Industrial Electrical System Notes

1
Electrical Wiring
• A process of connecting various accessories
for distribution of electrical energy from
supplier’s meter board to home appliances
such as lamps, fans and other domestic
appliances is known as Electrical Wiring.
3
Switches
Switch is used to make or break the electric
circuit. It should so operate that it must
make the circuit firm. At the instant of
breaking the switch, it should break the
current so that there is no formation of arc
between switch blades and contact
terminals. Formation of arc damage the
switch contacts. Such an arc is avoided
usually by means of providing a spring. To
Movable blade so as to have a quick action.
4
Types of Switches
(a) Surface switches or Tumbler switch.
(b) Flush switches.
(c) Pull switches or Ceiling switches.
(d) Grid switches.
(e)Rotary switch.
(f) Push button switch,
(g) Iron-clad water-tight switch.
(h) Knife switch
5
Surface Switch or Tumbler Switch

The surface switches are those which are mounted on
the mounting block directly fixed over the surface of
the wall, i.e., such types of switches project out of the
surface of the wall.
The surface switches can be classified as
Single-way or One-way Switch – This switch is provided
with a single pole to control one light point at a time.
Two-way Switch – These are used for wiring circuits which
are to be controlled from two points independently such as
stair case wiring.
6
Flush Switch
The flush switches are fixed in flush with the wall and do
not project out. Such types of switches are used where
high quality performance and appearance are desired.
Sometimes these switches are called Piano type switches.
Pull Switch or Ceiling Switches

The pull switches are fixed on the ceiling and all the
alive parts are out off reach of the operator. The
switch has a strong mechanical action and is usually
operated with a single pull on the cord for the on and
off position. These switched are used in bath rooms
where water heaters are used, bed rooms and
restaurants.
7
Grid Switch
The grid switches are similar to tumbler switches, except
that they are lighter and are portable type, so that
they are quite useful for the portable machines such as
hand-drill, portable grinder etc. They are
manufactured either in single-way or two-way
pattern.
Push Button Switches

These switches are used for bell circuit,
refrigerator lighting circuit etc.
8
Rotary Switches
The rotary switches are much different from that of
ordinary tumbler switch. It consists of an insulated
handle to which are fixed the blades. These blades
move in steps by the movement of the handle and
make contact with the terminals to which are
connected the wires in the electric circuits.
The handle motion is controlled by a cam or a spring as
the handle is moved through a quarter turn, the blade
is released and moves over quickly (with the help of
spring) to make or break the circuit.
9
Iron-clad Water-tight Switches

Such switches are of cast iron and have very robust
construction. cork gasket is fitted between the case
and the cover which makes it water-tight. These are
used for outdoor lamp control.
Knife Switches
The knife switch consists of blades hinged at one end and
are arranged to go into forked terminals or jaws at
the other end. These are available as single throw
switches or double throw switches.
10
Lamp Holders
As the name shows, a lamp-holder is used to
hold the lamp required for lighting
purposes. Earlier, brass lamp-holders were
quite popular, but now-a-days these have
been superseded by the all insulated
pattern. A lamp-holder has either moulded
or porcelain interior with a solid or spring
plunger and easily wired terminals.
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Types of Lamp Holders

Lamp holders can be classified as:
• Bayonet cap lamp holder
a) Pendent holder
b) Batten holder
c) Screwed holder which when used with a bracket
is called as bracket holder
d) Water-tight bracket
13
• Switched Bayonet cap lamp holder

The switched bayonet bayonet cap lamp-holder has a
push bar switch and is used only to carry an
electric load not exceeding 2 amp.
a) Pendent holder or cord grip holder
b) Screwed lamp holder
• Small Bayonet Cap Holder. The small
bayonet cap holders possess all the features of
larger patterns. They are again of:
a) Cord grip type.
b) Batten type.
c) Screwed pattern.
They are designed for carrying small sizes of lamps.
14
• Goliath Edison Screw Lamp holders

(Brass)
Such holders are useful for the lamps having wattage
beyond 300 W, the maximum range the lamps with
which they can be used is 1,500 W.
• Medium Edison Screw Lamp holder
(Brass)
Such holders are used with the screwed type lamps
up to 200 watts, 250 volts. The different types of
such holders are.
(a) Cord grip type.
(b) Batten type and
(c) Screwed Entry Pattern.
15
• Swivel Lamp-holder
The swivel lamp holders are designed for controlled
wide angle directional lighting which are used for
lighting of shop windows, show cases etc.
16
• Fluorescent Lamp holder and starter

holder
The fluorescent holders are either of bi-pin type or
of bayonet cap type, but pin type holders are
generally used for ordinary fluorescent tubes.
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Ceiling Roses
These are used to provide a tapping to the -
pendant lamp-holders, fan or fluorescent tube
According to Indian slandered
a) A ceiling rose of any other similar attachment shall
not be used on a circuit , the voltage of which
normally exceeds 250 volts.
b) Normally only one flexible cord shall be attached to a
ceiling rose. Specially designed ceiling roses shall be
used for multiple pendants.
c) A ceiling rose shall not embody fuse terminal as
integral part of it.
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20
Socket Outlet
The socket outlets have all insulated base with
moulded or socket base having 3 terminal sleeves.
The two thin terminal sleeves are meant for
making connection to the cable, with the third
terminal sleeve, thicker in cross-section, is used
for an earth connection.
The cover is again moulded and has corresponding 3
holes. These are made for 5 amp and 15 amp
loads.
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22
Plugs
For taking power from socket outlets, 3-pin plugs are
used. The thicker pin is used for an earth
connection to the portable appliances. They are
also made for 5 amps and 15amps load.
23
Terminal Blocks
Terminal blocks used for termination and connection
to the other circuits. A single-way terminal block is
used for differentiating the live line from the
neutral when the domestic connection is given and
is called as Connector.
24
Main Switch
The main switches are used to control the whole
supply for a house or office. These are of following
types:
ICDP- use for single phase supply control (15 A,
30A, 60A, 100A, 250 V)
ICTP- use for three phase-three wire and three
phase four wire supply control (15A, 30A, 60A,
100A, 150A, 200A, and 500V)
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26
Wires
Types of wires
V.I.R. (Vulcanized Indian rubber) wire
CTS/TRS(Cab tyre sheathed, tough rubber sheath)
wires
Lead sheathes wire
PVC wires
Weather proof wires
Flexible wires
27
Selection of cables
Important factors that determine the selection of
cables
Rated Voltage- the rated voltage of cable should always
be equal to or grater than the system voltage.
Current Carrying Capacity- Each power cable is
designed to operate under certain temperature
conditions. Current carrying capacity of power cable
is also dependent on conductor material (Copper /
Aluminium) and insulation type. The current carrying
capacity is also dependent on operating temperature.
Higher the temperature, lower is the current carrying
capacity of the cable and vice versa.
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Selection of cables
Derating Factor- A power cable designed with
standard operating conditions may not operate so in
practical. Therefore, the current carrying capacity
may get impacted due to this.
For example: Cables installed deep under the ground
will have reduced current carrying capacity than
cables installed in air. This is impacted due to
multiple factors like soil temperature, soil thermal
resistivity etc.
Actual Current Carrying Capacity = Derating Factor x
Cable current carrying capacity under std. conditions.
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Selection of cables
Voltage Drop- A power cable manufacturer provides
this as part of their data sheet. A voltage drop across
the length of the power cable is very important. It is
expressed as: mV / A-m.
The voltage drop per unit length of cable should as
minimum as possible so as to get voltage at delivery
end approximately same as supply side.
Short circuit Withstand - A power cable in case of
short circuit event should be able to withstand the
high current values without any damage to the cable
and insulation.
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Selection of cables
Availability of Cables-This needs to be checked with
manufacturer or the dealer of a particular cable.
Cables are manufactured in certain minimum length
segments. Therefore, it will be difficult to procure a
30 meter length of 300 sq-mm cable than a 300 meter
length of same cable. Also, the costing may vary
largely between the two quantities.
Bending Radius- This can be a practical problem
during installation. Large sized multi-core cables have
bigger bending radius than small sized. Therefore a
same size of multi-core XLPE cable has more bending
radius than a PVC. In order to overcome this, a
contractor might have to opt separate single core
cables.
31
Single Line Diagram

a one-line diagram or single-line diagram is a simplified
notation for representing an electrical system. The one-
line diagram is similar to a block diagram except that
electrical elements such as switches, circuit breakers,
transformers, and capacitors are shown by
standardized schematic symbols.
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Single Line Diagram

Importance of single line diagram
1. Identification of the problem location, in safety
conformity and the staff safety can be benefited by the
use of single line diagram.
2. If in any case the inaccuracy in the connection and the
failure arises the updation of the single diagram
becomes easy even on the regular basis.
3. The information from one line diagram can be widely
used to enhance the performance of service activities.
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Protective Devices
When a failure occurs on any part of the electrical power
system, it must be quickly detected and disconnected from
the system. There are two reason for it. Firstly, if the fault
not cleared quickly , it may cause unnecessary interruption
of the service to the customer. Secondly, rapid disconnection
of faulty apparatus limit the amount of damage to it and
prevent the effects of fault from spreading into the system.
The detection of fault and disconnection of faulty part can
be achieved by using fuses or relays in connection with
circuit breakers. A fuse can perform both the function but
for low voltage circuit only. For high voltage circuits, relays
and circuit breakers are employed to serve the desire
function for automatic protective gear.
34
Protective Relays
Protective relay is a device that detect the fault and
initiate the operation of the circuit breaker to isolate the
faulty element from the rest of the system.
The relay circuit can be divided in three parts:
1. First is primary winding of the CT which is
connected in series with the line to be protected.
2. Second part is secondary of CT and the relay
operating coil.
3. Third is the tripping circuit which may be either ac
or dc. It consists of a source of supply, the trip coil of
the CB and the relay stationary contacts.
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Protective Relays
36
Under normal load conditions, the e.m.f. of the

secondary winding of C.T. is small and the current
flowing in the relay operating coil is insufficient to close
the relay contacts. This keeps the trip coil of the circuit
breaker unenergized. Consequently, the contacts of the
circuit breaker remain closed and it carries the normal
load current. When a fault occurs, a large current flows
through the primary of C.T. This increases the
secondary e.m.f. and hence the current through the
relay operating coil. The relay contacts are closed and
the trip coil of the circuit breaker is energized to open
the contacts of the circuit breaker.
Fundamental Requirement of
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Protective Relays
The main features of protective devices :
1. Selectivity: It is the ability of the protective system
to select correctly that part of the system in trouble
and disconnect the faulty part without disturbing
the rest of the system
2. Speed: The relay system should disconnect the
faulty section as fast as possible
3. Sensitivity: It is the ability of the relay system to
operate with low value of actuating quantity.
4. Reliability: It is the ability of the relay system to
operate under the pre-determined conditions.
Fundamental Requirement of
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Protective Relays
5. Simplicity: The relaying system should be simple so that
it can be easily maintained. Reliability is closely related
to simplicity. The simpler the protection scheme, the
greater will be its reliability.
6. Economy: The most important factor in the choice of a
particular protection scheme is the economic aspect.
Sometimes it is economically unjustified to use an ideal
scheme of protection and a compromise method has to
be adopted. As a rule, the protective gear should not cost
more than 5% of total cost. However, when the
apparatus to be protected is of utmost importance (e.g.
generator, main transmission line etc.), economic
considerations are often subordinated to reliability.
39
Types of Protective Relays
According to construction and principle of

operation:
1. Attracted armature type
2. Solenoid type
3. Electrodynamics type
4. Induction type
5. Thermal type
6. Moving coil type
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According to applications
1. Over Voltage/Over Current/Over Power Relay
2. Under Voltage /Under Current /Under Power relay
3. Directional or Reverse Power Relay
4. Directional or Reverse Current Relay
5. Differential Relay
6. Distance Relay
According to time characteristics
1. Instantaneous Relay
2. Definite Time Lag Relay
3. Inverse Time Lag-Relay
41
Fuses
A fuse is a short piece of metal, inserted in the circuit, which
melts when excessive current flows through it and thus
breaks the circuit.
The fuse element is generally made of materials having low
melting point, high conductivity and least deterioration due
to oxidation e.g., silver, copper etc. It is inserted in series
with the circuit to be protected. Under normal operating
conditions, the fuse element is at a temperature below its
melting point. Therefore, it carries the normal current
without overheating. However, when a short-circuit or
overload occurs, the current through the fuse increases
beyond its rated value. This raises the temperature and fuse
element melts (or blows out), disconnecting the circuit
protected by it.
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Advantages
1. It is the cheapest form of protection available.
2. It requires no maintenance.
3. Its operation is inherently completely automatic
unlike a circuit breaker which requires an elaborate
equipment for automatic action.
4. It can break heavy short-circuit currents without
noise or smoke.
5. The smaller sizes of fuse element impose a current
limiting effect under short-circuit conditions.
6. The inverse time-current characteristic of a fuse
makes it suitable for overcurrent protection.
7. The minimum time of operation can be made much
shorter than with the circuit breakers.
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Disadvantages
1. Considerable time is lost in rewiring or replacing a
fuse after operation.
2. On heavy short-circuits, *discrimination between
fuses in series cannot be obtained unless there is
sufficient difference in the sizes of the fuses
concerned.
3. The current-time characteristic of a fuse cannot
always be co-related with that of the protected
apparatus.
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Desirable Characteristics of Fuse Element

(i) low melting point e.g., tin, lead.
(ii) high conductivity e.g., silver, copper.
(iii) free from deterioration due to oxidation e.g., silver.
(iv) low cost e.g., lead, tin, copper.
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Fuse Element Materials

The most commonly used materials for fuse element are
lead, tin, copper, zinc and silver. For small currents upto
10 A, tin or an alloy of lead and tin (lead 37%, tin 63%)
is used for making the fuse element. For larger currents,
copper or silver is employed. It is a usual practice to tin
the copper to protect it from oxidation. Zinc (in strip
form only) is good if a fuse with considerable time-lag is
required i.e., one which does not melt very quickly with
a small overload.
Important Terms
46
(i) Current rating of fuse element: It is the current

which the fuse element can normally carry without
overheating or melting. It depends upon the
temperature rise of the contacts of the fuse holder, fuse
material and the surroundings of the fuse.
(ii) Fusing current: It is the minimum current at which
the fuse element melts and thus disconnects the circuit
protected by it. Obviously, its value will be more than
the current rating of the fuse element.
For a round wire, the approximate relationship between
fusing current ‘I’ and diameter ‘d’ of the wire is
I = k d3/2
where ‘k’ is a constant, called the fuse constant.
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The fusing current depends upon the various factors

such as :
(a) material of fuse element
(b) length – the smaller the length, the greater the
current because a short fuse can easily conduct
away all the heat
(c) diameter
(d) size and location of terminals
(e) previous history
(f) type of enclosure used
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(iii) Fusing factor. It is the ratio of minimum fusing

current to the current rating of the fuse element i.e.
Its value is always more than one. The smaller the

fusing factor, the greater is the difficulty in avoiding
deterioration due to overheating and oxidation at rated
carrying current.
(iv) Cut-off current. It is the maximum value of fault
current actually reached before the fuse melts.
(v) Pre-arcing time. It is the time between the
commencement of fault and the instant when cut off
occurs.
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(vi) Arcing time. This is the time between the end of

pre-arcing time and the instant when the arc is
extinguished.
(vii) Total operating time. It is the sum of pre-arcing
and arcing times.
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(viii) Prospective Current.

Before melting, the fuse element has to carry the short
circuit current through it. The prospective current is
defined as the value of current which would flow
through the fuse immediately after a short circuit
occurs in the network.
(ix) Breaking capacity.
The breaking capacity of a fuse is the maximum
available current, at the rated voltage that the device
can safely open without physically rupturing.
The breaking capacity of the fuse must be greater than
the potential fault (short circuit) current of the circuit.
Types of Fuses
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(i) Low voltage fuses

a)Semi-enclosed rewireable fuse
b)High-Rupturing capacity (H.R.C.) cartridge fuse
c)H.R.C. fuse with tripping device
(ii) High Voltage fuses
a)Cartridge type
b)Liquid type
c)Metal clad fuses
52
Miniature Circuit Breaker
MCB is a device that provides definite protection to the

wiring installations and sophisticated equipment
against over currents and short circuit faults.
Construction and Working
53
The parts of the miniature circuit breaker are:

01. Outgoing Terminals
02. Bimetal Carrier
03. Bimetal Strip
04. Trip Lever
05. Solenoid Coil
06. Plunger
07. Operational Knob
08. Arc Splitters
09. Incoming Terminals
Miniature Circuit Breaker
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55
Operation of MCB
The operation of the MCB includes two stages, i.e.,
thermal operation and short circuit operation.
With the use of bimetallic strip, thermal operation is
achieved in case overload conditions. When overload
current flows through the MCB, the bimetallic strip gets
heated and causes to deflect. In doing so, it moves the
trip lever and releases the latch mechanism and hence
the contacts open under spring mechanism.
56
During the short circuit conditions, the large fault

current energizes the solenoid and the magnetic field of
the solenoid attracts the plunger which in turn strikes
the trip lever and hence the immediate release of the
latch mechanism.
When the moving contact separated from fixed contact,
there may be a high chance of arc. This arc then goes up
through the arc runner and enters into arc splitters and
is finally quenched.
57
The MCB has some advantages compared to fuse.
1. It automatically switches off the electrical
circuit during abnormal condition of the network
means in over load condition as well as faulty
condition. The fuse does not sense but miniature
circuit breaker does it in more reliable way. MCB is
much more sensitive to over current than fuse.
2. Another advantage is, as the switch operating knob
comes at its off position during tripping, the faulty
zone of the electrical circuit can easily be identified.
But in case of fuse, fuse wire should be checked by
opening fuse grip or cutout from fuse base, for
confirming the blow of fuse wire.
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3. Quick restoration of supply can not be possible in
case of fuse as because fuses have to be rewirable or
replaced for restoring the supply. But in the case of
MCB, quick restoration is possible by just switching
on operation.
4. Handling MCB is more electrically safe than fuse.
Because of to many advantages of MCB over fuse
units, in modern low voltage electrical network,
miniature circuit breaker is mostly used instead of
backdated fuse unit.
Only one disadvantage of MCB over fuse is that this
system is more costlier than fuse unit system.
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MCBs are classified into three major types according to
their instantaneous tripping currents. They are
Type B MCB
Type C MCB
Type D MCB
Type B MCB: This type of MCB will trip instantly at a

rate of three to five times its rated current. These are
normally used for resistive or small inductive loads
where switching surges are very small. Therefore, these
are suitable for residential or light commercial
installations.
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Type C MCB: This type of MCB will trip instantly at a
rate of five to ten times its rated current. These are
normally used for high inductive loads where switching
surges are high such as small motors and florescent
lighting. These are preferred to handle higher value of
short circuit currents. Therefore, these are suitable for
highly inductive commercial and industrial installations.
Type D MCB: This type of MCB will trip instantly at a
rate of ten to twenty five times its rated current. These
are normally used for very high inductive loads where
high inrush current are very frequent. The common
examples of such applications include x-ray machines,
UPS systems, industrial welding equipment, large
winding motors, etc.
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Selection of MCB for different loads:
Choosing a particular MCB for a specific application is a
careful task to ensure reliable protection against
overloads and short circuits. If it is undersized (MCB
rating less than the nominal load current), MCB causes
frequent tripping and causes to interrupt the current to
the load it is being connected, because the MCB nominal
current less than nominal current value of the load.
Similarly, if it is oversized (MCB rating more than the
nominal load current), the load to it is connected will
not be protected efficiently. In such case, the MCB will
not trip even though load is drawing over currents.
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The following are the three factors to be considered for
selecting an MCB for specific application.
1. Nominal rating of the circuit breaker
2. kA rating or breaking capacity
3. Type of MCB
MCCB
63
A moulded case circuit breaker (MCCB) is a type of

electrical protection device that is used to protect the
electrical circuit from excessive current, which can
cause overload or short circuit.
The main difference between MCCB and MCB are that
the MCCB can have current rating of up to 2500A with
adjustable trip settings.
MCCB has main three functions
1. Protection against over load
2. Protection against electrical faults
3. Switching a circuit ON and OFF
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ELCB
65
An Earth-leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) is a safety

device used in electrical installations with high Earth
impedance to prevent shock. It detects small stray
voltages on the metal enclosures of electrical
equipment, and interrupts the circuit if a dangerous
voltage is detected.
Also, the ELCB is used to protect the circuit from the
electrical leakage. When someone gets an electric shock,
then this circuit breaker cuts off the power at the time
of 0.1 sec. for protecting the personal safety and
avoiding the gear from the circuit against short circuit
and overload.
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2-pole ELCB 4-pole ELCB

67
If any current leaks from any electrical installation,

there must-be any insulation failure in the electrical
circuit, it must be properly detected and prevented
otherwise there may be a high chance of electrical
shock if-anyone touches the installation. An earth
leakage circuit breaker does it efficiently. Means it
detects the earth leakage current and makes the power
supply off by opening the associated circuit breaker.
There are two types of earth leakage circuit breaker,
Voltage ELCB and Current ELCB.
Voltage Earth Leakage Circuit 68
Breaker
The working principle of voltage ELCB is quite simple. One
terminal of the relay coil is connected to the metal body of
the equipment to be protected against earth leakage and
other terminal is connected to the earth directly.
If any insulation failure occurs or live phase wire touches
the metal body, of the equipment, there must be a voltage
difference appears across the terminal of the coil connected
to the equipment body and earth. This voltage difference
produces a current to flow the relay coil.
If the voltage difference crosses, a predetermined limit, the
current through the relay becomes sufficient to actuate the
relay for tripping the associated circuit breaker to
disconnect the power supply to the equipment.
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The typicality of this device is, it can detect and protect
only that equipment or installation with which it is
attached. It cannot detect any leakage of insulation in
other parts of the system.
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Current ELCB or Residual Current Circuit Breaker

