DEVELOPMENTAL Late Adulthood – ages 65 and over

PSYCHOLOGY Cephalocaudal- head to toe or tail

Proximodistal- proximity- distance

FOUNDATIONS OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT GOALS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Foundations of Human Development 1. Describe

2. Explain
DOMAINS: 3. Predict
4. Intervene
1. PHYSICAL –growth of body and brain,
including patterns of change in sensory
capacities, motor skills, and health.
7 KEY PRINCIPLES OF A LIFE-SPAN
2. COGNITIVE – pattern of change in mental DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACH
abilities, such as learning, attention, memory,
language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity. 1. Development is life-long

3. PSYCHOSOCIAL – pattern of change in 2.Development is multidimensional

emotions, personality, and social relationships. 3. Development is multidirectional

4. Relative influences of biology and culture

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT – Scientific study of shift over the life-span
processes of change and stability throughout 5. Development shows plasticity
the human life span.
6. Development is influenced by the historical
LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT – Concept of human and cultural context
development as a life-long process, which can
be studied scientifically. 7. Development involves changing resource
allocation neuroplasticity
 Prenatal stage – conception to birth
INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT
 Infancy and Toddlerhood – birth age to 3
A. HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND
 Early Childhood – ages 3 to 6 MATURATION
- mataas ang ego-centrism- self centered
 HEREDITY – traits that are inherited from
- Theory of Mind – nagegets mo na may isip din biological parents.
ang ibang tao
 ENVIRONMENT – physical and social
 Middle Childhood – ages 6 to 11 influence.

 Adolescence – ages 11 to about 20  MATURATION – sequences of physical and

behavioral patterns.
 Young Adulthood – ages 20 to 40
B. CONTEXT OF DEVELOPMENT: FAMILY,
Middle Adulthood – ages 40 to 65 CULTURE/RACE, SES, HISTORICAL CONTEXT
 FAMILY – a group consisting of parents and  SENSETIVE PERIOD– development timing
children living together in a household. when child is particularly responsive to certain
experiences.
- NUCLEAR FAMILY – is a household unit
consisting of one or two parents and their  PLASTICITY OF DEVELOPMENT- modifiability
children, whether biological, adopted, or of performance - plasticity last through life-
stepchildren. span, but has limits.

- EXTENDED FAMILY - a multigenerational

kinship - includes grandparents, cousins,
aunts/uncles, and more THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND
DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES
 CULTURE - that complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, arts, morals, laws, customs,
and any other capabilities, and habits acquired THEORY
by mas as a new member of society. - a way of
life - a set of logically related concepts that seek to
describe and explain behavior and to predict
 SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS (SES)- includes what kinds of behavior might occur under
income, education, and assumption. specific conditions.
 HISTORICAL CONTEXT- unique time in which HYPOTHESES – tentative explanations that can
people live and grow up. be tested by further research.

C. NORMATIVE AND NONNORMATIVE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

INFLUENCES
1. PASSIVE (MECHANISTIC MODEL)
 AGE-GRADED NORMATIVE INFLUENCES –
similar for an age group - Locke: Tabula Rasa (children are blank slates
on which society writes)
 NORMATIVE HISTORY-GRADED INFLUENCES
–– events that shape attitudes of a historical - people are machines reacting to environment
generation. 2. ACTIVE (ORGANISMIC MODEL)
 NON-NORMATIVE INFLUENCES – unusual - Rousseau: “noble savages”
events affecting individual lives.
- children set their own development in motion

- people initiate events, don’t just react

TIMING OF INFLUENCES
3. CONTINOUS (MECHANISTIC THEORY)
 IMPRINTING- instinctively following first
moving object seen after birth; usually mother - focus on quantitative change

 CRITICAL PERIOD– specific time when an - same processes are involved

event (or its absence) has specific impact on - Ex. Ramp
development.
 FREUD’S STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL
4. DISCONTINOUS (ORGANISMIC THEORY)
DEVELOPMENT

