are the instruments which indicate the instantaneous value of the quantity being measured, at
the time it is being measured. The indication is in the form of a pointer deflection (analog
instruments) or digital readout (digital instruments). Ammeters, voltmeters and watt meters are
example of such instruments. In analog instruments, a pointer moving over a graduated scale
directly gives the value of the electrical quantity being measured. For example when an ammeter is
connected in the circuit, the pointer of the meter directly indicates the value of the current flowing in
the circuit at that time
Recording instruments
These are instruments which gives a continuous record of the variations of the electrical quantity
being measured over a selected period of time. e.g. recording ammeters which are used in sub-
stations for registering the amount of current taking from the batteries while recording voltmeters
are used in sub-stations to record the variation of supply voltage the day. Many of these instruments
are electromechanical devices which use paper chart and mechanical writing instruments such as an
inked pen or stylus.
Controlling instruments
These are instruments used to control a varying system at a fixed value or range. The instruments
serve as a component of an automatic control system.
Principles of Operation of Electrical instruments
An electrical instrument essentially consists of a movable element and a scale to indicate or register
the electrical quantity being measured. The movable element is supported on jeweled bearings and
carries a pointer or sets of dials. The movement of movable elements is caused by utilizing one or
more of the following effect of current or voltage:
1. Magnetic effect Moving iron instruments
2. Electrodynamics effect (i) Permanent-magnet moving coil
(ii) Dynamometer type
3. Electromagnetic induction Induction type instruments
4. Thermal effect hot wire instruments
5. Chemical effect Electrolytic instruments
6. Electrostatic effect Electrostatic instruments
ESSENTIALS OF INDICATING INSTRUMENTS
An indicating instrument essentially consists of moving system pivoted in jewel bearings. A pointer
is attached to the moving system which indicates on a graduated scale, the value of electrical
quantity being measured. In order to ensure proper operation of indicating instruments the following
torques are required:
 Deflecting (or operating) torque
 Controlling (or restoring) torque
 Damping torque
The deflecting torque is produced by utilizing the various effects of electric current or voltage and
causes the moving system (and hence the pointer) to move from zero position.
The controlling torque is provided by spring or gravity and opposes the deflecting torque.
The pointer comes to rest at a position where these two opposing torque are equal. The damping
torque is provided by air friction or eddy currents. It ensures that the pointer comes to the final
position without oscillations, thus enabling accurate and quick readings to be taken.
Deflecting torque
One important requirement in indicating instruments is the arrangement for producing deflecting or
operating torque (Td) when the instrument is connected in the circuit to measure the giving
electrical quantity. This achieved by utilizing the various effects of electric current or voltage
mentioned in Art 14.2.The deflecting torque causes the moving system (and hence the pointer
attached to it) to move position to indicate on a graduated scale, the value of electrical quantity

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being measured. The actual method of producing the deflecting torque depends upon the type of
instrument.
Controlling Torque
If deflecting torque were acting alone, the pointer will continue to move indefinitely and would
swing over to the maximum deflected position irrespective of the magnitude of current (or voltage
or power) to be measured. This necessitates providing some form of controlling or opposing torque
(Tc). This controlling torque should oppose the deflecting torque and should increase with the
deflection of the moving system. The pointer will be brought to rest at a position where the two
opposing torque are equal i.e. Td = Tc. The controlling torque performs two functions:
 It increase with the deflection of the moving system so that the final position of the pointer
on the scale will be according to the magnitude of current (or voltage or power) to be
measured.
 It brings the pointer back to zero position when the deflecting torque is removed.
If it were not provided, the pointer once deflected would not return to zero position removing the
deflecting torque.
Damping Torque
If the moving system is acted upon by deflecting and controlling torques alone, then the pointer, due
to inertia, will oscillate about its final deflected position for quite sometimes before coming to rest.
This is often undesirable because it makes it difficult to obtain quick and accurate readings. In order
to avoid these oscillations of the pointer and to bring it quickly to its final deflected position, a
damping torque is provided in the indicating instruments. This damping torque acts only when
pointer is in motion and always opposes the motion. The position of the pointer when stationary is
therefore not affected by damping.
The degree of damping decides the behavior of the moving system. If the instruments are under
damped, the pointer will oscillate about the final position for some time before coming to rest. On
the other hand if the instrument is over-damped, the pointer will become slow and lethargic.
However, if the degree of damping is adjusted to such a value that the pointer comes to the correct
reading quickly without passing beyond it or oscillating about it, the instrument is said to be dead-
beat or critical damped.

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