A current ELCB has a toroidal iron core over which
phase and neutral windings are wound. A search coil is
also wound on the same iron core which in turn is
connected to the trip coil. Figure below shows the
constructional detail of Current ELCB.
Under normal operating condition, the current through
the phase winding and neutral winding are same but
both the windings are wound in such a manner to
oppose the mmfs of each other, therefore net mmf in the
toroidal iron core will be zero.
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72
Consider a condition where earth leakage current exists

in the load side. In this case the current through the
phase and neutral will no longer be equal rather phase
current will be more than the neutral current.
Thus mmf produced by phase winding will be more
than the mmf produced by neutral winding because of
which a net mmf will exist in the toroidal iron core.
This net mmf in the core will link with the Search Coil
and an emf will be induced across the terminals of the
Search Coil. This emf will in turn drive a current
through the Trip Coil which will pull lever to open
supply contacts to isolate the power supply.
MPCB
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A Motor Protection Circuit Breaker is a simple

electromechanical device that protects an individual
electric motor against overload, fluctuations in input
current or unscheduled interruptions to the main
circuit. This includes line faults and phase loss or
imbalance in three phase motors.
A Motor Protection Circuit Breaker saves on space and
costs, providing fuseless protection that switches
motors off instantly to prevent damage. It will also
safely disconnect the current in the event of a short
circuit.
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MPCB
Functions of MPCB
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a) Protection against electrical faults such as short

circuits, line-to-ground faults etc.
b) Motor overload protection
c) Protection against phase unbalances and phase loss
d) Thermal delay to prevent the motor from being
turned back on immediately after an overload, giving
the motor time to cool down.
e) Motor Circuit Switching
f) Fault Signaling
g) Automatic Reconnection
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The main parts of a MPCB:

a) Thermal over current release
b) Electromagnetic over current release
c) Main contact system
d) Auxiliary switch position
e) Switch latch
f) Arcing chamber
g) Plunger armature
h) Differential trip slide
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a) Thermal over current release b) Electromagnetic over current release

c) Main contact system c) Auxiliary switch position
d) Switch latch e) Arcing chamber
f) Plunger armature g) Differential trip slide
MPCB Working
78
• Thermal protection is used to guard the electric

motor against overload
• Magnetic protection is used when there is a short
circuit, line fault, or other high current electric fault
• The MPCB is capable of detecting these conditions by
measuring the differences among phase voltages,
and disconnects the motor immediately when they
occur.
Isolator
79
It is essentially a knife switch and is designed to open a

circuit under no load. Its main purpose is to isolate one
portion of the circuit from the other and is not intended
to be opened while current is flowing in the line. Such
switches are generally used on both sides of circuit
breakers in order that repairs and replacement of
circuit breakers can be made without any danger. They
should never be opened until the circuit breaker in the
same circuit has been opened and should always be
closed before the circuit breaker is closed.
Types of Electrical Isolators
80
There are different types of isolators available depending

upon system requirement such as
1. Double Break Isolator
2. Single Break Isolator
3. Pantograph type Isolator.
Depending upon the position in the power system, the
isolators can be categorized as
1. Bus side isolator – the isolator is directly connected with
main bus
2. Line side isolator – the isolator is situated at line side of
any feeder
3. Transfer bus side isolator – the isolator is directly
connected with transfer bus.
Operation of Electrical Isolators
81
Opening Operation of Electrical Isolator

a) In the beginning, open the major circuit breaker.
b) Then divide the load from a system with isolator
opening
c) Close the earth switch. Earth switch can become
with an interlock system with isolator. That’s means
when isolator is open only that time earth switch
can be closed.
Closing Operation of Electrical Isolator
a) Detach the earth switch.
b) Shut the isolator.
c) Shut the circuit breaker.
Contactors
82
A contactor is an electrical device which is used for

switching an electrical circuit on or off. It is considered
to be a special type of relay. However, the basic
difference between the relay and contactor is that the
contactor is used in applications with higher current
carrying capacity, whereas the relay is used for lower
current applications. Contactors can be field mounted
easily and are compact in size. Generally, these electrical
devices feature multiple contacts. These contacts are in
most cases normally open and provide operating power
to the load when the contactor coil is energized.
Contactors are most commonly used for controlling
electric motors.
83
The following three are crucial components of the

contactor:
1. Coil or Electromagnet: This is the most crucial
component of a contactor. The driving force that is
required to close the contacts is provided by the coil or
electromagnet of the contactor. The coil or
electromagnet and contacts are protected by an
enclosure.
2. Enclosure: Just like the enclosures used in any other
application, contactors also feature an enclosure, which
provides insulation and protection from personnel
touching the contacts. The protective enclosure is made
from different materials, such as polycarbonate,
polyester, Nylon 6, Bakelite, thermosetting plastics, and
others.
84
3. Contacts: This is yet another important component

of this electrical device. The current carrying task of the
contactor is done by the contacts. There are different
types of contacts in a contactor namely, contact springs,
auxiliary contacts, and power contacts. Each type of
contact has an individual role to play.
85
Operating Principle of a Contactor:

The current passing through the contactor excites the
electromagnet. The excited electromagnet produces a
magnetic field, causing the contactor core to move the
armature. A normally closed (NC) contact completes the
circuit between the fixed contacts and the moving
contacts. This permits the current to pass through these
contacts to the load. When current is removed, the coil
is de-energized and opens the circuit. The contacts of
the contactors are known for their rapid open and close
action.
86
87
Electric Shock
An electric shock occurs when a person comes into

contact with an electrical energy source. Electrical
energy flows through a portion of the body causing
a shock.
88
Factors determining the severity of electric shock

• The type of current (AC/DC)
• The amount of current
• Duration of contact
• Surface area of contact or Electrical field strength
• The pathway the electricity takes through the body
• Overall health of person
89
What happens when you get an electric shock

a) An electric shock can have no injury at all
b) Burns (which are the most common)
c) Cardiac arrest due to the electrical effect on the
heart
d) Muscle, nerve, and tissue destruction from a current
passing through the body
e) Death (electrocution)
90
Causes of Electrical Accidents

Accidents and injuries with electricity are caused
by one or a combination of the following:
• Unsafe equipment and/or installation.
• Unsafe workplaces caused by environmental
factors.
• Unsafe work practices.
91
Prevention to be taken to prevent electric shock

• Avoid water at all times when working with
electricity. Never touch or try repairing any electrical
equipment or circuits with wet hands. It increases the
conductivity of electric current.
• Never use equipment with frayed cords, damaged
insulation or broken plugs.
• Always use insulated tools while working.
• Always use appropriate insulated rubber gloves and
goggles while working on any branch circuit or any
other electrical circuit.
92
• Never try repairing energized equipment. Check all

the wires, the outer metallic covering of the service
panel and any other hanging wires with an electrical
tester before proceeding with your work.
• Never use an aluminium or steel ladder if you are
working on any receptacle at height in your home. An
electrical surge will ground you and the whole electric
current will pass through your body. Use a wooden or a
fibreglass ladder instead.
• Always use a circuit breaker or fuse with the
appropriate current rating.
93
• Working outside with underground cabling can be

dangerous. The damp soil around the cable is a good
conductor of electricity and ground faults are quite
common in the case of underground cabling. Using a
spade to dig at the cable can damage the wiring easily
so it is better to dig at the cable by hand while wearing
insulated gloves.
• Replace immediately broken switches and plugs etc.
• Check that all metallic parts of electrical equipments
are effectively earthed.
• Always turn off the mains when perform electric work
at your home.
• Never place bare wire of leads in plugs. Fit a plug top.
94
95
Definition
• The rate at which electrical energy is supplied
to a consumer is known as tariff.
• Although tariff should include the total cost of
producing and supplying electrical energy
plus the profit , yet it cannot be the same for
all types of consumer.
96
Objective
• Recovery of cost of producing electrical
energy at the power station.
• Recovery of cost on the capital investment in
transmission and distribution system.
• Recovery of cost of operation and
maintenance of supply of electrical energy e.g.
metering equipment, billing etc.
• A suitable profit on the capital investment.
97
Factors Affecting the Tariffs

The following factors are taken into accounts to
decide the electricity tariff:
• Types of Load
• Maximum demand
• The time at which load is required
• The power factor of load
• The amount of energy used
98
Desirable Characteristics of a Tariff

The tariff must the following desirable
characteristics
• Proper return
• Fairness
• Simplicity
• Reasonable profit
• Attractive
99
Types of Tariff
• Simple tariff
• Flat rate tariff
• Block rate tariff
• Two part tariff
• Maximum demand tariff
• Power factor tariff
• Three part tariff
100
Simple Tariff
When there is a fixed rate per unit of energy
consumed, it is called a simple tariff or uniform
rate tariff.
In this type of tariff, the price charged per unit
is constant i.e., it does not vary with increase or
decrease in number of units consumed. The
consumption of electrical energy at the
consumer’s terminals is recorded by means of
an energy meter.
Advantages: 101
• Simplest method
• Easily understandable and easy to apply
• Each consumer has to pay according to his utilization
Disadvantages
• There is no discrimination according to the different
types of consumers.
• The cost per unit is high.
• There are no incentives (an attractive feature that
makes the consumers use more electricity.)
• If a consumer does not consume any energy in a
particular month, the supplier cannot charge any
money even though the connection provided to the
consumer has its own costs.
102
Application
Generally applied to tube wells used for
irrigation purposes.
103
Flat Rate Tariff

• In this tariff, different types of consumers are
charged at different rates of cost per unit
(1kWh) of electrical energy consumed.
Different consumers are grouped under
different categories. Then, each category is
charged money at a fixed rate similar to
Simple Tariff. The different rates are decided
according to the consumers, their loads and
load factors.
104
Advantages:
• More fair to different consumers.
• Simple calculations.
Disadvantages
• A particular consumer is charged at a particular rate.
But there are no incentives for the consumer.
• Since different rates are decided according to different
loads, separate meters need to be installed for different
loads such as light loads, power loads, etc. This makes
the whole arrangement complicated and expensive.
• All the consumers in a particular “category” are
charged at the same rates. However, it is fairer if the
consumers that utilize more energy be charged at
lower fixed rates.
105
Block Rate Tariff

• In this tariff, the first block of the energy
consumed (consisting of a fixed number of units)
is charged at a given rate and the succeeding
blocks of energy (each with a predetermined
number of units) are charged at progressively
reduced or increased rates. The rate per unit in
each block is fixed. OR
• Energy consumption is divided into fixed price
per unit blocks. The price per unit in the first
block is the highest (or lowest) according to the
provider’s necessities and priorities; accordingly,
it is progressively reduced (or increased) for the
succeeding blocks of energy.
106
Block Rate Tariff

• For example, the first 50 units (1st block) may
be charged at 3 rupees per unit; the next 30
units (2nd block) at 2.50 rupees per unit and
the next 30 units (3rd block) at 2 rupees per
unit.
• Example
107
Advantages:
• Only one energy meter is required.
• Incentives are provided for the consumers due
to reduced rates. Hence consumers use more
energy. This improves load factor and reduces
cost of generation.
Application
Generally applied to domestic consumers and
small commercial consumers.
108
Two Part Tariff

• When the rate of electrical energy is charged
on the basis of maximum demand of the
consumer and the units consumed, it is called
a two-part tariff.
• The total costs charged to the consumers
consist of two components: fixed charges and
running charges.
• The fixed charges will depend upon
maximum demand of the consumer and the
running charge will depend upon the energy
(units) consumed.
109
It can be expressed as
Total Cost = [A (kW) + B (kWh)] Rs.
Where,
A = charge per kW of max demand (i.e. A is a
constant which when multiplied with max
demand (kW) gives the total fixed costs.)
B = charge per kWh of energy consumed (i.e. B
is a constant which when multiplied with
units consumed (kWh), gives total running
charges.)
This type of tariff is mostly applicable to
industrial consumers who have appreciable
maximum demand
110
Advantages
(i) It is easily understood by the consumers.
(ii) It recovers the fixed charges which depend
upon the maximum demand of the consumer but
are independent of the units consumed.
Disadvantages
(i) The consumer has to pay the fixed charges
irrespective of the fact whether he has consumed
or not consumed the electrical energy.
(ii) There is always error in assessing the maximum
demand of the consumer.
111
Maximum Demand Tariff

It is similar to two-part tariff with the only
difference that the maximum demand is actually
measured by installing maximum demand meter
in the premises of the consumer. This removes
the objection of two-part tariff where the
maximum demand is assessed merely on the
basis of the rateable value. This type of tariff is
mostly applied to big consumers.
However, it is not suitable for a small consumer
(e.g., residential consumer) as a separate
maximum demand meter is required.
112
Power Factor Tariff

The tariff in which power factor of the
consumer’s load is taken into consideration is
known as power factor tariff.
• kVA maximum demand tariff
• Sliding scale tariff
• kW and kVAR tariff
113
• kVA maximum demand tariff

It is modified form of two part tariff. The fixed
charges are made on the basis of maximum
demand in kVA and not in kW. As kVA is inversely
proportional to power factor, therefore, a
consumer having low power factor has to
contribute more toward the fixed charges.
It encourage the consumer to operate their
appliances at improved power factor.
114
• Sliding Scale Tariff

In this type of tariff scheme, an average power
factor (generally 0.8 lagging) is taken as
reference. Now, if the power factor of the
consumer’s loads is lower than the reference, he
is penalized accordingly. Hence, a consumer
having low power factor load will have to pay
more fixed charges. Also, if the pf of the
consumer’s load is greater than the reference, he
is awarded with a discount. This gives incentives
to the consumers. It is usually applied to large
industrial consumers.
115
• kW And kVAR Tariff

In this type, both active power (kW) and reactive
power (kVAR) supplied are charged separately. A
consumer having low power factor will draw
more reactive power and hence shall have to pay
more charges.
116
Three-part tariff
When the total charge to be made from the
consumer is split into three parts viz., fixed
charge, semi-fixed charge and running charge, it
is known as a three-part tariff.
i.e.,
Total charge = Rs (a + b × kW + c × kWh)
Where,
a = fixed charge made during each billing period. It
includes interest and depreciation on the cost of
secondary distribution and labor cost of
collecting revenues,
b = charge per kW of maximum demand,
c = charge per kWh of energy consumed.
117
Q-1. A consumer has a maximum demand of

200 kW at 40% load factor. If the tariff is Rs.
100 per kW of maximum demand plus 10
paise per kWh, find the overall cost per kWh.
Q-2. The maximum demand of a consumer is
20 A at 220 V and his total energy
consumption is 8760 kWh. If the energy is
charged at the rate of 20 paise per unit for
500 hours use of the maximum demand per
annum plus 10 paise per unit for additional
units, calculate : (i)annual bill (ii) equivalent
flat rate.
118
Solution-1
119
Solution-2
120
121
Electrical Wiring
• A process of connecting various accessories
for distribution of electrical energy from
supplier’s meter board to home appliances
such as lamps, fans and other domestic
appliances is known as Electrical Wiring.
• The wiring system selected will depend to a
large extent on the types of service required.
122
Factors Affecting the Selection of
Wiring
1. Durability
2. Safety
3. Appearance
4. Cost
5. Accessibility
6. Maintenance Cost
123
Types of Internal Wiring

• Cleat wiring
• Casing and capping wiring
• Batten wiring
a) CTS or TRS or PVC sheath wiring
b) Lead sheathed or metal sheathed wiring
• Conduit wiring
a) Surface or open Conduit type
b) Concealed or underground type Conduit
124
Cleat Wiring
• In this system of wiring, cables are supported
and gripped between porcelain cleats and
6mm. above the wall or roof.
• The main part is base, which is grooved to
accommodate the cables, the other part is the
cap which is put over the base
125
126
• Cleats are placed above the wall or roof at an
interval of 30 to 60 cm.
• The cables recommended for this type of
wiring are VIR or PVC cables and any other
approved insulated cables.
Advantages
1. It is the cheapest system.
2. Installation and dismantling is easy.
3. Less skilled persons are required.
4. Inspection is easy.
5. Alterations and additions are easy.
127
Disadvantages
1. It is purely temporary wiring system.
2. Appearance is not good.
3. Cables are exposed to atmosphere and there
is a possibility of mechanical injury.
4. This system should not be used in damp
places other wise insulation gets damaged.
128
Casing and Capping Wiring

• It consists of rectangular blocks made from
seasoned and knots free wood (preferably teak-
wood).
• The casing has usually two (or three) ‘U’ shaped
grooves, into which the VIR or PVC cables are
laid in such a way that the opposite polarity
cables are laid in different grooves.
• The casing is covered by means of a rectangular
strip of the same width as that of casing known
as capping and is screwed to it.
• This system of wiring is suitable for low voltage
installations.
129
130
131
Advantages
1. It provides good insulation as conductors are
apart.
2. It provides good mechanical strength.
3. Easy to inspect by opening the capping.
132
Disadvantages
1. It is costly system now – a – days because it
needs seasoned, knot free wood.
2. There is every risk of fire.
3. The labor cost is more because it requires
skilled carpenters.
4. This system can not be used in damp places.
133
CTS or TRS or PVC Sheath Wiring

• CTS cables are available in single-core, twin-core or
three-core with a circular or oval in shape.
• CTS cables are sufficiently chemical proof, water
proof, steam proof.
• The cables are run or carried on well seasoned,
perfectly straight and well varnished (on all four sides)
teak wood batten of thickness 10 mm. at least.
• The width of the batten depends upon the number and
size of cables to be carried by it. Battens are fixed to
the walls or ceilings by means of gutties or wooden
plugs.
• The cables are held on the wooden batten by means of
tinned brass link clips spaced at an interval of 10 cm.
• .This system is suitable for low voltage installations..
134
135
Advantages
1. It’s appearance is good, if carried properly.
2. It’s life is sufficiently long.
3.It can withstand the action of most chemicals such as
acids and alkalies.
4. It’s installation is easy and quick compared to casing-
capping.
5. It is cheap compared to casing – capping, metal conduit
and lead sheathed wiring.
Disadvantages
1. This system of wiring is not recommended in situations
exposed to sun and rain, unless preventive steps are
taken.
2. It can not be used in damp places.
3. Good work man ship is required to make a sound job.
4. Only suitable below then 250V.
136
Metal Sheathed Wiring

• In lead sheathed or metal sheathed wiring the
cables used are insulated wires, TRS or PVC,
with metal outer covering of about 1 mm.
thick. The metal covering is known as
sheathing and is made of lead – aluminium
alloy containing about 95% of lead. The metal
sheathed cables are run on wooden batten
and are fixed to it by link – clips. The whole
metal sheathing efficiently earthed as per
IS732-1983
137
138
Advantages
1. It provides protection against mechanical
injury.
2. It can be used in damp situations.
3. It can be used in situations exposed to-sun,
and rain provided no joint is exposed.
4. It has longer life.
Disadvantages
1. It is costly system of wiring.
2. It is not suitable where chemical (acids and
alkalies) corrosion may occur.
3. In case of insulation damage, the metal sheath
become alive and gives shock.
139
140
Conduit Wiring System

Conduit wiring system consists of either VIR or
PVC cables taken through tubes or pipes and
terminated at the outlets or switches / sockets. The
tube or pipe is known as “conduit”. Conduit wiring
may run over the surface of the walls and ceiling
or may be concealed under masonary work.
Types of Conduits
1. Rigid steel / metal conduit.
2. Rigid PVC / non-metallic conduit.
3. Flexible steel conduit.
4. Flexible PVC / non-metallic conduit.
141
142
Surface Conduit Wiring
All steel conduits should be coated or finished
with galvanized or enameled surface. Conduit
accessories must be of threaded type. No steel
conduit less than 12.7 mm. in diameter
should be used.
The conduit should be laid over the wooden
gutties, and should be fixed to the wall by
means of saddles at an interval of not more
than 1.2 m.
143
Concealed Conduit Wiring
The conduits (metal or PVC) are embedded along
walls or ceiling in plaster at the time of building
construction. The conduits are fixed by means of
saddles not more than 60 cm. apart. The VIR or
PVC cables are drawn into the concealed by
means of GI wire of size 18 SWG.
PVC conduits are increasingly being used in place
of steel conduits. PVC conduits are less expensive
and the labour time saved may be as much as
25% to 50% compared to the time taken when
installing steel conduits. PVC conduits are
resistant to acids alkalies, oil and moisture.
144
145
Advantages
1.It provides protection against mechanical
damage.
2. Metal conduits provides protection against fire
due to short circuit etc.
3. The whole system is water proof.
4. It’s life is long.
5. Replacement of defective wiring is easy.
6. It is shock proof if earthing is done properly.
7. PVC conduit wiring (particularly concealed) is
cheap.
8. PVC conduit wiring requires less time.
9. Concealed conduit wiring appearance is very
good.
146
Disadvantages
1. PVC conduit does not provide protection
against fire.
2. Metal conduit wiring is very costly.
3. Metal conduit wiring requires more time.
4. Metal conduit wiring needs skilled labour.
5. Very hard to find the defects in the wiring.
6. Very complicated to manage additional
connection in the future.
General Rules for Wiring
147
The following general rules should be kept in mind

while executing the electrical wiring work:
1. The current rating of the cable / conductor should be
slightly greater (at least 1.5 times) than the load
current.
2. Every live wire / line should be protected by a fuse of
suitable rating as per load requirements.
3. Every sub-circuit should be connected with the fuse
distribution board.
4. All metal coverings used for the protection of earth
must be connected to earth.
5. No switch or fuse is used in earth or neutral
conductor.
6. Every apparatus should be provided with a separate
switch.
148
7. No additional load should be connected to the existing
installation until it has been satisfied that the installation can
safely carry the additional load.
8. All the switches and starters should be accessible to the
operator.
9. A caution notice (danger plate) should be fixed on very
equipment.
10. In any building light wiring and power wiring should be kept
separately.
11. When the installation has been completed it should be tested
before giving the supply and the leakage in the wiring should
not exceed 1/5000 of the maximum current of the load.
12. In 3-phase, 4 – wire installation the load should be
distributed almost equally on all the phases.
13. In case of 3-phse, 4-wire system, at the main board,
indication should be done in Red, Yellow and Blue. Neutral
should be indicated in black.
149
Electrical Energy Distribution Systems