- focus on qualitative change STAGE AGE UNCONSCIOUS

CONFLICT
- different processes involved Oral Birth to 15 Sucking and
months feeding
- Ex. Stairs Anal 12-18 Potty training
months to 3
years
FIVE MAJOR THEORETICAL Phallic 3 to 6 years Attachment to
PERSPECTIVES parents
Latency 6 years to Socialization
 PSYCHOANALYTIC Puberty
 LEARNING Genital Puberty to Mature adult
 COGNITIVE Adult sexuality
 CONTEXTUAL ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY
 EVOLUTIONARY/SOCIOBIOLOGICAL
BASIC STAGE CASUAL ACTIVE/
PROPOSITIO ORIENTE EMPHASIS REACTIVE
NS D INDIVIDUAL
 PSYCHOANALYTIC
Personality is Interactio Active
3 COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY influenced n of
by society innate
 Id – pleasure principle and develops and
through a experienti
 Ego – reality principle
series of al factors
 Superego – moral principle crises.
Psychosocial Development
FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY
APPROXIMAT PSYCHOSOCIAL VIRTUE
BASIC STAGE- CASUAL ACTIVE\ E AGE CRISIS/TASK DEVELOPED
PROPOSITIO ORIENTE EMPHASIS REACTIVE Infant – 18 Trust vs Mistrust Hope
NS D INDIVIDUA months
L 18 months - 3 Autonomy vs Will
Behavior is Yes Innate Reactive years Shame/Doubt
controlled factors 3 - 5 years Initiative vs Guilt Purpose
by powerful modified 5 - 13 years Industry vs Competency
unconscious by Inferiority
urges experience 13 – 21 years Identity vs Fidelity
Confusion
21 – 39 years Intimacy vs Love
Isolation
40 – 65 years Generativity vs Care
Stagnation
65 and older Integrity vs wisdom
Despair
 - Stimulus that has no effect on the desired
response.

 CONDITIONED STIMULUS (CS) Bell

LEARNING
- Stimulus that becomes able to produce a
LEARNING – any relatively permanent change in
learned reflex response by being paired with
behavior brought about by experience or
the original UCS.
practice.
- CONDITIONED RESPONSE (CR) Salivation
BEHAVIORISM, OR TRADITIONAL LEARNING
THEORY (PAVLOV, SKINNER, WATSON) - Learned reflex response to a conditioned
stimulus.
BASIC STAGE- CASUAL ACTIVE/
PROPOSITIONS ORIENTED EMPHASIS REACTIVE OTHER CONCEPTS:
INDIVIDUAL
People are No Experience Reactive  STIMULUS GENERALIZATION
respondents; - The tendency for a stimulus similar to the
the original continued stimulus to elicit a response
environment
similar to the conditioned response.
controls
behavior  STIMULUS DISSCRIMINATION

- It involves the ability to distinguish between

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING one stimulus and similar stimuli.
- this learning process creates a conditioned  EXTINCTION
response through associations between an
unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus. - The disappearance of a learned response
when the CS is no longer followed by the US.

 SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
IVAN PAVLOV
- The temporary occurrence of the conditioned
- Russian Physiologist (1894 – 1936) response to the presence of the CS.
- Built a device that accurately measures the
amount of saliva produced by dogs when he
was studying their digestive system. BF SKINNER – American Behaviourist
(1904-1990)
 UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS (UCS) Food
- Made his own version of the box called
- A naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an
SKINNER BOX.
involuntary response.
- This early research involved placing a rat into
 UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE (UCR) Salivation one of its chambers and training it to push
- An involuntary response to a naturally down on a bar to get food.
occurring or unconditioned stimulus.