• As per the recommendations of ISI the maximum
number of points of lights, fans and socket
outlets cannot be exceed beyond 10 and the
maximum load that can be connected in such a
circuit is 800 watt. Hence in case of more load or
more points to be connected to the supply
system, then it is to be done by having more than
one circuit through
(a) Distribution board system
(b) Tree system
(c) Joint box system
(d) loop – in – system.
General Requirements of Electrical
150
Installation
a) Layout wiring
b) Conductors
c) Rating of lamp, fan and socket outlet point
d) Joint box and looping in system
e) Reception and distribution of main supply
f) Arrangement of apparatus on switchboards
g) Single phase supply
h) Three phase, four wire supply
i) Sub distribution board
j) Sub circuits
k) Diversity
l) Diversity factor for sub circuit
151
Layout Wiring
152
Conductors
153
Rating of lamp, fan and socket outlet point
154
Joint box and looping in system

155
Reception and distribution of main supply
 At the entry level there should be a circuit breaker or linked

switch on live conductor.
 No break in the neutral wire in the form of switch or fuse
throughout the installation
 All main switches should be either metal clad enclosed or of
any insulated enclosed pattern and should be fixed at close
proximity to the point of entry of supply.
156
157
Metal clad switchgear should preferably be mounted on any one

of the following type of boards
Hinged type metal boards
Fixed type metal boards
Teak wood boards
Arrangement of
158
Apparatus on
Switchboards
Arrangement of
159
Apparatus on
Switchboards
160
Single Phase Supply
The consumer’s main switch fuse is connected after the meter

and feed a distribution fuse board. It is important to note that
fuses should be connected only in live wire and never in the
neutral wire. Similarly all switches installed on live wire only
and never on the neutral wire.
161
Simple diagram of Single Phase Installation
Single Phase Installation
162
with a number of sub-
distribution boards having a common main switch fuse
163
Single Phase Installation with a number of sub-distribution
boards each connected to the mains through a separate fuse
164
Service Connection
The line bringing electric power from supplier’s low voltage
distribution up to the energy meter installed at the consumer’s
premises is called the service connection.
The electric supply authority supplies power to the consumers
through a low voltage three phase four wire distribution system
called the secondary distribution system.
Large consumers supplied at higher voltages through three-wire
high voltage distribution system called the primary distribution
system (6.6, 11, 33 kV)
Service connection may be by mean of underground cables or by
mean of overhead conductors or cables.
165
Underground Service Connection

166
Overhead Service Connection

This system is used when the consumer’s premises are more
than 45 meter away from the supplier’s distribution pole.
a) PVC or weather proof cable service line
b) Bare conductor service line
PVC or weather proof cable service line
167
Bare conductor service line
168
Service connection through GI Pipe

Bare conductor service line
169
Service connection with

PVC or weather proof cables
170
Service Mains
171
Sub Circuits
-After the main switch the supply is taken to the various load
points.
-In the given circuit same circuit contains light, fan and power
circuit which has various drawbacks.
-Dividing the wiring into a number of smaller circuit is called sub-
circuit.
172
Sub Circuits
Sub-circuit divided into two parts:
a) Light and fan sub-circuit
b) Power Sub-circuit
173
174
Location of Outlets.
Location of Control Switches
Location of Main Board and Distribution Board
175
Guidelines for Installation of Fittings

• Switches, socket outlets and light points
• Fans
• Fuses and switches
• Earthing installation
176
Load Assessment
Estimating and Costing
177
of Electrical
Installation
• Quantity and specification of material
• Price list
• Labour charges
• Overhead charges
• Contingencies
• Profit purchase system
178
Electrical Installations for Residential

building: Estimating and Costing of Material
• Choice of particular type of wiring depending upon a particular

use, financial implication and personal preferences.
• Installation work should be as per Indian Electricity Rules 1956.
• The planning and designing of electrical wiring should be done
before civil work start.
• Layout of electrical wiring prepare in advance and handed over
the civil engineer to make necessary provisions in the building
for electric work.
179
Example of Estimating and Costing of materials
180
Installation Plan
181
Schematic and Wiring Diagram
182
Electrical Installations for Commercial

Building
Electric service and supply

• Supply authority supplies power to the consumer through low
voltage i.e. 415V/240V three phase four wire distribution
• Large consumers are supplied at higher voltage: 6.6, 11, 33 kV
three wire high voltage feeder
183
Internal Distribution
• Small residential installation

• Medium Large Installation
• Large Installation
184
Large Installation
185
186
UNIT-3
Illumination System
Contents: Understanding various terms regarding light, lumen, intensity, candle power,
lamp efficiency, specific consumption, glare, space to height ratio, waste light factor,
depreciation factor, various illumination schemes, Incandescent lamps and modern luminaries
like CFL, LED and their operation, energy saving in illumination systems, design of a lighting
scheme for a residential and commercial premises, flood lighting.
Lecture videos on Youtube

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WzSsWpK_3xA (important Terms and definitions)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pUif6I0POQw (Important Terms and definitions)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3FPyvUw3Bp4 (Laws of Illumination)
Important Terms:
Light: It is defined as the radiation energy from a hot body which produces the visual
sensation upon the human eye. It is usually denoted by Q, expressed in lumen-hours and
is analogous to watt-hour.
Luminous flux: it is defined as the total quantity of light energy emitted per second
form a luminous body. It is represented by symbol F and is measured in lumens. The
concept of luminous flux helps us to specify the output and efficiency of a given light
source.
Luminous intensity: luminous intensity in any given direction is the luminous flux
emitted by the source per unit solid angle, measured in the direction in which the
intensity is required. It is denoted by symbol I and is measured in candela(cd) or
lumens/steradian.
If F is the luminous flux radiated out by source within a solid angle of ω steradian in
any particular direction then I =F/ ω lumens/steradian or candela (cd).
Lumen: The lumen is the unit of luminous flux and is defined as the amount of luminous
flux given out in a space represented by one unit of solid angle by a source having an
intensity of one candle power in all directions.
Lumens = candle power X solid angle = cp X ω
Total lumens given out by source of one candela are 4π lumens.
Candle power: Candle power is the light radiating capacity of a source in a given
direction and is defined as the number of lumens given out by the source in a unit solid
angle in a given direction. It is denoted by a symbol C.P.
C.P. = lumens/ω
Illumination: When the light falls upon any surface, the phenomenon is called the
illumination. It is defined as the number of lumens, falling on the surface, per unit area.
It is denoted by symbol E and is measured in lumens per square meter or meter-candle
or lux.
187
If a flux of F lumens falls on a surface of area A, then the illumination of that surface is
E =F/A lumens/m2 or lux
Lux or meter candle: It is the unit of illumination and is defined as the luminous flux
falling per square meter on the surface which is everywhere perpendicular to the rays
of light from a source of one candle power and one meter away from it.
Foot candle: It is also the unit of illumination and is defined as the luminous flux falling
per square foot on the surface which is everywhere perpendicular to the rays of light
from a source of one candle power and one foot away from it.
1 foot-candle = 1 lumen/ft2 =10.76 meter candle or lux
Candle: It is the unit of luminous intensity. It is defined as 1/60th of the luminous
intensity per cm2 of a black body radiator at the temperature of solidification of
platinum (2,0430K).
Mean horizontal candle power: (M.H.C.P) It is defined as the mean of candle powers
in all directions in the horizontal plane containing the source of light.
Mean spherical candle power: ( M.S.C.P) It is defined as the mean of the candle
powers in all directions and in all planes from the source of light.
Mean hemi-spherical candle power: (M.H.S.C.P) It is defined as the mean of candle
powers in all directions above or below the horizontal plane passing through the source
of light.
Reduction factor: Reduction factor of a source of light is the ratio of its mean spherical
candle power to its mean horizontal candle power.
reduction factor = M.S.C.P./M.H.C.P.
Lamp efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of the luminous flux to the power input. It is
expressed in lumens per watt.
Specific consumption: It is defined as the ratio of the power input to the average
candle power. It is expressed in watt per candela.
Brightness : When the eye receives a great deal of light from an object we say it is
bright, and brightness is an important quantity in illumination. It is all the same
whether the light is produced by the object or reflected from it.
Brightness is defined as the luminous intensity per unit projected area of either a
surface source of light or a reflecting surface and is denoted by L.
If a surface area A has an effective luminous intensity of I candelas in a direction θ to the
normal, than the brightness (luminance) of that surface is
L = I/a cosθ
The unit of brightness is candela/m2 (nits), candela/cm2 (stilb) or candela/ft2
Glare:- The size of the opening of the pupil in the human eye is controlled by its iris. If
the eye is exposed to a very bright source of light the iris automatically contacts in order
to produce the amount of light admitted and prevent damaged to retina this reduces the
sensitivity, so that other objects within the field of vision can be only imperfectly seen.
In other words glare maybe defined as brightness with in the field of vision of such a
character as the cause annoyance discomfort interference with vision.
Space height ratio:- it is defined as the ratio of distance between adjacent lamps and
height of their mountains.
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𝑕𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠

𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑕𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑕𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑜𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
Utilization factor or co-efficient of utilization:- It is defined as the ratio of total

lumens reaching the working plane to total lumens given out by the lamp.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑕𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

𝑈𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝
Maintenance factor: Due to accumulation of dust, dirt and smoke on the lamps, they
emit less light than that they emit when they are new ones and similarly the walls and
ceilings e.t.c. after being covered with dust, dirt and smoke do not reflect the same
output of light, which is reflected when they are new. Lumens
The ratio of illumination under normal working conditions to the illumination when the
things are perfectly clean is known as maintenance factor.
𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑕𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛
Depreciation factor: this is merely reverse of the maintenance factor and is defined as
the ratio of the initial meter-candles to the ultimate maintained metre-candles on the
working plane. Its value is more than unity.
Waste light factor: Whenever a surface is illuminated by a number of sources of light,
there is always a certain amount of waste of light on account of over-lapping and falling
of light outside at the edges of the surface. The effect is taken into account by
multiplying the theoretical value of lumens required by 1.2 for rectangular areas and 1.5
for irregular areas and objects such as statues, monuments etc.
Absorption factor: In the places where atmosphere is full of smoke fumes, such as in
foundries, there is a possibility of absorption of light. The ratio of total lumens available
after absorption to the total lumens emitted by the source of light is called the
absorption factor. Its value varies from unity for clean atmosphere to 0.5 for foundries.
Beam factor: the ratio of lumens in the beam of a projector to the lumens given out by
lamps is called the beam factor. This factor takes into the account the absorption of light
by reflector and front glass of the projector lamp. Its value varies from 0.3 to 0.6.
Reflection factor: When a ray of light impinges on a surface it is reflected from the
surface at an angle of incidence, as shown in the fallowing figure. A certain portion of
incident light is absorbed by the surface. The ratio of reflected light to the incident light
is called the reflection factor. It’s value always less than unity.
Plane angle: A plane angle is the angle subtended at a point in a plane by two
converging lines. It is denoted by the Greek letter ‘θ’ (theta) and is usually measured in
degrees or radians.
189
𝑎𝑟𝑐
𝜃= 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠
One radian is defined as the angle subtended by an arc of a circle whose length by an arc
of a circle whose length is equals to the radius of the circle.
Solid angle: Solid angle is the angle subtended at a point in space by an area, i.e., the
angle enclosed in the volume formed by numerous lines lying on the surface and
meeting at the point. It is usually denoted by symbol ‘ω’ and is measured in steradian.
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
𝜔= =
(𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠)2 𝑟2
The largest solid angle subtended at a point is that due to a sphere at its centre. If r is
the radius of any sphere, its surface area is 4π2 and the distance of its surface area from
the centre is r, therefore, solid angle subtended at its centre by its surface,
4𝜋𝑟 2
𝜔= = 4𝜋 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔
(𝑟)2
Steradian: It is the unit of solid angle and is defined as the solid angle that subtends a
surface on the sphere equivalent to the square of the radius.
Example 1: A 200-V lamp takes a current of 1.2 A, it produces a total flux of 2,860
lumens. Calculate:
1. the MSCP of the lamp and
2. the efficiency of the lamp.
Solution:
Given V = 200 V, I = 1.2 A, flux = 2,860 lumens.
Lamp efficiency = lumens flux/power input = 2860/(200*1.2) lumens/watt

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Example 2: A room with an area of 6 × 9 m is illustrated by ten 80-W lamps. The

luminous efficiency of the lamp is 80 lumens/W and the coefficient of utilization is 0.65.
Find the average illumination.
Solution:
Room area = 6 × 9 = 54 m .
Total wattage = 80 × 10 = 800 W.
Total flux emitted by ten lamps = 80 × 800 = 64,000 lumens.
Flux reaching the working plane = 64,000 × 0.65 = 41,600 lumens.
Laws of Illumination
Mainly there are two laws of illumination.
1. Inverse square law.
2. Lambert's cosine law.
1. Inverse square law: This law states that ‘the illumination of a surface is inversely
proportional to the square of distance of the surface from the source of light.
Let, ‘S’ be a point source of luminous intensity ‘I’ candela, the luminous flux emitting
from source crossing the three parallel plates having areas A A , and A square meters,
which are separated by a distances of d, 2d, and 3d from the point source respectively as
shown in Fig.
For are A1, solid angle ω = A1/d2

Luminous flux reaching the area A1 = luminous intensity × solid angle
= I * ω = I * A1/d2
Illumination 'E1' on the surface area 'A1' is:

E1 = flux/area = I * A1/d2 * 1/A1
E1 = I/d2 lux
Similarly, illumination 'E2 ' on the surface area A2 is:
E2 = I/(2d)2 lux
Similarly, illumination 'E3 ' on the surface area A3 is:
E3 = I/(3d)2 lux
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From above equations

E1 : E2 : E3 = I/d2 : I/(2d)2: I/(3d)2
Hence, from Equation, illumination on any surface is inversely proportional to the

square of distance between the surface and the source.
2. Lambert's cosine law: This law states that illumination, E at any point on a surface
is directly proportional to the cosine of the angle between the line of flux AND the
normal at that point.
Let us assume that the surface is inclined at an angle ‘θ’ to the lines of flux as shown
in Fig. (a)
PQ = The surface area normal to the source and inclined at ‘θ’ to the vertical axis.
RS = The surface area normal to the vertical axis and inclined at an angle θ to the source ‘O’.
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From Fig (b)
cosθ = h/d
or d = h/cosθ
Substitute value of d in above equation
where d is the distance between the source and the surface in m, h is the height of
source from the surface in m, and I is the luminous intensity in candela.
Hence, above Equation is also known as ‘cosine cube’ law. This law states that the
illumination at any point on a surface is dependent on the cube of cosine of the angle
between line of flux and normal at that point.
Note - From the above laws of illumination, it is to be noted that inverse square law is only
applicable for the surfaces if the surface is normal to the line of flux. And Lambert's cosine
law is applicable for the surfaces if the surface is inclined an angle ‘θ’ to the line of flux.
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Module 4: Industrial Electrical Systems I
Industrial Substation
At many places in the line of the power system, it may be desirable and necessary to
change some characteristic (e.g. voltage, a.c. to d.c., frequency, p.f. etc.) of electric supply.
This is accomplished by suitable apparatus called substation.
For example, generation voltage (11 kV or 6·6 kV) at the power station is stepped up to
high voltage (say 220 kV or 132 kV) for transmission of electric power. The assembly of
apparatus (e.g. transformer etc.) used for this purpose is the sub-station. Similarly, near
the consumers localities, the voltage may have to be stepped down to utilization level.
This job is again accomplished by a suitable apparatus called substation. At some places
in the line of the power system, it may be desirable to convert large quantities of a.c.
power to d.c. power e.g. for traction, electroplating, *d.c. motors etc. This job is again
performed by suitable apparatus (e.g. ignitron) called sub-station. It is clear that type of
equipment needed in a sub-station will depend upon the service requirement.
Definition: The assembly of apparatus used to change some characteristic (e.g.

voltage, a.c. to d.c., frequency, p.f. etc.) of electric supply is called a sub-station. Sub-
stations are important part of power system. The continuity of supply depends to a
considerable extent upon the successful operation of sub-stations.
The following are the important points which must be kept in view while laying out a
sub-station:
(i) It should be located at a proper site. As far as possible, it should be located at the
centre of gravity of load.
(ii) It should provide safe and reliable arrangement. For safety, consideration must be
given to the maintenance of regulation clearances, facilities for carrying out repairs
and maintenance, abnormal occurrences such as possibility of explosion or fire etc.
(iii) It should be easily operated and maintained.
(iv) It should involve minimum capital cost.
Industrial sub-stations: Those sub-stations which supply power to individual

industrial consumers/purposes are known as industrial sub-stations.
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Classification of Sub-Station:
1. According to constructional features: A sub-station has many components (e.g.
circuit breakers, switches, fuses, instruments etc.) which must be housed properly to
ensure continuous and reliable service. According to constructional features, the sub-
stations are classified as:
(i) Indoor sub-stations: For voltages upto 11 kV, the equipment of the sub-station is
installed indoor because of economic considerations. However, when the atmosphere is
contaminated with impurities, these sub-stations can be erected for voltages upto 66 kV.
(ii) Outdoor sub-stations: For voltages beyond 66 kV, equipment is invariably installed
outdoor. It is because for such voltages, the clearances between conductors and the
space required for switches, circuit breakers and other equipment becomes so great
that it is not economical to install the equipment indoor.
(iii) Underground sub-stations: In thickly populated areas, the space available for
equipment and building is limited and the cost of land is high. Under such situations, the
sub-station is created underground.
(iv) Pole-mounted sub-stations: This is an outdoor sub-station with equipment
installed overhead on H-pole or 4-pole structure. It is the cheapest form of sub-station
for voltages not exceeding 11kV (or 33 kV in some cases). Electric power is almost
distributed in localities through such substations. For complete discussion on pole-
mounted sub-station.
The comparison between outdoor and indoor sub-stations is given below in the tabular
form:
From the above comparison, it is clear that each type has its own advantages and
disadvantages.
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2. According to service requirement. A sub-station may be called upon to change
voltage level or improve power factor or convert a.c. power into d.c. power etc.
According to the service requirement, sub-stations may be classified into:
(i) Transformer sub-stations. Those sub-stations which change the voltage level of
electric supply are called transformer sub-stations. These sub-stations receive power at
some voltage and deliver it at some other voltage. Obviously, transformer will be the
main component in such substations. Most of the sub-stations in the power system are
of this type.
(ii) Switching sub-stations. These sub-stations do not change the voltage level i.e.
incoming and outgoing lines have the same voltage. However, they simply perform the
switching operations of power lines.
(iii) Power factor correction sub-stations. Those sub-stations which improve the
power factor of the system are called power factor correction sub-stations. Such sub-
stations are generally located at the receiving end of transmission lines. These sub
stations generally use synchronous condensers as the power factor improvement
equipment.
(iv) Frequency changer sub-stations. Those sub-stations which change the supply
frequency are known as frequency changer sub-stations. Such a frequency change may
be required for industrial utilisation.
(v) Converting sub-stations. Those sub-stations which change a.c. power into d.c.
power are called converting sub-stations. These sub-stations receive a.c. power and
convert it into d.c. power with suitable apparatus (e.g. ignitron) to supply for such
purposes as traction, electroplating, electric welding etc.
(vi) Industrial sub-stations. Those sub-stations which supply power to individual
industrial concerns are known as industrial sub-stations.
Fig. 4.1 shows the block diagram of a typical electric supply system indicating the
position of above types of sub-stations. It may be noted that it is not necessary that all
electric supply schemes include all the stages shown in the figure. For example, in a
certain supply scheme there may not be secondary sub-stations and in another case, the
scheme may be so small that there are only distribution sub-stations.
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Symbols for equipment in sub-station:

It is a usual practice to show the various elements (e.g. transformer, circuit breaker,
isolator, instrument transformers etc.) of a sub-station by their graphic symbols in the
connection schemes. Symbols of important equipment in sub-station are given below:
209
210
Equipment used in a transformer sub-station:
The equipment required for a transformer sub-station depends upon the type of sub
station, service requirement and the degree of protection desired. However, in general, a
transformer sub-station has the following main equipment:
1. Bus-bars. When a number of lines operating at the same voltage have to be directly
connected electrically, bus-bars are used as the common electrical component. Bus-bars
are copper or aluminum bars (generally of rectangular x-section) and operate at
constant voltage. The incoming and outgoing lines in a sub-station are connected to the
bus-bars. The most commonly used bus-bar arrangements in sub-stations are:
(i) Single bus-bar arrangement
(ii) Single bus-bar system with sectionalisation
(iii) Double bus-bar arrangement
2. Insulators. The insulators serve two purposes. They support the conductors (or bus-
bars) and confine the current to the conductors. The most commonly used material for
the manufacture of insulators is porcelain. There are several types of insulators (e.g. pin
type, suspension type, post insulator etc.) and their use in the sub-station will depend
upon the service requirement. For example, post insulator is used for bus-bars. A post
insulator consists of a porcelain body, cast iron cap and flanged cast iron base. The hole
in the cap is threaded so that bus-bars can be directly bolted to the cap.
3. Isolating switches. In sub-stations, it is often desired to disconnect a part of the
system for general maintenance and repairs. This is accomplished by an isolating switch
or isolator. An isolator is essentially a knife switch and is designed to open a circuit
under no load. In other words, isolator switches are operated only when the lines in
which they are connected carry *no current.
4. Circuit breaker. A circuit breaker is an equipment which can open or close a circuit
under normal as well as fault conditions. It is so designed that it can be operated
manually (or by remote control) under normal conditions and automatically under fault
conditions. For the latter operation, a relay circuit is used with a circuit breaker.
Generally, bulk oil circuit breakers are used for voltages upto 66kV while for high (>66
kV) voltages, low oil circuit breakers are used. For still higher voltages, air-blast, vacuum
or SF6 circuit breakers are used.
5. Power Transformers. A power transformer is used in a sub-station to step-up or
step-down the voltage. Except at the power station, all the subsequent sub-stations use
step-down transformers to gradually reduce the voltage of electric supply and finally
deliver it at utilisation voltage. The modern practice is to use 3-phase transformers in
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sub-stations ; although 3 single phase bank of transformers can also be used. The power
transformer is generally installed upon lengths of rails fixed on concrete slabs having
foundations 1 to 1·5 m deep. For ratings upto 10 MVA, naturally cooled, oil immersed
transformers are used. For higher ratings, the transformers are generally air blast
cooled.
6. Instrument transformers. The lines in sub-stations operate at high voltages and
carry current of thousands of amperes. The measuring instruments and protective
devices are designed for low voltages (generally 110 V) and currents (about 5 A).
Therefore, they will not work satisfactorily if mounted directly on the power lines. This
difficulty is overcome by installing instrument transformers on the power lines. The
function of these instrument transformers is to transfer voltages or currents in the
power lines to values which are convenient for the operation of measuring instruments
and relays. There are two types of instrument transformers viz. (i) Current transformer
(C.T.) (ii) Potential transformer (P.T.)
(i) Current transformer (C.T.): A current transformer in essentially a step-up
transformer which steps down the current to a known ratio. The primary of this
transformer consists of one or more turns of thick wire connected in series with the line.
The secondary consists of a large number of turns of fine wire and provides for the
measuring instruments and relays a current which is a constant fraction of the current
in the line. Suppose a current transformer rated at 100/5 A is connected in the line to
measure current. If the current in the line is 100 A, then current in the secondary will be
5A. Similarly, if current in the line is 50A, then secondary of C.T. will have a current of
2·5 A. Thus the C.T. under consideration will step down the line current by a factor of 20.
(ii) Voltage transformer: It is essentially a step down transformer and steps down the
voltage to a known ratio. The primary of this transformer consists of a large number of
turns of fine wire connected across the line. The secondary winding consists of a few
turns and provides for measuring instruments and relays a voltage which is a known
fraction of the line voltage. Suppose a potential transformer rated at 66kV/110V is
connected to a power line. If line voltage is 66kV, then voltage across the secondary will
be 110 V.
7. Metering and Indicating Instruments. There are several metering and indicating
instruments (e.g. ammeters, voltmeters, energy meters etc.) installed in a sub-station to
maintain watch over the circuit quantities. The instrument transformers are invariably
used with them for satisfactory operation.
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Key diagram of a typical 66/11 kV sub-station:
(i) There are two 66 kV incoming lines marked ‘incoming 1’ and ‘incoming 2’ connected
to the bus-bars. Such an arrangement of two incoming lines is called a double circuit.
Each incoming line is capable of supplying the rated sub-station load. Both these lines
can be loaded simultaneously to share the sub-station load or any one line can be called
upon to meet the entire load. The double circuit arrangement increases the reliability of
the system. In case there is a breakdown of one incoming line, the continuity of supply
can be maintained by the other line.
(ii) The sub-station has duplicate bus-bar system; one ‘main bus-bar’ and the other
spare busbar. The incoming lines can be connected to either bus-bar with the help of a
bus-coupler which consists of a circuit breaker and isolators. The advantage of double
bus-bar system is that if repair is to be carried on one bus-bar, the supply need not be
interrupted as the entire load can be transferred to the other bus.
(iii) There is an arrangement in the sub-station by which the same 66 kV double circuit
supply is going out i.e. 66 kV double circuit supply is passing through the sub-station.
The outgoing 66 kV double circuit line can be made to act as incoming line.
(iv) There is also an arrangement to step down the incoming 66 kV supply to 11 kV by
two units of 3-phase transformers; each transformer supplying to a separate bus-bar.
Generally, one transformer supplies the entire sub-station load while the other
transformer acts as a standby unit. If need arises, both the transformers can be called
upon to share the sub-station load. The 11 kV outgoing lines feed to the distribution sub-
stations located near consumers localities.
(v) Both incoming and outgoing lines are connected through circuit breakers having
isolators on their either end. Whenever repair is to be carried over the line towers, the
line is first switched off and then earthed.
(vi) The potential transformers (P.T.) and current transformers (C.T.) and suitably
located for supply to metering and indicating instruments and relay circuits (not shown
in the figure). The P.T. is connected right on the point where the line is terminated. The
CTs are connected at the terminals of each circuit breaker.
(vii) The lightning arresters are connected near the transformer terminals (on H.T. side)
to protect them from lightning strokes.
(viii) There are other auxiliary components in the sub-station such as capacitor bank for
power factor improvement, earth connections, local supply connections, d.c. supply
connections etc. However, these have been omitted in the key diagram for the sake of
simplicity.
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214
Selection of Transformer
A three phase transformer is designed to transform a three phase input (source)

voltage to the three phase output (load) voltages required for our equipment.
In order to select the correct three phase transformer we must first determine:
(1) The equipment being installed operates on a three phase supply- If both
single phase and three phase equipment are connected at the load end; the single
phase equipment is connected to only one phase of the transformer.
(2) The Primary Voltage of the transformer- This is the same as the line input
(or source) voltage.
(3) The Secondary Voltage of the transformer- This is the transformer's output
voltage and must be the same as the voltage required by the equipment being
installed (see equipment nameplate).
(4) Frequency- The Frequency of the input (source) voltage must be the same as
the operating frequency of the equipment being supplied. The transformer
selected must operate at the same frequency. Typical operating frequency is 50
Hz.
(5) Rating- The rating of the load is determined by the product of the voltage
supplied across the load and the current passing through it. This is normally
expressed in VA or kVA on the equipment nameplate. The total load is often as
combination of various loads (i.e. lights, heaters, motors). We must calculate
these individual loads and add them together to obtain the total load of the
transformer.
The transformer must have a kVA rating greater than the load
requirement. The three phase transformer must be selected in a way that any
one phase is not overloaded.
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Full Load Current Table - 3 Phase Transformer
216
Different Types of Electrical Loads
An electrical load is a device or an electrical component that consumes

electrical energy and converts it into another form of energy. Example: Electric
lamps, air conditioners, motors, resistors etc.
Electrical loads can be classified according to their nature as Resistive,
Capacitive, Inductive and combinations of these.
Resistive loads: Incandescent lamps and electric heaters.
Capacitive loads: Capacitor banks, cables, capacitors used in various circuits
such as motor starters etc.
Inductive load: Transformers, motors etc.
Most of the loads are not purely resistive or purely capacitive or purely
inductive. Many practical loads make use of various combinations of resistors,
capacitors and inductors. Power factor of such loads is less than unity and
either lagging or leading.
Loads in a Power System may also be categorized as:
 Domestic Load / Residential Load
 Commercial Load
 Industrial Load
Different Types of Industrial Loads
Industrial load consists of small, medium, large and heavy scale industries.
The induction motor forms a high proportion of the industrial load. The
industrial load is a function of frequency and voltage and it cover a major part of
the system load.
The three different types of industrial loads under which electric motors are
required to work are as under:
(i) Continuous load

(ii) Intermittent load and
(iii) Variable or fluctuating load.
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The size of the motor depends on two factors for use in small, medium, large
and heavy scale industries.
 On the temperature rise which in turn, will depend on whether the motor
is to operate on continuous, intermittent or variable load.
 It will depend on the maximum torque to be developed by the motor.
(i) Continuous Load: In such cases, the calculation of motor size is simpler
because the loads like pumps and fans require a constant power input to keep
them operating. However, it is essential to calculate the KW rating of the motor
correctly. If the KW rating of the motor is less than what is required, the motor
will overheat and consequently burn out. If, on the other hand, KW rating is
more than what is needed by the load, the motor will remain cool but will
operate at lower efficiency and power.
(ii) Intermittent Loads: Such loads can be of the following two types:
(a) In this type of load, motor is loaded for a short time and then shut off for a
long time, allowing the motor to cool down to room temperature as shown in
Fig 1. In such cases, a motor with a short time rating is used.
(b) In this type of load, motor is loaded for a short time and then it is shut off for
a short time. The shut off time is so short that the motor cannot cool down to the
room temperature as shown in Fig.2. In such cases, a suitable continuous or
short-time rated motor is chosen which, when operating on a given load cycle,
will not exceed the specified temperature limit.
Fig: 1 Fig: 2
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(iii) Variable Loads: In the case of such loads, the most accurate method of
selecting a suitable motor is to draw the heating and cooling curves as per the
load fluctuations for a number of motors. The motor which does not exceed the
permitted temperature rise when operating on the particular load cycle should be
chosen for the purpose.
However, a simpler but sufficiently accurate method of selection of a suitable

rating of a motor is to assume that heating is proportional to the square of the
current and hence the square of the load. The suitable continuous rating of the
motor would equal the r.m.s. value of the load current.
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Selection of a Motor
The selection of a motor depends primarily on the conditions under which it has
to operate and the type of load it has to handle. Main factors for such a selection
are as follows:
(a) Electrical characteristics

1. Starting characteristics
2. Running characteristics
3. Speed control
4. Braking
(b) Mechanical considerations
1. Type of enclosure
2. Type of bearings
3. Method of power transmission
4. Type of cooling
5. Noise level
(c) Size and rating of motors
1. Requirement for continuous, intermittent or variable load cycle
2. Overload capacity
(d) Cost
1. Capital cost
2. Running cost
In addition to the above factors, one has to take into consideration the type of
current available whether alternating or direct. However, the basic problem is
one of matching the mechanical output of the motor with the load requirement
i.e. to select a motor with the correct speed/torque characteristics as demanded
by the load.
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Motors for Different Industrial Drives
Which type of motor is mostly used in an industry?

1. D.C. Series Motor
Since it has high starting torque and variable speed, it is used for heavy duty
applications such as electric locomotives, steel rolling mills, hoists, lifts and
cranes.
2. D.C. Shunt Motor
It has medium starting torque and a nearly constant speed. Hence, it is used for
driving constant-speed line shafts, lathes, vacuum cleaners, wood-working
machines, laundry washing machines, elevators, conveyors, grinders and small
printing presses etc.
3. Cumulative Compound Motor
It is a varying-speed motor with high starting torque and is used for driving
compressors, variable-head centrifugal pumps, rotary presses, circular saws,
shearing machines, elevators and continuous conveyors etc.
4. Three-phase Synchronous Motor
Because its speed remains constant under varying loads, it is used for driving
continuously-operating equipment at constant speed such as ammonia and air
compressors, motor-generator sets, continuous rolling mills, paper and cement
industries.
5. Squirrel Cage Induction Motor
This motor is quite simple but rugged and possesses high over-load capacity. It
has a nearly constant speed and poor starting torque. Hence, it is used for low
and medium power drives where speed control is not required as for water
pumps, tube wells, lathes, drills, grinders, polishers, wood planers, fans,
blowers, laundry washing machines and compressors etc.
6. Double Squirrel Cage Motor
It has high starting torque, large overload capacity and a nearly constant speed.
Hence, it is used for driving loads which require high starting torque such as
compressor pumps, reciprocating pumps, large refrigerators, crushers, boring
mills, textile machinery, cranes, punches and lathes etc.
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7. Slip-ring Induction Motor
It has high starting torque and large overload capacity. Its speed can be changed
upto 50% of its normal speed. Hence, it is used for those industrial drives which
require high starting torque and speed control such as lifts, pumps, winding
machines, printing presses, line shafts, elevators and compressors etc.
8. Single-phase Synchronous Motor
Because of its constant speed, it is used in teleprinters, clocks, all kinds of
timing devices, recording instruments, sound recording and reproducing
systems.
9. Single-phase Series Motor
It possesses high starting torque and its speed can be controlled over a wide
range. It is used for driving small domestic appliances like refrigerators and
vacuum cleaners etc.
10. Repulsion Motor
It has high starting torque and is capable of wide speed control. Moreover, it has
high speed at high loads. Hence, it is used for drives which require large starting
torque and adjustable but constant speed as in coil winding machines.
Estimation of Motor Rating
Since primary limitation for the operation of an electric motor is its temperature
rise, hence motor rating is calculated on the basis of its average temperature rise.
The average temperature rise depends on the average heating which itself is
proportional to the square of the current and the time for which the load persists.
For example, if a motor carries a load L1 for time t1 and load L2 for time t2 and
so on, then
In fact, heating is proportional to square of the current but since load can be
expressed in terms of the current drawn, the proportionality can be taken for
load instead of the current.
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Starting of Motors:
The induction motor, the most common type of motor utilized in building and
industry processes. Induction motors work by generating rotation power through
electrical conversion. This is with interacting magnetic fields. The back
electromagnetic force (EMF), which is coupled with magnetic field build-up at
the time of motor start, injects transient events that happen in the electrical
system. Such transitory conditions affect all equipment connected to the system
and its electrical supply. Motor starting is carefully studied and inspected in
industrial applications to limit such transient influence and to correctly
accelerate the mechanical load of the motor.
Direct-on-Line
Direct-on-line (DOL) is a straightforward method that is done by connecting the
motor to the supplier directly at a specific voltage. Not every system can use this
method; the most common examples are in well-dimensioned and mechanically
stiff shaft systems. It can also be used for pumps and other equipment that have
a stable supply. Direct-on-line is the most common method particularly since it
is the cheapest and simplest. It also causes the tiniest rise in temperature out of
all the techniques in motor starting. The issue with DOL is that the current can
be as high as eight times or more than its normal load.
Star-delta
Star-delta starting method is used in three-phase motors. It is applied to
minimize the starting current. At the motor start-up, the supply is connected to
the star end for the stator windings to commence. As soon as it achieves running
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position, the current supply is reattached to the delta windings. The advantage of
using star-delta is the reduced starting voltage. The current at start-up for this
technique is only a third of the DOL method. This system is applied to high
inertia models wherein loads are initiated at the time full loading speed is
achieved. The setback to using star-delta is that around 33% reduction in
starting torque occurs. The effective changeover is required from star to delta so
that the speed is maintained. If this fails or happens at a low speed, the current
surge rises as much as in DOL, which can be detrimental to the entire system.
Auto-transformer
The auto-transformer starting is perhaps the fanciest of these three methods
since it uses an auto-transformer that is coupled with the induction motor at the
start-up. This technique utilizes dual voltage reductions brought about by
transformers, which also minimizes the voltage (around 50-80% of the full
voltage) using the secondary auto-transformer voltage. This system causes
reduced torque and locked-rotor current. It also causes a concurrent increase in
possible torque per ampere line. The auto-transformer start may also cause a
pulsing current due switching from secondary voltage to the main one.
……………………………………………………………………………………
Assignment: Explain different methods of starting induction motor.
……………………………………………………………………………………
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Selection of Cable
Electric power can be transmitted or distributed either by overhead system or by

underground cables. The underground cables have several advantages such as
less liable to damage through storms or lightning, low maintenance cost, less
chance of faults, smaller voltage drop and better general appearance. However,
their major drawback is that they have greater installation cost and introduce
insulation problems at high voltages compared with the equivalent overhead
system. For this reason, underground cables are use where it is impracticable to
use overhead lines. Such locations may be thickly populated areas.
An underground cable essentially consists of one or more conductors covered

with suitable insulation and surrounded by a protecting cover.
Conductors: A cable may have one or more than one core (conductor). The
conductors are made of copper or aluminum and are usually stranded in order to
provide flexibility to the cable.
Insulation: Each core or conductor is provided with a suitable thickness of
insulation, the thickness of layer depending upon the voltage to be withstood by
the cable. The insulating materials used in cables are rubber, vulcanized India
rubber, impregnated paper, varnished cambric and polyvinyl chloride.
Metallic sheath: In order to protect the cable from moisture, gases or other
damaging liquids (acids or alkalies) in the soil and atmosphere, a metallic sheath
of lead or aluminum is provided over the insulation.
Bedding: Over the metallic sheath is applied a layer of bedding which consists
of a fibrous material like jute or hessian tape. The purpose of bedding is to
protect the metallic sheath against corrosion and from mechanical injury due to
armoring.
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Armoring: Over the bedding, armoring is provided which consists of one or two
layers of galvanized steel wire or steel tape. Its purpose is to protect the cable
from mechanical injury.
Serving: In order to protect armoring from atmospheric conditions, a layer of
fibrous material (like jute) similar to bedding is provided over the armoring.
This is known as serving.
…………………………………………………………………………………..
The selection and satisfactory operation of a cable depends to a great extent
upon the characteristics of insulation used. The insulating materials used in
cables should have the following properties:
 High insulation resistance to avoid leakage current.
 High dielectric strength to avoid electrical breakdown of the cable.
 High mechanical strength to withstand the mechanical handling of cables.
 It should not absorb moisture from air or soil. The moisture tends to
decrease the insulation resistance and hastens the breakdown of the cable.
 Non-inflammable
 Low cost
Classification of Cables:
(i) Low-tension (L.T.) cables — upto 1000 V
(ii) High-tension (H.T.) cables — upto 11,000 V
(iii) Super-tension (S.T.) cables — from 22 kV to 33 kV
(iv) Extra high-tension (E.H.T.) cables — from 33 kV to 66 kV
(v) Extra super voltage cables — beyond 132 kV
A cable may have one or more than one core depending upon the type of service
for which it is intended. It may be (i) single-core (ii) two-core (iii) three-core
(iv) four-core etc. For a 3-phase service, either 3-single-core cables or three-core
cable can be used depending upon the operating voltage and load demand.
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(i) single-core (ii) two-core (iii) three-core (iv) four-core

Selection Parameters:
(i) Voltage Rating: This is the rated voltage of the system, in which the cable
is to be installed & used. It is also important to know the method of system
earthing. The rated voltage of the cable is generally specified as a dual rating
(e.g.) 6.6kV (UE)/11kV (E).
‘UE’ means that the cable can be used for the specified voltage in an unearthed
or in a non-effectively earthed system. ‘E’ means that the cable can be used for
the specified voltage in a solidly earthed system. Thus, a cable whose rated
voltage is specified as 6.6kV (UE)/11kV (E) can be used either in a 6.6kV
unearthed or in a 6.6kV non-effectively earthed system or in an 11kV solidly
earthed system.
(ii) Type of Conductor: The most generally used conductor in a cable is either
Copper or Aluminum. For the same voltage rating, type, insulation, cross
sectional area and method of installation, the continuous current rating, the short
time current rating and the per unit length; cost of a Copper cable is
considerably higher than that of an Aluminum cable.
(iii) Type of Insulation: Most of today’s cables are insulated either with PVC
(Polyvinyl chloride) or with XLPE (Cross-linked polyethylene). Obviously, for
the same conductor material, voltage rating, type, insulation, cross sectional area
and method of installation, the continuous current rating, the short time current
rating and the per unit length; cost of an XLPE insulated cable is considerably
higher than that of a PVC insulated cable.
(iv) Type of Cables: Armored or Unarmored cables are used in indoor
installations and on above ground installations. But armored cables are
mandatory for any underground cable installation.
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(v) Continuous Current Rating: The continuous current rating of cables with
Aluminium / Copper conductor is provided by manufacturer but, it should be
noted that the continuous current ratings are given for certain standard
conditions. In practice, it is not possible to get or to maintain these standard
conditions. Thus, certain rating factors are applied to arrive at the practical
continuous current rating.
(vi) Rating Factors: The following are the general rating factors to be
considered:
 Rating factor for variation in ground temperature or in duct temperature
 Rating factor for variation in ambient temperature
 Rating factor for variation in thermal resistivity of soil
 Group Rating Factor – Vertical Spacing
 Group Rating Factor – Horizontal Spacing
(vii) Voltage Drop: Cables consist of resistance & reactance and hence the
current flowing though such impedance will cause a voltage drop. This drop
should not affect the loads connected by the cable. Actual voltage drops in
cables are given in V/km/A. It is also given in Indian Standard IS 1255. This
voltage drop should not be more than 10%.
(viii) Short Circuit Current Withstand: Any cable’s short time current
withstand capacity can be calculated using the following formula:
S = [(I √t) / K]
Where, I = Short Circuit Current in Amperes, t = Duration of Short Circuit in
seconds, K = Adiabatic Constant (= 115 for PVC /Copper; = 143 for XLPE /
Copper; = 76 for PVC / Aluminum and = 92 for XLPE / Aluminum)
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Switchgear selection
The apparatus used for switching, controlling and protecting the electrical
circuits and equipment is known as switchgear. The switchgear equipment is
essentially concerned with switching and interrupting currents either under
normal or abnormal operating conditions.
Essential Features of Switchgear
(i) Complete reliability: With the continued trend of interconnection and the
increasing capacity of generating stations, the need for reliable switchgear has
increased. When fault occurs on any part of the power system, the switchgear
must operate to isolate the faulty section from the rest of the circuit.
(ii) Absolute discrimination: When fault occurs on any section of the power
system, the switchgear must be able to discriminate between the faulty section
and the healthy section. It should isolate the faulty section from the system
without affecting the healthy section. This will ensure continuity of supply.
(iii) Quick operation: When fault occurs on any part of the power system, the
switchgear must operate quickly so that no damage is done to generators,
transformers and other equipment by the short-circuit currents. If fault is not
cleared by switchgear quickly, it is likely to spread into healthy parts, thus
complete shutdown of the system may occur.
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(iv) Provision for manual control: Switchgear must have provision for manual
control. In case the electrical (or electronics) control fails, the necessary
operation can be carried out through manual control.
(v) Provision for measuring instruments: There must be provision for

measuring instruments. These may be in the form of ammeter or voltmeter on
the unit itself or the necessary current and voltage transformers for connecting
to the main switchboard or a separate instrument panel.
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Lightning Protection
Lightning is a natural electrical phenomenon consisting of short time high

current discharge. Lightning causes two kinds of voltage surges (overvoltage),
one by direct stroke to a line conductor, and the other induced by indirect stroke
when charges are dissipated following a lightning discharge to an object near
the line conductor.
A direct stroke to a phase (line) conductor is the most severe lightning stroke as
it produces the highest overvoltage for a given stroke current. Direct lightning
stroke approximates to a constant current source.
In case of indirect stroke the amplitudes of voltages induced on lines indirectly

by lightning strokes on a tower, ground wire or nearby ground or object, are
however normally much less than those caused by direct strokes to lines. Such
strokes, however, are of real concern on low voltage lines (33 kV and below)
supported on small insulators. They are of little importance on high-voltage
lines whose insulators can withstand hundreds of kilovolts without a flashover.
Methods of protection:
(i) Ground wires: The most generally accepted and effective method of
protecting lines against direct strokes is by the use of overhead ground wires
(also called earth wire). This method of protection is known as shielding
method which does not allow an arc path to form between the line conductor
and ground.
Ground wires are conductors running parallel to the main conductors of

the transmission line, supported on the same towers (or supports) and
adequately grounded at every tower or support. They are made of galvanized
steel wires or ACSR conductors. They are provided to shield the lines against
direct strokes by attracting the lightning strokes to themselves rather than
allowing them to strike the lines (phase conductors). When a ground wire is
struck by direct lightning stroke, the impedance through which the current flows
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is very much reduced and a correspondingly higher current is required to cause
flashover.
(ii) Lightning Arresters or Surge Diverters: They are connected between the
line and ground at the substation and always act in shunt (parallel) with the
equipment to be protected.
 They perform their protective function by providing a low-impedance

path for the surge currents so that the surge arrester’s protective level is
less than the surge voltage withstanding capacity of the insulation of
equipment being protected.
 A lightning arrester’s protective level is the voltage appearing across the
terminals of the arrester at spark-over or during the flow of current
through the arrester after spark-over.
 The main purpose of lightning arresters is to divert or discharge the surge
to the ground.
 It is however, essential that the low-impedance path to ground must not
exist before the overvoltage appears and it must cease to exist
immediately after the voltage returns back to its normal value.
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Earthing
The process of connecting the metallic frame (i.e. non-current carrying part) of
electrical equipment or some electrical part of the system (e.g. neutral point in a
star-connected system, one conductor of the secondary of a transformer etc.) to
earth (i.e. soil) is called grounding or earthing.
Earthing or Grounding may be classified as: (i) Equipment grounding (ii)