 NEUTRAL STIMULUS (NS) Bell

OPERANT CONDITIONING B.F. Skinner formulated original ideas by
working with animals, then applied them to
- learning based on reinforcement or humans.
punishment

- specific consequences are associated with

voluntary behavior ALBERT BANDURA – Canadian Social
cognitivist ( 1925 TO PRESENT )
OPERANT: How humans and animals operate in
the world. SOCIAL LEARNING (SOCIAL COGNITIVE
REINFORCEMENT THEORY - BANDURA )

- Any event or stimulus that when following a BASIC STAGE- CASUAL ACTIVE/
PROPOSITI ORIEN EMPHA REACTIVE
response
ONS TED SIS INDIVIDUAL
PUNISHMENT Children Experie Active and
learn in a nce Reactive
- An event or object that when following a social modifie
response, makes that response less likely to context by d by
happen again observing innate
POSITIVE NEGATIVE and factors
Reinforcement - giving a - removing imitating
reward something models;
aversive they are
Punishment adding removing active
something something learners
aversive pleasant

- development is “bidirectional
SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT
 REDCIPROCAL DETERMINISM
- Refers to a program that determines HOW and
- person acts on world as the world acts on the
WHEN the occurrence of a response will be
followed by a reinforcer. person.

 Continuous Reinforcement OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING/MODELLING

- Every occurrence of the operant results in
delivery of the reinforcer – children choose models to imitate.
 Partial Reinforcement 4 Elements of Observational Learning
- A situation in which responding is reinforced
only some of the time  Attention
 COGNITIVE LEARNING - the learner must first pay attention to the model
- Thoughts, feelings and expectations seemed to
influence observable behavior  Memory
 OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING - the learner must be able to retain the memory
- Learning new behavior by watching a model of what was done
perform that behavior  Imitation
- the learner must be capable of reproducing, or are active
imitating, the actions of the model initiators of
 Motivation developme
- the learner must have the desire to perform the nt.
action
 COGNITIVE THEORY  SCHEME - (Schema for singular,
COGNITION - Mental processes by Schemata for plural)
which knowledge is acquired, - An organized pattern of thought or
elaborated, stored, retrieved, and action that one constructs to interpret
used to solve problems. some aspect of one’s experience.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT - Refers - Also called cognitive structure
to the changes that occur in  ORGANIZATION
children’s mental skills and - the tendency to create increasing complex
abilities over time. cognitive structures (schemes).

ADAPTATION

PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE – how children handle new information in light

DEVELOPMENT (1896-1980) of what they already know.

- proposed that intelligence is “a form of Piagetian Cognitive Growth: Adaptation

equilibrium toward which all cognitive Two processes:
structures tend”
 ASSIMILATION
- Bandura’s newest version of Social Learning
Theory in which the emphasis on cognitive
response to perceptions is increased. \ They are
Child sees porpoises
interpreted within
swimming in lage ASSSIMILATION
the general
tank of water
concept “fish”

- The process of interpreting new experiences

BASIC STAGE - CASUAL ACTIVE/ by incorporating them into existing schemes.
PROPOSITIO ORIENT EMPHASI REACTIVE
N ED S INDIVIDUAL
 ACCOMODATION
Qualitative Yes Interactio Active
changes in n of
Child sees New concept;
thought innate porpoises Animals that live in
occur with and ACCOMMODATION
breathing; pets water but breathe air
developme experien one and like people
nt. tial
Children factors
- The process of modifying existing schemes in STAGE 1 – TRACKS, THEN IGNORES
order to incorporate or adapt to new
experiences.

COGNITIVE STAGES

 Sensorimotor – ( Birth to 2 years)

~ Infant gradually becomes able to organize

activities in relation to the environment through
sensory and motor activity.

 Preoperational – (2 to 7 years) STAGE 2 – LOOKS WHERE IT DISAPPEARED

- Development of representational system and

symbols to represent people, places, and
events. Language and imaginative play are
important manifestation of this stage. Thinking
is still not logical.

 Concrete Operations – ( 7 to 11 years )

- Child can solve problems logically but cannot

STAGE 3 – SEARCH FOR PARTIALLY HIDDEN
think abstractly.

 Formal Operation – (11 years to Adulthood)

STAGE 4 – SEARCH FOR OBJECTS THAT

DISAPPEAR IN LAST PLACE FOUND


 OBJECT PERMANENCE

- Knowledge that an object continues to exist

independent of our seeing, hearing, touching,

tasting or smelling it!
STAGE 5 -FOLLOWS SERIES OF VISIBLE lahat ng bagay), decentration (not focused in
DISPLACEMENT just one thing)

Formal – operational 12 + years old

LEV VYGOTSKY SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY

~ social interaction and their culture

BASIC STAGE - CASUAL ACTIVE/REACTIVE

PROPOSITION ORIENTED EMPHASIS INDIVIDUAL
Social Yes(for Experience
interaction is concept
central to formation)
STAGE 6 – FULLY DEVELOPED cognative
development

THE THEORY
- Cognitive Growth is a Collaborative Process

- People learn through social interaction

- Social interaction precedes development

 EQUILIBRATION INTERACTION

- the constant striving for a stable balance in the - A child will learn from more knowledgable
shift from assimilation to accommodation. other

balance of scheme and the environment LANGUAGE

ASSIMILATION - Vehicle through which the more knowledgable

other pass mode of thinking and problem -
solving
EQUILIBRATION DISEQUILIBRATION
- instruction

ACCOMODATION

Sensory motor Object Permanence

SCAFFOLDING
Pre – operational No conservation/ego
- boosting their confidence
centrism (false belief)
- Temporary support to help a child master a
theory of mind
task
theory theory
- supportive assistance with a task adult give a
Concrete - operational Sensation child
(arranging objects), reversability (di fixed ang
 factors

ZONE OF PROXIMITAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD)

KOHLBERG’S THEORY – (OCT 25, 1927)
 The gap between what they are already able
to do by themselves and what they can MORAL THEORY
accomplish with assistance
-a set of principles that help the individual to
 Where sensitive instruction where new distinguish right from wrong, to act distinction,
cognitive growth can be expected to occur aznd to feel pride in victius conduct and guilt
( or other unpleasant emotions )for conduct
CULTURE IN COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
that violates one’s standards
- Tools of intellectual adaptation
Leve Stage 1 Children obey because
- How to think and what to think l1 Heteronomous adults tell them to
Morality obey. People base
OTHER POINTS: their moral decisions
ROGOFF’S IDEA on fear of punishment.
Stage 2 Individuals pursue
 Guided Participation – actively participating in Individualism, their own interests but
culturally relevant activities alongside more Purpose, and, let others do the same.
skilled partners who provide necessary aid and Language What is right involves
encouragement equal exchange.
Leve Stage 3 Mutual Individuals value trust,
1. Out of context – verbal l2 Interpersonal caring, and loyalty to
Expectations, others as a basis for
2. In context – nonverbal
Relationship moral judgments.
ELEMENTARY MENTAL FUNCTION and
Interpersonal
 Attention Conformity
Stage 4 Social Moral judgments are
 Sensation System based on
 Perception Morality understanding and the
social order, law,
 Memory justice, and duty.
Leve Stage 5 Social Individuals reason that
TOOLS OF INTELLECTUAL ADAPTATION l3 Contract or values, rights, and
 Guided Participation Utility and principles undergird or
Individual transcend the law.
 Observational skill. Rights
Stage 6 The person has
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY Universal developed moral
BASIC STAGE - CASUAL ACTIVE/ Ethical judgments that are
PROPOSITION ORIENT EMPHASIS REACTIVE Principles based on universal
ED INDIVIDUAL human rights.
Human beings No Interaction of Active
are proccessors innate and
of symbols experiential
 “ CONTEXTUAL ”  Dimension of Time – changing personal and
socio- historical conditions over the life course.
BASIC STAGE- CASUAL ACTIVE/
PROPOSITION ORIENTED EMPHASIS REACTIVE  Reciprocal – may interaction between your
INDIVIDUAL relationship with other
Development No Interaction Active
occurs through of innate  Bidirectional – may influences yung
interaction and community and yung bata may influence din sa
between a experiential community.
developing factors
person and five
surrounding, EVOLUTIONARY/SOCIOBIOLOGICAL THEORY
interlocking
context system of - View of human development that focuses on
influences. evolutionary and biological bases of behavior.