System grounding.
Equipment grounding deals with earthing the non-current carrying metal parts
of the electrical equipment.
Fig: Ungrounded enclosure
Fig: Ground wire connected to enclosure

If a person touches the metal enclosure, nothing will happen if the equipment is
functioning correctly. But if the winding insulation becomes faulty, the
resistance Re between the motor and enclosure drops to a low value (a few
hundred ohms or less). A person having a body resistance Rb would complete
the current path as shown in fig. If Re is small, the leakage current IL through the
person’s body could be dangerously high. As a result, the person would get
severe electric shock which may be fatal. To get rid of this problem, we install a
third wire, called ground wire, between the enclosure and the system ground as
shown in fig.
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System grounding: The process of connecting some electrical part of the power
system (e.g. neutral point of a star connected system, one conductor of the
secondary of a transformer etc.) to earth (i.e. soil) is called system grounding.
Fig (i) shows the primary winding of a distribution transformer connected

between the line and neutral of an 11 kV line. The secondary conductors are
ungrounded. Suppose that the high voltage line (11 kV in this case) touches the
230 V conductors as shown in Fig. (i), this could be caused by an internal fault
in the transformer or by a branch or tree falling across the 11 kV and 230 V
lines. Under these circumstances, a very high voltage is imposed between the
secondary conductors and ground. This would immediately puncture the 230V
insulation, causing a massive flashover. This flashover could occur anywhere on
the secondary network, possibly inside a home or factory.
Neutral Grounding: The process of connecting neutral point of 3-phase system

to earth (i.e. soil) either directly or through some circuit element (e.g. resistance,
reactance etc.) is called neutral grounding.
Neutral grounding provides protection to personal and equipment. It is because

during earth fault, the current path is completed through the earthed neutral and
the protective devices (e.g. a fuse etc.) operate to isolate the faulty conductor
from the rest of the system.
234
Above fig shows a 3-phase, star-connected system with neutral earthed (i.e.
neutral point is connected to soil). Suppose a single line to ground fault occurs
in line R at point F, this will cause the current to flow through ground path as
shown in fig. The current flows from R phase to earth, then to neutral point N
and back to R-phase. Since the impedance of the current path is low, a large
current flows through this path. This large current will blow the fuse in R-phase
and isolate the faulty line R. This will protect the system from the harmful
effects (e.g. damage to equipment, electric shock to personnel etc.) of the fault.
Grounding Transformer: Sometimes we have to create a neutral point on a 3

phase, 3-wire system (e.g. delta connection etc.) to change it into 3-phase, 4
wire system. This can be done by means of a grounding transformer.
It is a core type transformer having three limbs built in the same fashion as that
of the power transformer. Each limb of the transformer has two identical
windings wound differentially (i.e. directions of current in the two windings on
each limb are opposite to each other) as shown in fig. Under normal operating
conditions, the total flux in each limb is negligibly small. Therefore, the
transformer draws very small magnetizing current.
235
If we connect a single-phase load between one line and neutral, the load current
I divide into three equal currents in each winding. Because the currents are
equal, the neutral point stays fixed and the line to neutral voltages remain
balanced as they would be on a regular 4-wire system. In practice, the single-
phase loads are distributed as evenly as possible between the three phases and
neutral so that unbalanced load current I is relatively small.
The impedance of grounding transformer is quite low. Therefore, when

line to earth fault occurs, the fault current will be quite high. The magnitude of
fault current is limited by inserting a resistance in the neutral circuit. Under
normal conditions, only iron losses will be continuously occurring in the
grounding transformer. However, in case of fault, the high fault current will also
produce copper losses in the transformer but for a small time interval.
236
Types of Earthing system:
There are different types of earthing system mostly used, which are
 Plate earthing: Either copper or galvanized iron plate is used in the

plate earthing system. This plate selected should of certain specified
dimensions, which is placed inside the earth at a depth less than 3 meters
from the bottom. This plate is connected to the electrical conductors to
divert the electric charge inside the earth.
 Pipe earthing: A galvanized iron pipe is used for pipe earthing. A pipe
should have holes pierced at regular intervals and the pipe is narrow at the
bottom end. A clamp is attached to the G.I pipe to which an earth wire is
connected. This pipe diverts the electrical conductance inside the earth.
Procedure for Plate Earthing:
 Earth pit: Excavate and make an earth pit of size 900 mm x 900 mm x
minimum 3.0 meter deep. Level the bottom surface.
 Plate electrode: Use GI plate of minimum size 600 Mm x 600 Mm x 6 mm
thickness. In case of a Copper plate, a minimum thickness of 3.15 mm can
be used.
 Earthing connection: Fix two numbers of 50 mm x 6 mm GI strips to GI
plate with GI nuts, bolts and washer with each strip fixed to GI plate at two
locations. Weld the GI strips to GI plate. Join the two strips at the top with a
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GI strip of the same size. Any loose earthing connection with the earth plate
will have an adverse effect on the electrode system resistivity.
 Water connection: Fix a 25 mm diameter GI pipe attached at the top with a

funnel covered with wire mesh. Water poured through this pipe will keep
the area surrounding the earth plate moistened.
 Backfill the excavated pit with soil free of stones and lumps.
 Inspection chamber: Construct brick chamber of size 450 x 450 x 450 mm
with 100 mm thick brick walls over a P.C.C. layer. Keep 100 mm of the
chamber above ground level. Cover the top with a cast iron (CI) cover.
 Follow the approved design and drawing for fixing and laying of earth wires
or GI/copper strips between the earth electrode and the electrical room.
238
Procedure for Pipe Earthing:
 Make a borehole of 500 mm diameter and 3.5 meters deep or as per the
approved design and drawing.
 Lower the Pipe electrode made of a 65 mm diameter GI perforated pipe of
3.0-meter length attached at the top with a funnel covered with wire mesh. A
G.I. strip is fixed to the electrode to act as an earthing connection. For rod
earthing, a copper rod of required diameter is used in place of the pipe.
 Fill the annular space between the electrode and borehole walls with
alternating layers of coke or charcoal and common salt.
 Inspection chamber: Construct brick chamber of size 450 x 450 x 450 mm
with 100 mm thick brick walls over a P.C.C. layer. Keep 100 mm of the
chamber above ground level. Cover the top with a cast iron (CI) cover.
 Follow the approved design and drawing for fixing and laying of earth wires
or GI/copper strips between the earth electrode and the electrical room.
239
Comparison between pipe and plate earthing:
 Plate earthing is costly compare to pipe earthing

 Plate earthing is more reliable and efficient
 Less maintenance cost involved in Pipe earthing
Reference:
1. “Principles of Power System” by V.K.Mehta, Rohit Mehta, S Chand & Co Ltd, 2005
2. https://www.google.com/
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Module 4: Industrial Electrical Systems I

Power Factor Correction
Power Factor- The cosine of angle between voltage and current in an a.c.
circuit is known as power factor. In an a.c. circuit, there is generally a phase
difference φ between voltage and current & the term cos φ is called the power
factor of the circuit.
Fig 1: Current Triangle Fig 2: Power Triangle

If each side of the current triangle ‘oab’ (fig 1) is multiplied by voltage V, then
we get the power triangle ‘OAB’ (fig 2).
OA = VI cos φ and represents the active power in watts or kW

AB = VI sin φ and represents the reactive power in VAR or kVAR
OB = VI and represents the apparent power in VA or kVA
OB2 = OA2 + AB2  (kVA)2 = (kW)2 + (kVAR)2
Power factor, cos φ = OA/OB = active power/apparent power = kW/kVA
Reasons for low power factor

 The lagging reactive power is responsible for the low power factor. The
reactive power is neither consumed in the circuit nor does it do any useful
work. It merely flows back and forth in both directions in the circuit. A
wattmeter does not measure reactive power.
When the power factor is low, power and energy losses in power lines and
transformers increase and the utilities include these costs in the electricity bill
in the form of power factor penalty.
241
 Inductive loading – 90% of the industrial load consists of induction machines
(single and three phases). Such machines draw magnetizing current to
produce the magnetic field and hence work at low power factor.
 The load on the power system is varying, it is high during morning and
evening and low at other times. During low load period, supply voltage is
increased which increases the magnetization current. This results in the
decreased power factor.
Power factor correction methods

(1) Static Capacitors: In order to improve the power factor, some device taking
leading power should be connected in parallel with the load. One of such
devices can be a capacitor. The capacitor draws a leading current and partly or
completely neutralizes the lagging reactive component of load current. This
raises the power factor of the load. For three-phase loads, the capacitors can be
connected in delta or star.
(2) Synchronous condenser: When a synchronous motor is over-excited it

takes a leading current and therefore it behaves as a capacitor. An over-excited
synchronous motor running on no load is known as synchronous condenser.
When such a machine is connected in parallel with the supply, it takes a leading
current which partly neutralizes the lagging reactive component of the load.
Thus the power factor is improved.
242
The 3φ load takes current IL at low lagging power factor cosφL. The
synchronous condenser takes a current Im which leads the voltage by an angle
φm. The resultant current I is the phasor sum of Im and IL and lags behind the
voltage by an angle φ. It is clear that φ is less than φL so that cosφ is greater than
cosφL. Thus the power factor is increased from cosφL to cosφ.
Synchronous condensers are generally used at major bulk supply substations for
power factor improvement.
Fig: Static Capacitor Fig: Synchronous condenser
(3) Phase advancers: Phase advancers are used to improve the power factor of
induction motors. The low power factor of an induction motor is due to the fact
that its stator winding draws exciting current which lags behind the supply
voltage by 90o. If the exciting ampere turns can be provided from some other
a.c. source, then the stator winding will be relieved of exciting current and the
power factor of the motor can be improved. This job is accomplished by the
phase advancer which is simply an a.c. exciter.
243
The phase advancer is mounted on the same shaft as the main motor and is
connected in the rotor circuit of the motor. By providing more ampere turns to
the rotor circuit (at slip frequency) than required, lagging kVAR drawn by the
motor are considerably reduced therefore the induction motor can be made to
operate on leading power factor like an over-excited synchronous motor.
However, the major disadvantage of phase advancers is that they are not
economical for motors below 200 H.P.
kVAR calculation
Consider an inductive load taking a lagging current I at a power factor cos φ1. In
order to improve the power factor of this circuit, the remedy is to connect such
equipment in parallel with the load which takes a leading reactive component
and partly cancels the lagging reactive component of the load. Fig (i) shows a
capacitor connected across the load. The capacitor takes a current IC which leads
the supply voltage V by 90o. The current IC partly cancels the lagging reactive
component of the load current as shown in the phasor diagram in fig. (ii). The
resultant circuit current becomes I′ and its angle of lag is φ2. It is clear that φ2 is
less than φ1so that new p.f. cos φ2 is more than the previous p.f. cos φ1.
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From the phasor diagram (fig ii), it is clear that after p.f. correction, the lagging
reactive component of the load is reduced to I′sin φ2.
Obviously, I′ sin φ2 = I sinφ1 - IC or IC = I sin φ1 - I′ sin φ2

∴ Capacitance of capacitor to improve p.f. from cos φ1 to cos φ2 = IC / ωV
The power factor correction can also be illustrated from power triangle (fig iii).
The power triangle OAB is for the power factor cos φ1, whereas power triangle
OAC is for the improved power factor cos φ2.
Leading kVAR supplied by p.f. correction equipment = BC = AB - AC

= kVAR1 - kVAR2 = OA (tan φ1 - tan φ2) = KW (tan φ1 - tan φ2)
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Type of compensation
There are mainly two types of compensations carried out in the power system
 Load Compensation;
 Line Compensation
Load Compensation:
Load compensation is the management of reactive power to improve the quality
of supply especially the voltage and p.f. levels. The reactive power is adjusted
with respect to an individual load and the compensating device is connected to
the load itself. There are three main objectives in Load Compensation: (i) Better
voltage profile (ii) p.f. correction (iii) Load balancing.
(i) Better voltage profile: Variation in voltage occurs due to imbalance in the
generation and consumption of reactive power in the system. If the generated
reactive power is more than consumption, voltage levels go up and vice versa.
The voltage profile must remain within ± 5% of the rated value for better and
efficient operation of various electrical equipments. The reactive power in a
system keeps on varying and hence if the reactive power generation is also
simultaneously controlled, a more or less near flat voltage profile could be
maintained.
One of the methods to improve voltage profile is use of interconnected systems.

When large size machines and a large number of lines are interconnected, the
effective impedance of the network is negligibly small and hence the voltage
profile could be improved. But this would result in high fault levels and would
require switchgears of relatively large capacity and hence it is uneconomical
from view point of improving voltage profile.
In order to minimize the fault, the network should be designed based on active
power transfer capability and the reactive power should be met locally by
installing shunt compensating elements (capacitor and inductors). These
elements do not contribute to the fault level and yet provide and maintain proper
balance between the generated and consumed reactive power.
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(ii) p.f. correction: It is desirable both economically and technically to operate
the system at near unity p.f. Usually p.f. correction means to generate reactive
power as close as possible to the load which requires it rather than generate it
at a distance and transmit it to the load, as this results not only in large
conductor size but also in increased losses. In fact, in order to operate the
system at near unity p.f., some of the electric utilities impose certain penalty on
account of operating loads at low p.f.
(iii) Load balancing: It is desirable to operate the three phase system under
balanced condition as unbalanced operation results in flow of negative sequence
current in the system and is highly dangerous especially for the rotating
machines. An ideal load compensator would perform the following functions:
(i) It would provide controllable and variable reactive power, almost

instantaneously as required by the load;
(ii) It should operate independently in all the three phases; and
(iii) It would maintain constant voltage at its terminals.
Some loads like arc furnaces, induction furnaces, steel rolling mills, very large
induction motors, arc welders, induction welders etc requires load compensator.
The non-linear loads such as arc furnace generate harmonics in the system and
hence arc furnace compensators usually have harmonic filters to filter out these
harmonics, so that the voltage remains mostly of fundamental frequency.
Line Compensation:
Ideal voltage profile for a transmission line is flat, which can only be achieved
by loading the line with its surge impedance loading while this may not be
achievable, the characteristics of the line can be modified by line compensators.
By compensation of lines is meant the use of electrical circuits to modify the
electrical characteristics of the lines such that the compensated lines will
achieve the following objectives:
(i) Ferranti effect is minimized so that a flat voltage profile will exist on
the line for all loading condition.
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(ii) Under excited operation of alternator will be avoided and an
economical means of reactive power management will be achieved.
(iii) The power transfer capability of the system will be enhanced and
hence stability margins increase.
 Flat voltage profile on the line can be achieved if the loading of the line
corresponds to its surge impedance loading. Since in actual practice the actual
load keeps on changing with time, the compensating devices should also vary
without delay so that every time the effective surge impedance matches with
the actual loading i.e., P’c = Vr2 /Z’c = PL where PL is the actual load and Z’c is
the surge impedance compensation.
 Under-excited operation of the alternator or charging current problem of the
line can be avoided by dividing the line into shorter sections and this is
known as compensation by sectioning. It is achieved by connecting constant
voltage compensators at intervals along the line. Since the power transmitted
will be same through all sections, the maximum power will be decided by the
smallest section and, therefore, there is increase in power transfer capability
of the system and hence stability limit is increased.
 The third aspect of the compensation i.e., to increase power transfer
capability of the system is achieved by inserting capacitor at suitable location
in series with the line so that the net inductive reactance of the line is reduced
which is equivalent to reducing the effective length of the line. This method
of compensation is known as line-length compensation.
Various compensating devices are:
 Capacitors: When a number of capacitors are connected in parallel to get
the desired capacitance, it is known as a bank of capacitors. A bank of
capacitors can be adjusted in steps by switching (mechanical).
 Capacitors and inductors: Capacitors and inductors as such are passive
line compensators. When solid-state devices are used for switching off
capacitors and inductors, this is regarded as active compensation.
 Active voltage source (synchronous generator): synchronous generator is
an active compensator.
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Series and Shunt Compensation: A device that is connected in parallel
with a transmission line is called a shunt compensator, while a device that is
connected in series with the transmission line is called a series compensator.
These are referred to as compensators since they compensate the reactive power
in the ac system.
The shunt compensator is always connected at the midpoint of
transmission system. The ideal shunt compensator is an ideal current source.
An ideal series compensator is represented by an ideal voltage source. We call
this an ideal series/shunt compensator because we assume that it only supplies
reactive power and no real power to the system.
Ideal Shunt Compensator

 Improving Voltage Profile
 Improving Power-Angle Characteristics
 Improving Stability Margin
 Improving Damping to Power Oscillations
Ideal Series Compensator

 Impact of Series Compensator on Voltage Profile
 Improving Power-Angle Characteristics
 An Alternate Method of Voltage Injection
 Improving Stability Margin
 Comparisons of the Two Modes of Operation
A static var compensator (SVC) is the first generation shunt compensator. In the
beginning (around 1960) it was used for load compensation such as to provide
var support for large industrial loads. However with the advancement of
semiconductor technology, the SVC started appearing in the transmission
systems in 1970s. Today a large number of SVCs are connected to many
transmission systems all over the world. An SVC is constructed using the
thyristors technology and therefore does not have gate turn off capability.
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A static compensator or STATCOM contains a synchronous voltage
source (SVS) that is driven from a dc storage capacitor and the SVS is
connected to the ac bus system through an interface transformer. The
transformer steps down the ac system voltage such that the voltage rating of the
SVS switches are within specified limit. A synchronous voltage source (SVS) is
constructed using a voltage source converter (VSC). Such a shunt compensating
device is called STATCOM.
A thyristors controlled series compensator (TCSC) is a thyristors based
series compensator that connects a thyristors controlled reactor (TCR) in
parallel with a fixed capacitor. By varying the firing angle of the anti-parallel
thyristors that are connected in series with a reactor in the TCR, the fundamental
frequency inductive reactance of the TCR can be changed. This effect a change
in the reactance of the TCSC and it can be controlled to produce either inductive
or capacitive reactance.
A static synchronous series compensator or SSSC can be used for series
compensation. An SSSC is an SVS (synchronous voltage source) based device
which contains a voltage source converter (VSC). The VSC is driven by a dc
capacitor. The output of the VSC is connected to a three-phase transformer. The
other end of the transformer is connected in series with the transmission line.
Unlike the TCSC, which changes the impedance of the line, an SSSC injects a
voltage in the line in quadrature with the line current. By making the SSSC
voltage to lead or lag the line current by 90° the SSSC can emulate the behavior
of an inductance or capacitance.
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Introduction to PCC, MCC panels
Power Control Center/Circuit Motor Control Center/Circuit
Power Control Center:

A power control center (PCC) is used for distribution and control of various
power source used in industry. Normally Power Control Centers is installed
near power source hence fault level is high. This is a heart of the control circuit.
The output of the generators or transformers is given to PCC. The major power
circuit equipments will be installed in this panel. It consists of circuit breakers,
Busbar, PTs (Potential Transformer), CTs (Current Transformer), insulators etc.
The output Power from the PCC panel will be distributed to MCC panels via
feeders.
Motor Control Center:

The most basic type of AC motor control involves turning the motor on and off.
This is often accomplished using a motor starter made up of a contactor and an
overload relay. The contactor’s contacts are closed to start the motor and opened
to stop the motor. This is done electromechanically and often requires using
start and stop push buttons and other devices wired to control the contactor. The
overload relay protects the motor by disconnecting power to the motor when an
overload condition exists. To protect the motor from short-circuit a circuit
breaker or fuses are also used. Typically one motor starter controls one motor.
The circuit protection and control components may be in an enclosure mounted
close to the motor.
In many industrial and commercial applications, numbers of motors are
running at a time and it is desirable to control some or all motors from a central
location. The apparatus designed for this purpose is called motor control
center (MCC). So MCC is an assembly to control electric motors in a central
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location or in other words motor control centers primarily control the
distribution of power to electric motors.
It consists of multiple enclosed sections having a common power bus and with
each section containing
 A starter
 Fuses or circuit breaker
 Push buttons
 Indicator lights
A motor control center (MCC) also having
 Variable-frequency drives
 Programmable logic controllers and
 Metering equipment.
Motor control centers are usually used for low voltage three-phase alternating
current motors from 208 V to 600 V. Medium-voltage motor control centers are
made for large motors running at 2300 V to around 15000 V, using vacuum
contactors for switching and with separate compartments for power switching
and control.
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Magnetic Starter: It is designed for remote control of electric motors. It
includes thermal overload relays and electrical interlocks (contactors). Each
relay consists of two closely bonded strips of different alloys with different
temperature coefficients of expansion. When the current flowing through such a
relay exceeds its setting, it heats the bimetal element and makes it bend because
two strips increases its length by different amounts. By bending, the bimetal
element opens the holding coil circuit and thus trips open the starter. The
connection of three pole magnetic starters is shown below which incorporates
two built-in thermal overload relays and one electrical interlock.
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Motor Control Circuit: One of the most common types of starting method
of squirrel cage induction motor (upto 3.7 kW) is Direct-On-Line starting. In
this method direct switching of three phase squirrel cage induction motor
to supply main is done using push button type direct-on-line starter. The
control circuit and power circuit diagram for DOL starting method is shown
below.
Fig (a) Control Circuit Fig (b) Control circuit with power circuit
The motor is started by pressing push button ‘S’. On pressing the start push
button, contact ‘A’ gets energized and the magnetic action on the iron
pieces lying in the relay will pull auxiliary contactor ‘a’ towards it. Since the
three phase power contactors and auxiliary or relay contactor are
interlocked and mounted on an insulating link, all the four contactors will
be made to move towards their terminals. Thus, the motor gets 3 phase
supply through the contacts of the electromagnetic contactor which are
normally open (NO).
The motor is protected against overload by a thermal overload relay which

when open circuits the control circuit during overload condition. Fuses are
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provided on the power circuit for the protection of motor. A hold on contact
for start push button is provided through a NO contact of the contactor as
the push button makes a momentary contact only.
For stopping the motor, OFF push button should be pressed which de-
energized the control circuit. Thus the main contacts through which the
motor was getting supply and also the auxiliary contacts (hold on contact)
get opened. The motor can be restarted again by pressing the start push
button ‘S’. In case of failure of power supply, the contactor becomes de-
energized and the motor stops automatically and will not start on
restoration of power supply.
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Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)

Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) is mechanically operated switch cum
circuit protection device. It is an electro-mechanically operated automatic
circuit protection devices. An MCB is used to interrupt a circuit during
overload and short circuits.
Fuse Vs MCB
Nowadays miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) are much more commonly
used in low voltage electrical networks instead of fuses. The MCB has many
advantages compared to a fuse:
 It automatically switches off the electrical circuit during the abnormal
conditions of the network (both overload and fault conditions). The
MCB is much more reliable in the detection of such conditions
because it is more sensitive to change in current.
 As the switch operating knob comes at its off position during tripping,
the faulty zone of the electrical circuit can easily be identified. But in
case of a fuse, the fuse wire should be checked by opening fuse grip or
cutout from fuse base, for confirming the blow of fuse wire.
 Quick restoration of supply cannot be possible in case of fuse, as fuses
have to be replaced for restoring the supply. But in the case of an
MCB, quick restoration is possible by flipping a switch.
 The handling of an MCB is more electrically safe than a fuse.
The only one disadvantage of MCB over fuse is that this system is costlier
than a fuse unit system.
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Construction of MCB:
Every MCB consists of the following part:
1. External Casing: It holds all internal components firm and protects them
from dust. It is made of insulating materials such as plastic or ceramics.
2. Contacts: A pair of contacts is present inside an MCB. One of them is
fixed and the other is movable.
3. Knob: MCBs can be turned ON and OFF using thi
this knob.
4. Mechanical Latch: A latch arrangement is made inside MCBs to hold the
contacts under spring tension at ON position.
5. Bimetallic strip: The bimetallic strip offers delayed overload protection
by sensing the prolonged flow of current greater than its rated current.
6. Solenoid/Trip Coil: Solenoid offers instantaneous protection against
short circuit by releasing the mechanical latch. Solenoid gets activated
when the current through the coil exceeds a particular value, normally
more than 3 times of its rated current. This solenoid is not activated by
overloads.
7. Arc Chutes: Arc chutes are used for splitting and quenching of arcs.
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Principle of operation:
In the case of overloads, a current more than the rated current is driven
through the MCB. As the current flows through the bimetallic strip, it gets
heated up and deflects by bending and releases the mechanical latch.
Deflection time of bimetallic strip depends on the amount of current
flowing through the strip. Higher the current faster will be the deflection of
the bimetallic strip.
ON STATE
OFF STATE
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During short circuits, a transient current flowing through the solenoid
forces the plunger towards the latch. This action instantaneous releases the
mechanical latch and opens the contacts immediately. When we switch it
on, we reset the displaced operating latch to its previous on position and
the MCB is ready for another switch off or trip operation.
(https://youtu.be/9Xgn40eGcqY)
Types of MCB:
MCBs are available with different current ratings of 0.5, 1.2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7.5, 10, 16, 20, 25, 32, 35, 40, 63, 100, 125, 160 A and voltage rating of
240/415 V AC and up to 220 V DC. Operating time is very short (less than 5
ms). They are suitable for the protection of important and sophisticated
equipment, such as air-conditioners, refrigerators, computers etc. MCBs are
available in single, two, three and four-pole versions. MCB is also
categorized based on trip current, which is the minimum current at which a
MCB will trip instantaneously.
Trip class Trip Current
CLASS B Above 3 to 5 times rated current. Suitable for cable protection
Above 5 to 10 times the rated current. Suitable Domestic and
CLASS C resiential applications and electromagnetic starting loads with
medium starting currents
Above 10(excluding 10) to 20 times the rated current. Suitable
CLASS D
for inductive and motor loads with high starting currents.
Above 8 to 12 times the rated current. Suitable for inductive
CLASS K
and motor loads with high inrush currents
Above 2 to 3 times the rated current. These types of MCBs are
CLASS Z highly sensitive to short circuit and are used for the protection
of highly sensitive devices such as semiconductor devices.
Reference:
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Module 5: Industrial Electrical Systems II
DG System
 Distributed generation (DG) refers to a variety of technologies that

generate electricity at or near where it will be used.
 Distributed generation (DG) is an electric power source connected directly
to the distribution network or on the customer site of the meter.
 Distributed generation may serve a single structure, such as a home or
business, or it may be part of a microgrid (a smaller grid that is also tied
into the larger electricity delivery system). When connected to the
electric utility’s lower voltage distribution lines, distributed generation
can help support delivery of clean, reliable power to additional
customers and reduce electricity losses along transmission and
distribution lines.
 Distributed generation can include resources such as:
 Solar photovoltaic panels
 Wind power generation
 Small hydropower
 Biomass combustion
 Municipal solid waste incineration
 Fuel cells fired by natural gas or biomass
 Reciprocating combustion engines, including backup generators,
which are may be fueled by oil
Definition of Micro-Grid: A micro-grid is defined as a group of interconnected loads and

distributed energy resources within clearly defined electrical boundary that act as a single
controllable entity with respect to the grid.
 A group of interconnected loads and distributed energy resources means all DG

and storage devices
 Clearly defined electrical boundary means boundary of BCE Bhagalpur
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 A single controllable entity with respect to the grid means point of common
coupling (one side conventional grid and other side micro-grid)
A micro-grid can be connected or disconnected from the grid to enable it to operate
from either disconnected or islanded mode thus preventing power outage. It may be
connected or disconnected from point of common coupling.
Components of Micro-Grid:
(1) Distributed Generator: is an electric power source connected directly to the
distribution network or on the customer side of the meter to fulfil the power
demand. This DG may be of any rating/size depending upon various factors. Also
it may be either conventional or non-conventional type of power source. Some of
the examples are Wind Power, Solar PV, Solar Thermal, Natural Gas, Bio Gas, Fuel
Cell, Combined Heat & Power, and Micro Turbine.
(2) Load Centre: the power generated from distributed generator shall be
distributed to the load centre for the utilization.
(3) Electric Power Storage: Microgrid can have storage as backup while operating
in stand-alone mode of operation. When there is renewable source of power,
excess power from renewable (after the load demand is fulfilled), can be stored
in batteries. This can then be used as backup when needed. Therefore, the
electric power storage in microgrid is able to improve the power quality,
flexibility and reliability by providing grid support functions. The electric power
storage system may be classified as Electrochemical: Battery (Lead Acid, Li-ion);
Electromagnetic: Super Capacitor, Super Conductor; Mechanical: Pumped
Hydro, Compressed Air, Flywheel; Chemical: Hydrogen, Synthetic Natural Gas;
and Thermal: Water Tank.
(4) Controller: Control unit is one of major component of microgrid. The flow of
power from generation to the load centers should be monitored, controlled and
managed properly. Even before, the generation of electric power must have
controller to maintain power quality (voltage, frequency and sin wave within
limit).
(5) Point of common coupling: A micro-grid can be connected or disconnected
from the grid to enable it to operate from either disconnected or islanded mode
thus preventing power outage. It may be connected or disconnected from point
of common coupling, which is basically a power electronic interface.
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 The purpose of DG is to provide Active Power. According to the

definition, a DG is not able to provide only reactive power.
 If an energy source generating active power only……..may
only…….. be
considered as DG
 If an energy source generating active and reactive power
both……may
may be considered as DG
 If an energy source generating reactive power only…………..cannot
only………….. be
considered as DG
Classification based on rating of DG: DG may be classified as per their

ratings.
DG
Micro Small Medium Large
1 Watt to 5 kW to 5 5 MW to 50 MW to
5 kW MW 50 MW 300 MW
Classification from electrical point of view: This will help to study their
impact on the electric system. Different classifications can be obtained to
differentiate between DG types according to their electrical applications,
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supply duration, generated power types, electric ratings and renewable and
non-renewable technologies. Several types of DG classification are
mentioned below:
(i) Standby: DG can be used as a standby to supply the required power
for sensitive loads, such as process industries and hospitals, during
grid outages.
(ii) Stand alone: Usually, isolated areas use DGs as a power provider
instead of connecting to the grid. These areas have geographical
obstacles, which make it expensive to be connected to the grid.
(iii) Peak load shaving: The electric power cost varies according to the
load demand curves and the corresponding available generation at
the same time. Hence, DGs can be used to supply some loads at peak
periods, which reduce the electricity cost for large industrial
customers who used to pay time-of-use rates (TOU).
(iv) Rural and remote applications: DG can provide the stand-alone
remote applications with the required power. These applications
include lighting, heating, cooling, communication, and small
industrial processes. Even more, DGs can support and regulate the
system voltage at rural applications (sensitive loads) connected to the
grid.
(v) Providing combined heat and power (CHP): DGs providing CHP as a
cogeneration has a high overall energy utilization efficiency. The
produced heat, from converting fuel into electric power process, is
used onsite for a wide range of applications in hospitals, large
commercial areas and process industries.
(vi) Base load: Utility owned-DGs are usually used as a base load to
provide part of the main required power and support the grid by
enhancing the system voltage profile, reducing the power losses and
improving the system power quality.
Classification according to type of fuel used: DG classification can be

done according to the type of the fuel used. It can be either fossil or non-
fossil fuel. But this type of classification is not very much popular as the
main concern is technology used not the fuel.
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DG
Non-Fossil
Fossil Fuels
Fuels
Technology
Technology
Micro Storage Renewable

Fuel Cell
turbine Device Device
(i) Micro-turbine (MT): They are small capacity combustion turbines,

which can operate using natural gas, propane, and fuel oil. In a simple
form, they consist of a compressor, combustor, recuperator, small
turbine, and generator. They can be installed on-site
on site especially if
there are space limitations. Also they are compact in size and light in
weight with respect to traditional combustion engines.
(ii) Fuel Cell (FC): The fuel cell is a device used to generate electric
power and provide thermal energy from chemical energy through
electrochemical processes. It can be considered as a battery
supplying electric energy
energy. FC capacities vary from kW to MW for
portable and stationary
tionary units.
units
(iii) Storage devices: It consists of batteries, flywheels, and other devices,
which are charged during low load demand and used when required.
It is usually combined with other kinds of DG types to supply the
required peak load demand.
(iv) Renewable Devices:
(a)) Photovoltaic (PV)-
(PV) The basic unit of PV is a cell made of doped
silicon crystal. Cells are connected to form a module or panel and
modules are connected to form an array to generate the required
power. Cells absorb solar energy from the sunlight, where the light
photons forcece cell electrons to flow, and convert it to dc electricity.
Practically, each cell provides 2 2–44 A according to its size with an
output voltage of 0.5 V. Normally an array, cells connected in series,
provides 12 V to charge batteries.
(b) Wind-turbines
turbines (WT)-
(WT A WT consists of a rotor, turbine blades,
generator, drive or coupling device, shaft, and the nacelle (the turbine
head) that contains the gearbox and the generator drive. Modern
wind turbines can provide clean electricity as individuals or as wind
farms.
s. Wind turbine blades usually are two or three blades each
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nearly 10–30 m long. The wind rotates the windmill-like blades,
which in turn rotate their attached shaft. This shaft operates a pump
or a generator that produces electricity.
 Benefits of Distributed Generation (DG):
 DGs can provide the required local load increases by installing them in certain
locations so they can reduce T&D lines.
 They can be installed in a very short period at any location.
 The total capacity can be increased or decreased by adding or removing more
modules, respectively
 DGs are not restricted by the centralization of the power as they can be placed
anywhere. Thus, DG location flexibility has a great effect on energy prices.
 DGs increase the system equipment’s, transformer’s lifetimes, and provide fuel
savings.
 DGs have a positive impact on the distribution system voltage profile and power
quality problems.
 DGs can help in “peak load shaving” and load management programs.
 They can help in system continuity and reliability, as there are many generation
spots not only one centralized large generation. Especially in the case of end-user
customers with low reliability since when combined with DGs there will be new
customer classifications between high need for reliability with high service cost
and others with less service cost and relatively lower reliability.
 DGs can be used as on-site standby to supply electricity in case of emergency and
system outages (provide local reliability).
 DG’s capacities vary from micro to large size so they can be installed on medium
and/or low voltage distribution network which give flexibility for sizing and
sitting of DGs into the distribution network.
 With regard to, environment and society, renewable DGs eliminate or reduce the
output process emission.
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Diesel Power Station/DG Set

A generating station in which diesel engine is used as the prime mover for the generation
of electrical energy is known as diesel power station/DG Set.
In a diesel power station, diesel engine is used as the prime mover. The diesel burns
inside the engine and the products of this combustion act as the “working fluid” to
produce mechanical energy. The diesel engine drives the alternator which converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy. As the generation cost is considerable due to
high price of diesel, therefore, such power stations are only used to produce small
power.
Although steam power stations and hydro-electric plants are invariably used to
generate bulk power at cheaper cost, yet diesel power stations are finding favor at
places where demand of power is less, sufficient quantity of coal and water is not
available and the transportation facilities are inadequate. These plants are also used as
standby sets for continuity of supply to important points such as hospitals, radio
stations, cinema houses and telephone exchanges.
Advantages
(i) The design and layout of the plant are quite simple.
(ii) It occupies less space as the number and size of the auxiliaries is small.
(iii) It can be located at any place.
(iv) It can be started quickly and can pick up load in a short time.
(v) There are no standby losses.
(vi) It requires less quantity of water for cooling.
(vii) The overall cost is much less than that of steam power station of the same
capacity.
(viii) The thermal efficiency of the plant is higher than that of a steam power station.
(ix) It requires less operating staff.
Disadvantages
(i) The plant has high running charges as the fuel (i.e., diesel) used is costly.
(ii) The plant does not work satisfactorily under overload conditions for a longer
period.
(iii) The plant can only generate small power.
(iv) The cost of lubrication is generally high.
(v) The maintenance charges are generally high.
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Schematic Arrangement of Diesel Power Station:
A schematic arrangement of a typical diesel power station is shown below. Apart from
the diesel-generator set, the plant has the following auxiliaries:
(i) Fuel supply system: It consists of storage tank, strainers, fuel transfer pump and
all day fuel tank. The fuel oil is supplied at the plant site by rail or road. This oil is
stored in the storage tank. From the storage tank, oil is pumped to smaller all day
tank at daily or short intervals. From this tank, fuel oil is passed through strainers to
remove suspended impurities. The clean oil is injected into the engine by fuel
injection pump.
(ii) Air intake system: This system supplies necessary air to the engine for fuel
combustion. It consists of pipes for the supply of fresh air to the engine manifold.
Filters are provided to remove dust particles from air which may act as abrasive in
the engine cylinder.
(iii) Exhaust system: This system leads the engine exhaust gas outside the building
and discharges it into atmosphere. A silencer is usually incorporated in the system to
reduce the noise level.
(iv) Cooling system: The heat released by the burning of fuel in the engine cylinder is
partially converted into work. The remainder part of the heat passes through the
cylinder walls, piston, rings etc. and may cause damage to the system. In order to keep
the temperature of the engine parts within the safe operating limits, cooling is provided.
The cooling system consists of a water source, pump and cooling towers. The pump
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circulates water through cylinder and head jacket. The water takes away heat form the
engine and itself becomes hot. The hot water is cooled by cooling towers and is
recirculated for cooling.
(v) Lubricating system: This system minimizes the wear of rubbing surfaces of the
engine. It comprises of lubricating oil tank, pump, filter and oil cooler. The lubricating oil
is drawn from the lubricating oil tank by the pump and is passed through filters to
remove impurities. The clean lubricating oil is delivered to the points which require
lubrication. The oil coolers incorporated in the system keep the temperature of the oil
low.
(vi) Engine starting system: This is an arrangement to rotate the engine initially, while
starting, until firing starts and the unit runs with its own power. Small sets are started
manually by handles but for larger units, compressed air is used for starting. In the
latter case, air at high pressure is admitted to a few of the cylinders, making them to act
as reciprocating air motors to turn over the engine shaft. The fuel is admitted to the
remaining cylinders which makes the engine to start under its own power.
(vii) Alternator: Alternator is salient pole type synchronous generator, self excited and
self regulated by an excitation unit. The excitation unit consists of choke, CT, diodes and
condenser. Voltage is adjustable to within 2.5% of the nominal voltage from no-load to
full load at rated pf. The choke is meant for adjusting the terminal voltage at no load. The
CT is meant for adjusting the terminal voltage at load condition.
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Sizing of a DG Set
(a) If the DG set is required for 100% standby, then the entire connected load in HP /
kVA should be added. After finding out the diversity factor, the correct capacity of a DG
set can be found out.
Example :
Connected Load = 650 kW
Diversity Factor = 0.54
(Demand / connected load)
Max. Demand = 650 x 0.54 = 350 kW
% Loading = 70
Set rating = 350/0.7 = 500 kW
At 0.8 PF, rating = 625 kVA
(b) For an existing installation, record the current, voltage and power factors (kWh /
kVAh) reading at the main bus-bar of the system at every half-an-hour interval for a
period of 2–3 days and during this period the factory should be having its normal
operations. The non-essential loads should be switched off to find the realistic current
taken for running essential equipment. This will give a fair idea about the current taken
from which the rating of the set can be calculated.
Example: For existing installation:

kVA = √3 V I
kVA Rating = kVA / Load Factor
where Load factor = Average kVA / Maximum kVA
(c) For a new installation, an approximate method of estimating the capacity of a DG set
is to add full load currents of all the proposed loads to be run in DG set. Then, applying a
diversity factor depending on the industry, process involved and guidelines obtained
from other similar units, correct capacity can be arrived at.
Reference:
1. Distributed generation: a definition, Thomas Ackermann, Goran Andersson,
Lennart Soder, Electric Power Systems Research 57 (2001) 195–204, 05
December 2000
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UPS & Battery System

An Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) is defined as a piece of electrical
equipment which can be used as an immediate power source to the
connected load when there is any failure in the main input power source.
So, the prime role of UPS is to supply power for a short time when there is
any failure in main power source.
Types of UPS
(i) Standby UPS/Offline UPS
(ii) Hybrid/ Ferroresonant UPS
(iii) Line Interactive UPS
(iv) Online UPS
Offline UPS Online UPS
(i) Standby UPS/Offline UPS: It is the most common type of UPS system used
on a day to day basis for our personal and office computers.
Design: Here, the primary source is the filtered AC mains. The input line
voltage is routed through a surge suppressor, filter, and transfer switch
before finally being routed to the output of the UPS device.
Fig. 1- Simplified block diagram of the Standby UPS

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The filter is designed to smooth out any noise present in the line that may
be coming from the AC source, while the inverter on the standby side takes
care of any noise experienced while the battery is powering the output.
When the output of the device is not completely isolated from the input line
voltage, there is a need to protect the output equipment from current
spikes that can occur on the input line. This is done with the help of surge
suppressor, which is a highly inductive component. The inductors will
resist any sudden changes in current that occur during spikes.
The battery will supply voltage to inverter circuit when needed to create
the AC output voltage. In order to charge the battery we are using battery
charger.
Working: When the power breakage occurs, the transfer switch will select
the backup source. The stand by system will start working only when there
is any failure in mains. In this system, the AC voltage is first rectified and
stored in the storage battery connected to the rectifier. When power
breakage occurs, this DC voltage is converted to AC voltage by means of a
power inverter, and is transferred to the load connected to it.
The benefits of this design are in its simplicity. The battery only starts
(within a few milliseconds) when the power fails; therefore the Standby
UPS has a very high efficiency, small size and low cost.
(ii) Hybrid/ Ferroresonant UPS: Hybrid UPS is an improvement on the design
of the standby UPS. Similar to the case of standby UPS, in case of hybrid UPS
the primary power source is line power from the utility and the secondary
power source is the battery. The battery and inverter are still waiting "on
standby" until needed. The big difference is that the standby UPS's transfers
switch that selects between power sources has been replaced by a
ferroresonant transformer.
A ferroresonant transformer has three windings. Two are inputs, and one is
an output. This allows the transformer to act as a switch. Initially, the
primary power is supplied through upper input winding of the transformer
to the output. During this time the core of the ferroresonant transformer
stores energy in its magnetic field and this acts a buffer in the event that the
primary power cuts off and the connection switched to secondary power
source through lower input winding.
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Fig. 2- Ferroresonant UPS simplified schematic