ETHOLOGY
Contextual Approach
- Study of distinctive adaptive behaviors of
 Development can be understand only in its species of animals that have evolved to increase
social contexts. survival of the species.
 Urie Bronfenbrenner EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY
 Describes range of interacting influences that - Application of Darwinian principles of natural
affect development. selection and survival of the fittest to individual
behavior.
 Identifies contexts that stifle or promote
growth. (Ex. Home, classroom, neighbourhood)

 Cognitive adaptations

BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY - can be thought of as similar to apps on an

iphone ---- useful for specific, constrained
1. Microsystem – the developing person, age, functions.
health, abilities, temperament.
Just like in your phone, there’s a MIND APP
2. Mesosystem – interaction of any two for almost all important human functions.
microsystem.

3. Exosystem – religious hierarchy

BASIC STAGE- CASUAL ACTIVE/
4. Macrosystem – dominant beliefs andPROPOSITION ORIENTE EMPHASIS REACTIVE
ideologies S D INDIVIDUAL
5. Chronosystem – patterning of Human beings No Interaction Active and
are the of innate reactive
environmental events and transitions over
product of and (theorists vary)
the life course; impact of socio-historical
adaptive experientia
conditions and life events.
processes, l factors
which interact
with the caregivers and tended to use these
current ‘monotropic’ attachment figures as a base
environment to explore their surroundings.
to shape
behavior. 3. INSECURE ATTACHMENT TYPE A

- Children who fall under the avoidant style

tend not to look to their caregiver when
exploring their environment. They also
JOHN BOWLBY’S ATTACHMENT don’t reach out to the attachment figure in
THEORY times of distress.

“Attachment is a deep and enduring 4. INSECURE ATTACHMENT TYPE C

emotional bond that connects one person - Children who fall under the avoidant style
tend not to look to their caregiver when
to another person across time and space.” exploring their environment. They also
(Ainsworth, 1973: Bowlby, 1969) don’t reach out to the attachment figure in
times of distress.

 ATTACHMENT
FOUR TYPES OF ATTACHMENT STYLES:
- a reciprocal, enduring emotional tie between
 SECURE ATTACHMENT
an infant and a caregiver, each of whom
contributes to the quality of the relationship. - The secure attachment style signifies a warm
and loving bond between parent and child. The
 THE STRANGE SITUATION
child feels loved and cared for and develops the
- a classic, laboratory-based technique designed ability to form healthy relationships with those
to assess attachment patterns between an around them.
infant and an adult. Typically, the adult is the
- Children with secure attachment styles are
mother (though other adults have taken part as
active and demonstrate confidence in their
well), and the infant is 10 to 24 months old.
interactions with others.

- Those who develop secure attachment styles

in childhood are likely to carry this healthy way
of bonding into adulthood and have no problem
3 MAIN PATTERNS OF ATTACHMENT:
building long-term relationships without fear of
1. SECURE ATTACHMENT abandonment.

- (the most common category, into which  ANXIOUS-AMBIVALENT ATTACHMENT

about 60 to 75 percent of low-risk North
- Anxious-ambivalent children tend to distrust
American babies fall)
caregivers, and this insecurity often means that
2. SECURE ATTACHMENT TYPE B their environment is explored with trepidation
rather than excitement.
- Children belonging to this style found it
easy to demonstrate confidence towards
- They constantly seek approval from their and their preference for self-sufficiency or
caregivers and continuously observe their interpersonal distance.
surroundings for fear of being abandoned.
- Attachment styles comprise cognitions relating
- Tend to carry what they have learned into to both the self (‘Am I worthy of love’) and
adulthood, and very often feel unloved by their others (‘Can I depend on others during times of
partners whilst finding it difficult to express love stress’).
and connection themselves.