The benefit of such UPS is that they are usually available in a size range of
up to about 15,000 VA, making them suitable for even the largest servers.
But now a day, this particular design is in less use.
(iii) Line Interactive UPS: It uses a totally different design than any type of
stand-by UPS. In this UPS the internal components are replaced by an
inverter/converter assembly.
Working: The inverter/converter receives the line voltage and then
conditions it for output. The device also delivers a DC charging voltage to
the battery of the UPS. In the event of a power failure the battery will then
begin to discharge through the inverter/converter where the DC voltage
will be inverted to an AC signal for output to the connected device.
The main advantage of this type of unit is that the inverter/converter is
continuously tied to the output. This will decrease the amount of time it
takes to switch in the event of a power failure i.e the time taken during
switching is significantly less than the time taken by back-up style UPS
units. For small business and departmental servers and webs, line
interactive UPS is used. This line interactive UPS is better than the standby
type, but is does however still have some transitioning times that will
elapse when the line input power fails. This is the only drawback to the line
interactive UPS.
Fig. 3- Line Interactive UPS

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(iv) Online UPS: This type of uninterruptible power supply in also
sometimes referred to as a "true" UPS and is the most costly type of UPS. Its
internal components are similar to the standby UPS, but the way in which
they are used is much different.
Working: The online power supply gets its name from the fact that the
input line power is not connected to the output during normal operation.
Here, the input power first goes through an AC to DC converter where the
DC voltage is used to charge the UPS' main battery. Then, the battery is
discharged through a DC to AC inverter and routed through a transfer
switch for the output voltage. This process can be referred to as a double
conversion of the input power. Figure 4 is a simplified block diagram of the
online UPS.
Fig. 4- Simplified block diagram of Online UPS

The online UPS will only use the line input as output when battery charger,
battery or inverter fail. In this case the line voltage will go through a surge
suppressor and filter before reaching the output of the device.
The major advantage of this type of UPS is the total isolation between the
input line voltage and the output voltage. A second, but no less important
advantage, is the switching time when the input line power fails. In this
case, the switching time is non-existent. The only component that fails
during the outage is the charger for the battery. This allows there to be zero
interruption when a power failure occurs.
A draw back to the online UPS is that the large amount of power is consumed
in this double conversion process. This power consumption is given off as
heat and greatly affects the efficiency of the unit. The double conversion is
also occurring constantly. Therefore, the reliability of components like the
charger (AC to DC), the inverter (DC to AC), and the battery used have to be
of a higher quality. This drives the cost of these types of units very high
compared to the lower quality back-up UPS.
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SUB-COMPONENTS OF UPS:
A. Surge Suppressor: The surge suppressor is an important component in the
UPS. When the output of the device is not completely isolated from the
input line voltage there is a need to protect the output equipment from
current spikes that can occur on the input line. This surge suppression is
usually done by placing large inductors on the input voltage lines. The
inductors will resist any sudden changes in current that occur during
spikes. This will in turn help to reduce the chance for any damage to the
connected equipment.
B. Line Filter: The line filter usually comes after the surge suppressor in the
input line power circuit. This filter is designed to remove any noise that
may be getting introduced from the input power supply line. The filter is
designed with inductors, resistors, and capacitors in a "tuned" design to
allow passing the voltage having only the 50 Hz frequency by removing any
unwanted higher or lowering harmonic frequencies.
C. Battery: The battery is a key element of the UPS device. The battery will
supply voltage to inverter circuit when needed to create the AC output
voltage. Some UPS systems contain only a single battery while others have
multiple batteries. There are some large UPS systems which have external
cabinets dedicated to housing the large batteries required to generate the
output AC power in case of line failures.
Fig 5: (a) 12V, 18AH, VRLA Gel Type Battery (b) Battery Bank
Most commonly used batteries (at home for UPS) are usually of the sealed
lead acid or gel cell type which prevents spilling of any dangerous and
harmful chemicals from inside the battery into the UPS device itself. If the
acids from inside the battery leaked out into the device cabinet they would
destroy the electronic components inside the system rendering it useless.
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Other than the internal make up of the battery they can differ in two other
ways.
 The first is the actual physical size of the battery. Most are shaped like
the battery in figure 5 above, but the dimensions of length, width, and
height can be almost any combination.
 Another key specification of the battery is its current capacity. This is
usually rated in milliamp-hours/amp-hours. The amp hour rating tells
the amount of current the battery will supply in an hour. Example: If
the current capacity of a battery is 20 amp hour and the load is drawing
0.5 amps then this battery is able to supply its rated voltage to the load
for 40 hours.
Battery Types and Classifications:

Electrical storage batteries can be divided into two major categories,
primary and secondary batteries.
Primary Batteries: Primary batteries are non-rechargeable but they can
store and deliver electrical energy. Typical carbon-zinc and lithium
batteries are commonly used as primary battery. Primary batteries are not
used in PV systems because they cannot be recharged.
Secondary Batteries: Secondary batteries are rechargeable and they can
store and deliver electrical energy. Common lead-acid batteries used in
automobiles and PV systems are secondary batteries.
The batteries can be selected based on their design and performance
characteristics. Some of the important parameters to be considered for the
selection of battery are lifetime, deep cycle performance, tolerance to high
temperatures and overcharge, maintenance and many others.
Different manufacturers have variations in their battery construction, but
some common construction features can be described for almost all
batteries. Batteries are generally produced in mass; it consists of several
sequential and parallel processes to construct a complete battery unit. The
manufacturing is an intensive, heavy industrial process involving the use of
hazardous and toxic materials. After production, initial charge and
discharge cycles are conducted on batteries before they are shipped to
distributors and consumers.
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D. Battery Charger: With the exception of the online UPS, an uninterruptible
power supply cannot run on its battery power indefinitely. The amount of
time it can run depends on the load connected to it and the current capacity
of the battery. When the line power comes back on, the amount of power
that has been depleted (discharged) from the battery has to be restored.
To restore the power a battery charger is used. The charger is essentially an
AC to DC converter. It will receive an AC input voltage and rectify it to a DC
current. This can be done in many different ways. The most efficient way to
rectify an AC signal to DC is the use of the full wave rectifier or bridge
rectifier.
When the AC source output current
is positive, the diode Dl and D2
conduct, creating a positive output
across the resistor RL. When the AC
source output current is negative,
diodes Dl and D2 no longer conduct,
but diodes D3 and D4 begin to
conduct and then fully turn on. When
this happens the current direction
through RL stays the same keeping
the output voltage positive. This
causes the output of the circuit to be
a purely DC output. Fig 6: A bridge or full wave rectifier
Three stages of the battery charging is: (i) Normal or Bulk stage (ii)
Absorption/Equalization stage and (iii) Float stage.
Bulk/ Normal stage: It is the initial portion of a charging cycle performed
at any charge rate and it involves 80 % state of charge, hence called bulk
stage of charging. In this case the charger current is held constant (in a
constant current charger), and voltage increases. The properly sized
charger will give the battery as much current as it will accept up to charger
capacity.
Absorption/Equalization stage: The absorption/equalization has the
charger holding the voltage and decreasing the current until the battery is
charged nearly up to 95-97%. The portion of charging cycle covered in this
stage is called “cool-down” cycle.
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Float Stage: The float stage is where the charge voltage is reduced and held
constant, while the current is reduced to less than 1% of battery capacity
(i.e supplying steady current). This mode can be used to maintain a fully
charged battery indefinitely. At that time, the charger will continue to
monitor the battery and apply a charge if it detects any loss.
Battery Discharging
Depth of Discharge (DOD): It is defined as the percentage of capacity that
has been withdrawn from a battery compared to the total fully charged
capacity. OR, Depth of Discharge is defined as the total amount of energy
that is discharged from a battery, divided by the battery nominal capacity.
Depth of discharge is normally expressed as a percentage.
Example: If a 90 Ah battery is discharged for 20 minute at a constant
current of 50 A, then find the value of depth of discharge.
Ans: DoD = (50 amps * (20 mins / 60 mins) / 90Ah
= (50A * 0.33333h)) / 90Ah
= 16.67Ah / 90Ah = 0.18522 can be written as 18.522%
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State of Charge (SOC): The state of charge (SOC) is defined as the amount
of energy as a percentage of the energy stored in a fully charged battery.
Discharging a battery results in a decrease in state of charge, while charging
results in an increase in state of charge. Ex: If a battery that has had three
quarters of its capacity removed, or been discharged 75 %, is said to be at
25 % state of charge.
Self-Discharge Rate: In open-circuit mode without any charge or

discharge current, a battery undergoes a reduction in state of charge, due to
internal mechanisms and losses within the battery. Different battery types
have different self discharge rates, the most significant factor being the
active materials and grid alloying elements used in the design.
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Temperature Effects: As the temperature increases by 100C, the rate of an
electrochemical reaction doubles and hence battery life decreases by a
factor of two. Higher operating temperatures accelerate corrosion of the
positive plate grids, resulting in electrolyte loss hence battery life
decreases.
E. Inverter: The inverter section of the UPS is conversion device that will
convert a DC signal to an AC signal. It takes the DC power supplied by the
battery and converts it to a usable AC power for the component.
In figure 7 a single phase bridge inverter is shown. VS is the battery voltage
of the UPS. To allow a positive output voltage on the load both switches Q 1
and Q2 must be on. When the voltage and current is driven negative,
switches Q1 and Q2 must turn off and switches Q3 and Q4 must turn on. This
process would be repeated at a frequency of 50 Hz. The diodes in the
inverter circuit are freewheeling diodes used to prevent voltage spikes
during the transitioning time of the switches.
Fig. 7- Single phase bridge inverter

All uninterruptible power supplies have an inverter/ converter at some
point. When high power devices are connected to the output a three phase
inverter could be used. The three phase inverter is basically three single
phase inverters connected in parallel to form the configuration of a three
phase inverter.
To obtain the desired three phases, the gate signals should be advanced
delayed 120 degrees to obtain a balanced three phase inverter. With the
three single phase inverters connected in parallel, there will be six
transistors and six diodes. Only two transistor switches will be on at any
one time.
There are six modes of operations in a cycle and each mode is 60 degrees.
This allows there to be three separate phase outputs. When switches Q1 and
Q6 are on there is a positive voltage developed across nodes a and b. To
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transition from a positive to negative voltage across node a and b Q1 and Q6
must turn off and then Q4 and Q3 would turn on.
Fig. 8- Three phase bridge inverter

To complete the remaining two sets of phase voltages across nodes b and c
as well as nodes a and c we will turn on the following switches. Switches Q 3
and Q2 will be on for a positive voltage across node b and c, then switches
Q6 and Q5 for a negative voltage across node b and c. Finally, to obtain a
positive voltage across nodes a and c switches Ql and Q2 will be on, and to
develop a negative voltage across these same two nodes switches Q4 and Q5
need to be on.
Example: The a.c. load for a remote home is 2200 Wh/day. A PV system
with battery storage is considered for powering this home. If the inverter
efficiency is taken as 85%, coulomb efficiency is taken as 80%, PV de-rating
is 90% (10% losses due to dirt and temperature) and system voltage is 24
V. Calculate the size of batteries for maximum 5 days of storage if a 12V
battery with 100Ah is considered.
Answer:
d.c. load input to inverter 2200 Wh / 0.85 = 2588 Wh d.c
Battery storage capacity (Wh) = [total daily load demand × No. of no sun
days] / ηCoulomb = [2588 x 5] / 0.8 = 16175 wh
Since 12V battery @ 100Ah is considered and the system voltage is 24V, 2
batteries will be in series.
Ah for battery is = 16175 wh / 24 V = 674 Ah
Number of parallel strings is = 674 Ah / 100 Ah = 6.74 i.e 7 parallel string
Altogether there are 2 batteries in series with 7 parallel strings = 14
batteries in total.
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Selection and Sizing of UPS Batteries

The techniques and application considerations used to determine a battery
size are described below:
(i) Operating considerations: The UPS maintains a constant ac output
voltage for a constant load and hence the required power (in kilowatts) is
constant. When the battery is supplying DC power to the system, the DC
input voltage to the inverter stage of the UPS decreases slowly as the active
materials in the battery are converted to the discharged state. To maintain
a constant power output, the discharge current increases accordingly.
Based on operating condition two types of batteries are available- Long
duration, low-discharge rate batteries and High-rate, short-duration
batteries. Long-duration, low-discharge rate batteries are rated in ampere
hours. For example, an 800 AH lead-acid, 8 h battery that can supply 100 A
continuously for 8 h or a 640 AH battery may supply 160 A continuously for
4 h. High-rate, short-duration batteries sometimes do not have specified
ampere hour rating. Many manufacturers now provide UPS battery sizing
charts with kilowatt/discharge time parameters.
(ii) Design and aging margins: The size/capacity of UPS battery is
generally chosen to accommodate the full load capacity of the UPS. The
installed battery capacity should be adjusted so that the battery is capable
of supporting the full UPS load at the end of the battery life.
For example, a lead-acid battery has reached the end of its life when the
available capacity drops to 80% of rated value. Therefore, to ensure that
the battery will support the fully loaded UPS for the entire battery life
interval, battery size should be increased by a 25% margin.
(iii) Voltage window design: The UPS voltage window determines the
voltage range over which the battery is allowed to operate. The maximum
allowable voltage of the UPS and other connected loads is the maximum
voltage that may be applied to the battery. This voltage is generally used for
high-rate charging (also called equalizing or boost charging). This allows
for more rapid recharge after a discharge. The minimum allowable system
voltage determines the final voltage to which the battery may be
discharged.
In general, it is more economical to select the number of cells in the battery
that gives the lowest possible end-of-discharge voltage, provided that the
battery may be charged in accordance with the manufacturer’s
recommendations within the maximum voltage limit for the system.
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(iv) UPS charging limitations: For charging battery we convert AC into DC
using rectifier. So, when calculating the battery size the user should
consider the battery charging capability of the rectifier and the charge
acceptance capability of the battery. The UPS system should minimize the
discharge cycles imposed on the battery, because higher discharge of
battery due to load changes will demand more charging capability so the
required rectifier output will be high. In addition, the rating of rectifier
should be selected so that it will meet the full system load and system loss.
(v) Specific considerations: Lead acid battery
Initial capacity: Batteries may have less than rated capacity when
delivered. Its initial capacity can be as low as 90% of rated capacity. This
will rise to rated capacity in normal service after several discharge cycles or
after several years of operation.
Specific Gravity: Battery performance increase with the specific gravity of
the electrolyte. Cells designed with lower specific gravity electrolyte would
have the least performance capability, but have the longest design life and
require the lowest float voltage, whereas identical cells designed with
higher specific gravity electrolyte would have the greatest performance
capability, but exhibit shorter design life and require a higher float voltage.
The user should determine which of these factors is most critical to the
required application.
Temperature: Operating batteries at temperatures below 25 °C decreases
performance. The temperature derating factors apply to the discharge rate
and not the discharge time. For example, a temperature derating factor of
1.11 for a certain cell type at 15.6 °C indicates that battery performance is
approximately 10% less than at 25 °C. If this battery can supply, say, 100
kW for 15 min at 25 °C, it will be capable of delivering 90 kW for 15 min at
15.6 °C.
(vi) Warranty considerations: Since the warranties vary widely among
manufacturers, the warranty deserves careful consideration when selecting
a battery. In evaluating a warranty the following items should be
considered:
 Full replacement period
 Installation costs
 Warranty start date
 Defective battery disposal
 Claim
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Battery Sizing:
Manufacturers provide sizing information for their batteries. Generally this
information assumes a room temperature of 250C. Batteries which will be
operated at different temperatures continuously should be calculated
specifically for that temperature. Batteries are generally sized using; Watts
per cell method or Ampere per cell method.
Watts per cell method

Normally information supplied for lead acid batteries designed for short
discharge times (5-120 minutes) is in the form of kilowatts per cell
tabulated for various backup times.
The required Watts per cell are given by:
𝐴ampere = ( ×𝑝𝑓) / (×𝑁) + 𝐴1
Where:
VA = VA of the load
pf = power factor
η = efficiency of the UPS
N = Number of cells
A1 = any additional load connected to the batteries (in VA)
Amperes per cell method

Long term discharge lead acid batteries and most nickel cadmium batteries
are sized using charts expressed in available amps for specified periods of
time.
The required Amperes per cell is:
𝐴ampere = ( ×𝑝𝑓) / (×Vdc) + 𝐴1
Where:
VA = VA of the load
pf = power factor
η = efficiency of the UPS inverter (dc to ac)
Vdc = Average Discharge Voltage
A1 = any addition load connected to the batteries (in A)
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Reference:
1. “An Overview of Uninterruptible Power Supplies” Matthew S. Racine', James D.
Parham2, and M. H. Rashid, Ph. D. Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering University of West Florida.
2. IEEE Guide for the Selection and Sizing of Batteries for Uninterruptible Power
Systems, The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. 345 East 47th
Street, New York, NY 10017-2394, USA
4. https://www.google.com
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Unit-5- Industrial Electrical Systems-II

Elevators
An elevator can be defined as an electric lift which is used as vertical
transportation of goods as well as people among the floors in buildings
using bins otherwise silos. These are activated with the electrical motors
that also to drive counterweight system cables for drive transaction. These
are used in many areas like agriculture, manufacturing, multistory
constructions etc.
Parts of Elevator and Its Function:
The elevator can be constructed with various elevator Components or
elevator parts that mainly include speed controlling system, electric
motor, rails, cabin, shaft, doors (manual and automatic), drive unit, buffers,
and safety device.
Speed Governors: The speed regulating system of elevators is known as
the speed governor. If the elevator runs more than the speed limit, the
speed governor controls the speed. It is usually attached to the bottom of
the car and is also known as governor rope.
Electric Motor: In case the lift faces any serious condition, Electric Motors
help in preventing it and provide a smooth functioning of lifts.
Elevator Rails: Sliding up and down in the elevators is possible with the
proper functioning of Elevator Rails.
Cabin: This is the main part of Elevator which is designed for the shipment
of goods and services or the passage of persons.
Elevator Shaft: Lift cabin moves in this space. Depending upon the type of
elevator, the location of the shaft can be varied.
Doors: As normal doors, elevator doors are also meant for entry and exit.
Elevator door is of two types: Manual doors and Automatic doors.
Drive unit: Everything that works under electricity must have a motor
attached for the functioning. Drive unit is the part which contains a motor
that drives the lift.
Buffers: The buffer is an apparatus located at the bottom of elevator
designed to protect people. Buffers can stop a descending car by
accumulating or dissipating the kinetic energy of the car.
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Safety device: This is a mechanical device attached to the elevator for
safety reasons. In case the lift travels downward with a maximum speed or
over the speed limit, safety device can maintain a safety and secure
traveling.
Fig: Geared Traction System

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Working Principle:
The working principle of an elevator or lift is similar to the pulley
system. A pulley system is used to draw the water from the well. This
pulley system can be designed with a bucket, a rope with a wheel. A bucket
is connected to a rope that passes throughout a wheel. This can make it
very easy to draw the water from the well. Similarly, present elevators use
the same concept. But the main difference between these two are; pulley
systems are operated manually whereas an elevator uses sophisticated
mechanisms for handling the elevator’s load.
Basically, an elevator is a metal box in different shapes which is connected
to a very tough metal rope. The tough metal rope passes through a sheave
on the elevator in the engine room. Here a sheave is like a wheel in pulley
system for clutching the metal rope strongly. This system can be operated
by a motor. When the switch is turned ON, the motor can be activated when
the elevator goes up and down or stops.
Elevator Machine and Drive System

Driving machine, this is the power unit of the elevator, and usually located
at the elevator machine room. The Driving machine used to refer to the
collection of components that raise or lower the elevator. These include the
drive motor, brake, speed reduction unit, sheaves and encoders.
Types of Driving Machines: Generally, there are two standard types of
driving machines provided for elevators. These are
1. Gearless Machine
2. Geared Machine
Gearless Machine:
 Generally, Gearless machines are used for high speed lifts between 2.5
m/s to 10 m/s and they can be also used for lower speeds for special
applications.
 Their sizes and shapes vary with load, speed and manufacture but the
underlying principles and components are the same.
 It is used in high rise applications where the drive motor and drive
sheave are connected in line on a common shaft, without any
mechanical speed reduction unit located between the drive motor and
drive sheave.
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Geared Machine:
 It used in low and mid rise applications. This design utilizes a
mechanical speed reduction gear set to reduce the rpm of the drive
motor (input speed) to suit the required speed of the drive sheave and
elevator (output speed).
 Generally, geared machines are used for speeds between 0.1 m/s and
2.5 m/s and are suitable for loads from 5 Kg up to 50,000 Kg and above.
 Their sizes and shapes vary with load, speed and manufacture but the
underlying principles and components are the same.
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Main Component of Machine Drive System:
Electrical Motor: Electrical Motor is used to raise and lower the elevator
cab, the direction of motor rotation and speed (revolutions per minute) are
directed and supervised by devices located within the elevator controller,
The motor component of the elevator machine can be either a DC motor or
an AC motor as follows:
(i) DC motor: Direct current motors use carbon brushes to control or

regulate the operational speed of its motor. It is an important maintenance
task to regularly inspect, repair and replace these brushes. Failure to do so
in a timely fashion can result in equipment miss-operation and lead to
significant motor damage. The advantages of use DC motors are as follows:
 Has a good starting torque.
 Ease of speed control using a DC generator with a variable output
or static converters.
 The elevator motor not only raises or lowers the load but one of its
principle duties is to accelerate or decelerate the car rapidly without
any jerk. So, the starting torque should be at least 2.25 times of the
rated full load torque. Motor having more than 15% speed variation
from no load to full load are not recommended for the use.
 Compound wound motors are used for heavy duty work like freight
services because series winding provide high starting torque.
 Compound wound or shunt wound motor are used for passenger
services.
(ii) AC motor: The advantages of use AC motors are as follows:

 More regularly used because of its ruggedness and simplicity.
 More ride quality.
Two general type of AC motor suitable for elevator purposes are-
(a) Squirrel cage motor
(b) Slip ring motor
 Squirrel cage motor is used extensively upto 20 HP because of its
simplicity and requires relatively a simple control unit.
 The power consumption of squirrel cage motor is slightly higher than
slip ring type motor but due to lack of slip ring motor and its control
parts, Squirrel cage motor is more reliable.
 The slip ring motor of same rating is more expensive and having lower
power factor than Squirrel cage motor. AC motor of low speed type is
available and can be used if speed is more than 400ft per minute.
289
Types of Electrical Traction Drive Systems: Generally, the electrical
traction drive can be grouped into several categories based on the motor
type and its control as follows:
(i) Geared traction control, which includes:

 Single speed AC motor.
 Two speed AC motor.
 Variable voltage AC motor (VVAC).
 Variable voltage, variable frequency AC motor (VVVFAC).
 Variable voltage DC motor (VVDC).
(ii) Gearless traction drives, which include:

 Variable voltage DC motor (VVDC).
 Variable voltage, variable frequency AC motor (VVVFAC).
290
Module 6: Industrial Electrical Systems Automation

Study of basic PLC, Role of PLC in automation, advantages of process automation,
PLC based control system design, Panel Metering and Introduction to SCADA system
for distribution automation.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is a microcomputer-based controller that

uses instructions stored in programmable memory to implement logic,
sequencing, timing, counting, and arithmetic functions through digital or analog
modules, for controlling machines and processes.
A Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is an industrial computer control

system that continuously monitors the state of input devices and makes
decisions based upon a custom program to control the state of output devices.
In other words, PLC is industrial computer used to control different electro

mechanical processes for use in manufacturing, plants, or other automation
environments.
Actually, before the development of microprocessors (i.e before 1980’s),

industrial logic and sequence control used to be performed using control panels
containing electromechanical or solid-state relays, contactors and switches,
indicator lamps, mechanical or electronic timers and counters etc., all hardwired
by complex and elaborate wiring. In fact, for many applications such control
panels are used even today. However, the development of microprocessors
quickly led to the development of the PLCs.
PLCs are widely used in a variety of industries because they’re fast, easy to
operate and are considered easy to program. PLCs can be programmed in
several ways, from ladder logic, which is based on electromechanical relays, to
specially adapted programming languages of BASIC and C. Most PLCs today
use one of the following 5 programming languages: Ladder Diagram, Structured
Text, Function Block Diagram, Instruction List, or Sequential Function Charts.
PLC act as the physical interfaces between device on the plant or manufacturing
floor and a SCADA system. PLCs communicate, monitor and control automated
processes like assembly lines, machine functions, or robotic devices.
Significant advantages of PLC over conventional control panels are-
 Programming the PLC is easier than wiring physical components; the only
wiring required is that of connecting the I/O terminals.
291
 The PLC can be reprogrammed using user-friendly programming devices.
Controls must be physically rewired.
 PLCs take up much less space.
 Installation and maintenance of PLCs is easier, and in present day reliability
is grater compared with solid-state technology.
 The PLC can be connected to a distributed plant automation system,
supervised and monitored.
 Ability of PLCs to accept digital data in serial, parallel and network modes
imply a drastic reduction in plant sensor and actuator wirings, since single
cable runs to remote terminal I/O units can be made. Wiring only need to be
made locally from that point
Comparing Logic and Sequence Control with Analog Control
The salient points of difference between Analog Control and Logic/Sequence

control are presented in the table below:
Issue Logic/Sequence Control Analog Control
Model Logical Numerical
State-Transition Differential/ Difference Eqn.
Simple Model/ Easy to build Complex Model/ Hard to build
Infrequent Liable to change
Signal Signal range/status Signal value
Temporal
(Timed) sequence (Timed)Function/Trajectory
Property
Control On-off/logical linear/non linear analog
Redesign/ Supervisory automatic
Tuning Open/Closed Loop Open/Closed Loop
Infrequent Tuning needed
Application of PLC:
Programmable Logic Controllers are suitable for a variety of automation tasks.

They provide a simple and economic solution to many automation tasks such as
 Logic/Sequence control
 PID control and computing
 Coordination and communication
 Operator control and monitoring
 Plant start-up, shut-down
PLC is suitable for any manufacturing application that involves controlling

repetitive, discrete operations e.g. machine tool, automatic assembly equipment,
molding and extrusion machinery, textile machinery and automatic test
equipment. Some Industrial Areas for use of PLC are-
292
Chemical/ Petrochemical Metals Manufacturing/Machining
Batch process Blast Furnace Material Conveyors, Cranes
Pipeline Control Continuous Casting Assembly
Weighing, Mixing Rolling Mills Milling, Grinding, Boring
Finished Product Handling Soaking Pit Plating, Welding, Painting
Water/ Waste Treatment Steel Melting Shop Molding/ casting/forming
Basic Component of PLC
A PLC’s functions are divided into three main categories: inputs, outputs and the CPU. PLCs
capture data from the plant floor by monitoring inputs that machines and devices are
connected to. The input data is then processed by the CPU, which applies logic to the data,
based on the input state. The CPU then executes the user-created program logic and outputs
data or commands to the machines and devices it is connected to.
293
Central Processing units
The CPUs are generally micro programmed processors sometimes capable of handling
multiple data width of either 8, 16 or 24 bits. In addition sometimes additional circuitry is
provided, since much of the computing involves logical operations involving digital inputs
and auxiliary quantities. Memory with battery backup is also provided for the following:
 Flags (internal relays), timers and counters;

 Operating system data
 Process image for the signal states of binary inputs and outputs.
The user program is stored in memory modules. During each program scan, the processor
reads the statement in the program memory, executes the corresponding operations. The bit
processor, if it exists, executes binary operations. Often multiple central controllers can be
configured in hot standby mode, such that if one processor fails the other can immediately
pick up the computing tasks without any failure in plant operations.
Program and Data memory

The program and data needed for execution are stored in RAM or EPROM sub modules.
These sub modules are plugged into the processors. Additional RAM memory modules can
also be connected.
Input / Output Modules

There are two main types of inputs: data inputs from devices and machines, and data inputs
that are human-facilitated. The input data from sensors and machines are sent to the
PLC. Inputs can include on/off states for things like mechanical switches, buttons, and
encoders. High/low states for things like temperatures, pressure sensors, and liquid-level
detectors, or opened/closed states for things like pumps and values. Human-facilitated inputs
include button pushes, switches, and sensors from devices like keyboards, touch screens,
remotes, or card readers.
Outputs are the physical actions or visual results that are based on PLC logic in response to
those inputs. Physical outputs include starting motors, turning on a light, draining a valve,
turning the heat up or a pump off. Visual outputs are sent to devices like printers, projectors,
GPSs, or monitors.
Input and output modules are connected to the PLC bus to exchange data with the processor
unit. These can be broadly categorized as follows:
Digital Input Modules: The digital inputs modules convert the external binary signals from
the process to the internal digital signal level of programmable controllers.
294
Digital Output Modules: The digital output modules convert the internal digital signal levels
of the programmable controllers into the binary signal levels required externally by the
process.
Analog Input Modules: The analog input modules convert the analog signals from the
process into digital values which are then processed by the programmable controller.
Analog Output Modules: The analog output modules convert digital values from the
programmable controller into the analog signals required by the process.
Special Purpose Modules: These may include special units for
 High speed counting
 High accuracy positioning
 On-line self-optimizing control
 Multi axis synchronization, interpolation
These modules contain additional processors, and are used to relieve the main CPU from the
high computational loads involved in the corresponding tasks.
Programming Devices
External programming units can be used to download programs into the program memory of
the CPU. The external field programmers provide several software features that facilitate
program entry in graphical form. The programmers also provide comprehensive aids for
debugging and execution monitoring support logic and sequence control systems. Printer can
be connected to the programmers for the purpose of documenting the program. In some cases,
special programming packages that run on Personal Computers, can also be used as
programming units.
There are two ways of entering the program:
A. Direct program entry to the program memory (RAM) plugged into the central controller.
For this purpose, the programmer is connected to the processor or to the programmer
interface modules.
B. Programming the EPROM sub modules in the programmer without connecting it to the PC
(off-line). The memory sub modules are then plugged into the central controller.
Other units such as Power Supply Units (mainly 24 V DC), Bus Units etc. can also be
connected to the PLC system.
PLCs operate in cycles. First, the PLC detects the state of all input devices that are connected
to it. The PLC applies the user-created logic, and then executes it based on the input
states. The PLC then outputs commands to any output device connected to the PLC either
turning them on or off. The PLC resumes the cycle each time the process is completed.
295
Need of programmable logic controller (PLC) in automation:
1. PLCs are similar to industrial computers. PLCs can work as standalone units that can
continuously monitor and automate a process. PLCs can be networked; such a network can
control an entire production line. PLCs can be adapted to monitor and control many sensors
and actuators; they process electrical signals and use them to carry out preprogrammed
commands for almost any application. PLCs are used in industrial automation to increase
reliability, system stability and performance, minimizing the need for human operators and
the chances of human error.
2. PLC is used in the fully automated industries or plants or process, the actual processes
handled and controlled by the controllers which are nothing but the programming logic
controllers that means PLC plays a very important role in automation section.
2. PLCs constantly monitor the state of the systems through input devices and generate the
control actions according to the logic given in the user program.
3. It is a heart of control systems, PLC monitors the state of the system through field input
devices, feedback signals and based on the feedback signal PLC determine the type of action
to be carried out at field output devices.
4. PLC provides easy and economic solution for many automation tasks like
 Operates control and monitoring
 Co-ordination and communication
 PID computing and control
 Logic / sequence control
Industrial Automation
Industrial Automation is a process of operating machines and other industrial equipment with
the help of digital logical programming and reducing human intervention in decision making
and manual command process with the help of mechanized equipment. The automation
process typically uses devices such as PLCs, PCs, PACs, etc. and various types of industrial
communication technologies.
Some of the examples of automated industrial processes are:
 Packaging and material handling
 Quality control and inspection
 Metal fabrication; machining, welding, cutting, cladding etc.
 Food and beverage processing
 Planning and decision making
296
Industrial Automation Advantages
 Reduction in production time – having a machine that is automated definitely speeds
up the production time since no thinking is needed by the machine; there is better
repeatability, and less human error.
 Increase in accuracy and repeatability – when an automated machine is programmed
to perform a task over and over again, the accuracy and repeatability compared to an
employee is far greater.
 Less human error – no one is perfect, and we are all prone to making mistakes. Which
is why a machine that performs repeated tasks is less likely to make mistakes than an
employee?
 Less employee costs – by adding automated machines to an operation, means less
employees are needed to get the job done. It also indicates less safety issues, which
leads to financial savings. With having less employees, there are numerous costs that
are diminished or reduced such as payroll, benefits, sick days, etcetera.
 Increased safety – having automated machines means having fewer employees who
perform tasks that can be dangerous and prone to injury, which can make the work
environment safer.
 Higher volume production – investing in automated equipment creates a valuable
resource for large production volumes, which in turn, will increase profitability.
297
Unit-6 Industrial Electrical System Automation

Topic- SCADA Systems for Electrical Distribution
Nowadays, computer control is one of the most cost effective solutions for improving
reliability, optimum operation, intelligent control and protection of a power system
network. Having advanced data collection capabilities, SCADA system plays a
significant role in power system operation.
Typically, at distribution side SCADA does more than simply collecting data by
automating entire distribution network and facilitating remote monitoring, coordinate,
control and operating distribution components just like in Smart Grid System.
SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition)
Supervisory control is a general term for control of many individual controllers or
control loops, such as within a distributed control system. It refers to a high level of
overall monitoring of individual process controllers, and allows integration of operation
between controllers.
Data Acquisition (DAQ) is the process of sampling signals that measure real world
physical conditions and converting the resulting samples into digital numeric values
that can be manipulated by a computer. The components of data acquisition systems
include:
 Sensors, to convert physical parameters to electrical signals.
 Signal conditioning circuitry, to convert sensor signals into a form that can be
converted to digital values.
 Analog-to-digital converters, to convert conditioned sensor signals to digital values.
Data acquisition applications are usually controlled by software programs developed

using various general purpose programming languages such as Assembly, BASIC, C,
C++,C#, Fortran, Java, LabVIEW, Lisp, Pascal, etc.
298
SCADA is a system of software and hardware elements that allows industrial

organizations to Control industrial processes locally or at remote locations. SCADA is one
of the solutions available for data acquisition, monitor and control systems covering
large geographical areas. It refers to the combination of data acquisition and telemetry.
SCADA systems are mainly used for the implementation of monitoring and control
system of an equipment or a plant in several industries like power plants, oil and gas
refining, water and waste control, telecommunications, etc.
In this system, measurements are made under field or process level in a plant by
number of remote terminal units and then data are transferred/communicated to the
SCADA central host computer so that more complete process or manufacturing
information can be provided remotely.
Components of Typical SCADA System
The major components in SCADA system are
Remote Terminal Units (RTUs)

Master Terminal Units (MTUs)
Communications System
299
Remote Terminal Units (RTUs)

RTU is the main component in SCADA system and it is a microprocessor-controlled
electronic device that interfaces objects in the physical world to SCADA system by
transmitting data to a master system.
RTU has a direct connection with various sensors, meters and actuators associated with
a control environment. These RTUs are nothing but real-time programmable logic
controllers (PLCs) which are responsible for properly converting remote station
information to digital form for modem to transmit the data and also converts the
received signals from master unit in order to control the process equipment through
actuators and switchboxes.
Master Terminal Units (MTUs)
A central host servers or server is called Master Terminal Unit, sometimes it is also
called as SCADA center. It communicates with several RTUs by performing reading and
writing operations during scheduled scanning. In addition, it performs control,
alarming, networking with other nodes, etc.
Communications System
The communication network transfers data among central host computer servers and
the field data interface devices & control units. The medium of transfer can be cable,
radio, telephone, satellite, etc. or any combination of these.
Operator Workstations
These are the computer terminals consisting of standard HMI (Human Machine
Interface) software and are networked with a central host computer. These
workstations are operator terminals that request and send the information to host
client computer in order to monitor and control the remote field parameters.
RTU Vs PLC
“RTU” stands for “Remote Terminal Units.” It is also referred to as “Remote Telemetry
Unit”; “PLC” stands for “programmable logic controller.”
RTUs are considered more suitable for wider geographical telemetry, the reason being
that RTUs use wireless communication; PLCs are more suitable for local control, for
example, for assembly lines in factories, light fixtures, amusement rides, etc. PLCs are
specially designed for output arrangements and multiple inputs.
300
Automation of Electrical Distribution System

Modern SCADA systems replace the manual processes to perform electrical distribution
tasks in distribution systems with automated equipments. SCADA maximizes the
efficiency of power distribution system by providing the features like real-time view
into the operations, data trending and logging, maintaining desired voltages, currents
and power factors, generating alarms, etc.
SCADA performs automatic monitoring, protecting and controlling of various

equipments in distribution systems with the use of Intelligent Electronic Devices (IED)
(or RTUs). It restores the power service during fault condition and also maintains the
desired operating conditions.
SCADA improves the reliability of supply by reducing duration of outages and also gives
the cost-effective operation of distribution system. Therefore, distribution SCADA
supervises the entire electrical distribution system. The major functions of SCADA can
be categorized into following types.
Substation Control
Feeder Control
End User Load Control
301
Substation Control using SCADA

In substation automation system, SCADA performs the operations like bus voltage control,
bus load balancing, circulating current control, overload control, transformer fault
protection, bus fault protection, etc.
SCADA system continuously monitors the status of various equipments in substation
and accordingly sends control signals to the remote control equipments. Also, it collects
the historical data of the substation and generates the alarms in the event of electrical
accidents or faults.
SCADA base substation control system

The above figure shows the typical SCADA based substation control system. Various
input/output (I/O) modules connected to the substation equipment gathers the field
parameters data, including status of switches, circuit breakers, transformers, capacitors
and batteries, voltage and current magnitudes, etc. RTUs collect I/O data and transfers
to remote master unit via network interface modules.
302
The central control or master unit receives and logs the information, displays on HMI
and generate the control actions based on received data. This central controller also
responsible for generating trend analysis, centralized alarming, and reporting.
The data historian, workstations, master terminal unit and communications servers are
connected by LAN at the control center. A Wide Area Network (WAN) connection with
standard protocol communication is used to transfer the information between field sites
and central controller.
Thus, by implementing SCADA for substation control eventually improves the reliability
of the network and minimizes the downtime with high speed transfer of measurements
and control commands.
Feeder Control using SCADA

This automation includes feeder voltage or VAR control and feeder automatic switching.
Feeder voltage control performs voltage regulation and capacitor placement operations
while feeder switching deals with remote switching of various feeders, detection of
faults, identifying fault location, isolating operation and restoration of service. In this
system, SCADA architecture continuously checks the faults and their location by using
wireless fault detector units deployed at various feeding stations. In addition, it
facilitates the remote circuit switching and historical data collection of feeder
parameters and their status. The figure below illustrates feeder automation using
SCADA.
303
In the above typical SCADA network, different feeders (underground as well as

overhead networks) are automated with modular and integrated devices in order to
decrease the number and duration of outages. Underground and overhead fault
detection devices provide accurate information about transient and permanent faults so
that at the remote side preventive and corrective measures can be performed in order
to reduce the fault repeatability.
Ring main units and Remote Control Units (RTUs) of underground and overhead
network responsible for maintenance and operational duties such as remote load
switching, capacitor bank insertion and voltage regulation. The entire network is
connected with a communication medium in order to facilitate remote energy
management at the central monitoring station.
End User Load Control Automation by SCADA
This type of automation at user end side implements functions like remote load control,
automatic meter reading and billing generation, etc. It provides the energy consumption
by the large consumers and appropriate pricing on demand or time slots wise. Also
detects energy meter tampering and theft and accordingly disconnects the remote
service. Once the problem is resolved, it reconnects the service.
The below figure shows a centralized meter data-management system using SCADA. It is
an easy and cost-effective solution for automating the energy meter data for billing
purpose.
In this, smart meters with a communication unit extract the energy consumption
information and made it available to a central control room as well as local data storage
unit. At the central control room, AMR control unit automatically retrieves, stores and
converts all meter data. Modems or communication devices at each meter
provide secure two- way communication between central control and monitoring
room and remote sites.
304
Advantages of Implementing SCADA systems for Electrical Distribution

 Due to timely recognition of faults, equipment damage can be avoided
 Continuous monitoring and control of distribution network is performed from
remote locations
 Saves labor cost by eliminating manual operation of distribution equipment
 Reduce the outage time by a system-wide monitoring and generating alarms so
as to address problems quickly
 Improves the continuity of service by restoring service after the occurrence of
faults (temporary)
 Automatically improves the voltage profile by power factor correction and VAR
control
 Facilitates the view of historian data in various ways
 Reduces the labor cost by reducing the staff required for meter reading

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1

Surface Switch or Tumbler Switch

Pull Switch or Ceiling Switches

Push Button Switches

Iron-clad Water-tight Switches

Types of Lamp Holders

• Switched Bayonet cap lamp holder

• Goliath Edison Screw Lamp holders

• Fluorescent Lamp holder and starter

Single Line Diagram

Single Line Diagram

Under normal load conditions, the e.m.f. of the

Types of Protective Relays

According to construction and principle of

Desirable Characteristics of Fuse Element

Fuse Element Materials

(i) Current rating of fuse element: It is the current

The fusing current depends upon the various factors

(iii) Fusing factor. It is the ratio of minimum fusing

Its value is always more than one. The smaller the

(vi) Arcing time. This is the time between the end of

(viii) Prospective Current.

(i) Low voltage fuses

Miniature Circuit Breaker

MCB is a device that provides definite protection to the

The parts of the miniature circuit breaker are:

During the short circuit conditions, the large fault

Type B MCB: This type of MCB will trip instantly at a

A moulded case circuit breaker (MCCB) is a type of

An Earth-leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) is a safety

2-pole ELCB 4-pole ELCB

If any current leaks from any electrical installation,

Current ELCB or Residual Current Circuit Breaker

Consider a condition where earth leakage current exists

A Motor Protection Circuit Breaker is a simple

a) Protection against electrical faults such as short

The main parts of a MPCB:

a) Thermal over current release b) Electromagnetic over current release

• Thermal protection is used to guard the electric

It is essentially a knife switch and is designed to open a

There are different types of isolators available depending

Opening Operation of Electrical Isolator

A contactor is an electrical device which is used for

The following three are crucial components of the

3. Contacts: This is yet another important component

Operating Principle of a Contactor:

An electric shock occurs when a person comes into

Factors determining the severity of electric shock

What happens when you get an electric shock

Causes of Electrical Accidents

Prevention to be taken to prevent electric shock

• Never try repairing energized equipment. Check all

• Working outside with underground cabling can be

Factors Affecting the Tariffs

Desirable Characteristics of a Tariff

Flat Rate Tariff

Block Rate Tariff

Block Rate Tariff

Two Part Tariff

Maximum Demand Tariff