- People who developed attachments under this

 SECURE - tend to hold positive self-image and
style are usually emotionally dependent in
positive image of others, meaning that they had
adulthood.
both a sense of worthiness and an expectation
 AVOIDANT ATTACHMENT that other people were generally accepting and
responsive.
- People who developed attachments under this
style are usually emotionally dependent in  DISSMISSIVE - Dismissive-avoidant adults
adulthood. deny experiencing distress associated with
relationships and downplay the importance of
- They often struggle with expressing their
attachment in general, viewing other people as
feelings and find it hard understanding
untrustworthy.
emotions – in adulthood; they tend to avoid
intimate relationships.  PREOCCUPIED - hold a negative self-image
and a positive image of others, meaning that
 DISORGANISED ATTACHMENT
they have a sense of unworthiness but generally
- Disorganized attachment is a combination of evaluated others positively.
avoidant and anxious attachment, and children
 FEARFUL - hold a negative model of self and
that fit into this group often display intense
also a negative model of others, fearing both
anger and rage. They may break toys and
intimacy and autonomy. They display
behave in other volatile ways – they also have
attachment behaviours typical of avoidant
difficult relationships with caregivers.
children becoming socially withdrawn and
- Children developed under the ‘disorganized’ untrusting of other.
attachment style, tend to avoid intimate
relationships as adults and can very easily
explode and have a difficult time controlling
their emotions.

BARTHOLOMEW’S ADULT ATTACHMENT

STYLES
ADULT ATTACHMENT STYLES

- Adult attachment styles describe people's

comfort and confidence in close relationships,
their fear of rejection and yearning for intimacy,
 the participants and approval from independent
advisors.
METHODS OF STUDY IN DEVELOPMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY  SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES

- When we conduct research with detained

persons, we pay attention to special
PAP Code of Ethics Section X–Research circumstances which could affect the latter’s
ability to give informed consent.

 WILLINGNESS OF THE PARTICIPANTS

- We do not just ask participants to sign in the  WE SHALL PROVIDE AN OPPORTUNITY

consent form; we recognize that informed FOR PROSPECTIVE PARTICIPANTS TO
consent happens due to the willingness of the ASK QUESTIONS AND RECEIVE
participants to work collaboratively with us. ANSWERS.

 TRANSLATED IN LANGUAGE OR RESEARCH DESIGNS

DIALECT

- We make sure that the consent form is CORRELATIONAL

translated in language or dialect that the
participants understand. We will take - Positive or negative relationship
reasonable measures to guarantee that the PROS: Enables prediction
information was understood.
CONS: Cannot establish cause and effect

CROSS – SECTIONAL
 INFORMED ASSENT FROM THEM AND
INFORMED CONSENT FROM THEIR - People assessed at one point in time.
PARENTS OR LEGAL GUARDIAN

- When we conduct research with persons

LONGITUDINAL
below 18 years of age, we obtain informed
assent from them and informed consent from Same people studies more than once.
their parents or legal guardian.

 ADULT PARTICIPANTS WHO HAVE

FORMATION OF LIFE (PRENATAL STAGE)
DIFFICULTIES IN COMPREHENSION OR
COMMUNICATION

- When we conduct research with adult THE FIRST THREE YEARS OF LIFE
participants who have difficulties in
 CONCEIVING NEW LIFE
comprehension or communication, we obtain
informed consent from adult family members of Fertilization
- union of sperm and ovum to produce a single-

celled zygote

- also called conception

Two Types of Multiple Births

1. Monozygotic (MZ)

- one egg and one sperm

- identical twins

- share 100% of genes Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

- shared placenta - is the genetic material in all living cells
- separate amniotic sacs - chemicals that carries inherited
2. Dizygotic (DZ) - consists of four chemical units called bases
- two eggs and two sperm ~ Bases – are the letters of the DNA alphabet.
- more common A - Adenine
- fraternal twins T - Thymine
- share 50% of genes – just like non-twin siblings C - Cytosine
- separate placenta G – Guanine
- separate amniotic sacs

- Adenine pairs with Thymine

- Cytosine pairs with Guanine

**There are 3 billion base pairs in human

DNA.**

MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY

HEREDITY – The genetic transmission of

heritable characteristics from parents to
offspring.
Chromosomes – threadlike structures in the  Sex Chromosomes
nuclei of cell containing genetic material.  Meiosis
 Mitosis
Genes – segments of DNA located in definite

positions on particular chromosomes.

THE HUMAN GENOME

 The human genome is a reference point

that shows the location of all human
genes, not a recipe for making a
particular human
 Environmental factors can turn genes
on and off at different points of
development

Most cells in human body are created by the

process of?

 MITOSIS
KEY WORDS:

 DNA
 Genetic Code  As cells divide, they differentiate,
 Chromosomes specializing in a variety of complex
 Genes bodily functions that enable the child to
 Human Genome grow and develop.
 Mutations  Genes spring into action when
 Autosomes conditions call for the information they
can provide.
  MALES BECAUSE THEY HAVE ONLY ONE
SEX DETERMINATION
X CHROMOSOME
Determination of Sex

Autosomes – 22 pairs not related to sexual

expression.
PATTERNS OF GENETIC TRANSMISSION
Sex Chromosomes – 1 pair determining sex

 XX – female
 XY – male Dominant and Recessive Inheritance

- THE IRONY OF THESE CUSTOMS IS THAT IT IS Dominant – heterozygosity, with a dominant

THE FATHER’S SPERM THAT GENETICALLY allele.
DETERMINES A CHILD’S SEX
Recessive – homozygosity, with no dominant
allele.

Gene Expression

1. Genotype

- actual genetic make-up or allele combinations

- Ex. tongue curling ability, DD or Dd

2. Phenotype

Trait Inheritance

Alleles

 Homozygous – identical copies of gene

 Heterozygous – non-identical copies of
gene

 Father has an X chromosome and a Y

Epigenesis
chromosome. Mother has two X
chromosomes. Male baby receives an X - epigenetic framework or chemical molecules
chromosome from the mother and a Y that
chromosome from the father. Female
alter the way a cell “reads” the gene’s DNA
baby receives X chromosomes from
both mother and father. - epigenetic markers may contribute to cancer,

diabetes, or heart disease

 Who is at greater risk for sex-linked - epigenetic markers may change due to
disorders due to recessive gene? environmental factors

- imprinting
Inherited Defects

- Dominant abnormal gene

- Recessive abnormal gene

- Incomplete: Partial Dominance

- Trait is not fully expressed

- Sickle-cell anaemia – only some parts of the

disease are expressed.

Sex-Linked Defects

- disorders linked to genes on sex chromosomes

- Red/green color blindness, haemophilia

- affects males and females differently

- Carrier – individual unaffected by disorder but

passes on gene to offspring.

Chromosomal Abnormalities

- errors in cell division

- result in missing or extra chromosomes

- can occur in sex chromosomes or autosomes

Down Syndrome

Trisomy 21

- extra 21st chromosome

- most common autosomal disorder

- responsible for 40%

Genetic Counseling

1. Helps prospective parents assess risks of

bearing a

child with a genetic defect.

2. Karyotype chart shows chromosomal

abnormalities.
 vitamins and waste products to be exchanged
between mother and embryo.

Growth Principle

1. Cephalocaudal Principle – structures nearest

the head develop first.

2. Proximodistal Principle – structures nearest

the center of the body develop first.

Fetal Stage Characteristics

1. The final and longest phase of prenatal

development

2. Organs and body become more complex.

3. “Finishing touches” – toenails, eyelids

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT 4. Appearance of bone (cartilage begins to turn
Stages of Prenatal Development to bone)

5. Beginning of the period: less than an ounce.

 Germinal – conception to 2 weeks 6. Last 5 months of pregnancy: additional 7 or 8
 Embryonic – 3 to 8 weeks pounds before birth.
 Fetal – 9 weeks to birth
Gestation – period from germinal to
fetal (38 weeks)

Embryonic Stage Characteristics

1. Body structures, internal organs
2. Three layers of the embryo develop:
 Ectoderm – hair, outer layer of the skin and
the nervous system
 Mesoderm – muscles, bones, and circulatory
system
 Endoderm – lungs and digestive system
3. The amniotic sac fills with fluid and the
umbilical cord connects embryo to the placenta.

4. Umbilical cord’s blood vessels join placenta to

the embryo.
5. Risk of spontaneous abortion or miscarriage.
Amniotic Fluid – cushions the embryo and
maintains a constant temperature.
Blood Vessels – allows nutrients, oxygen,