Chapter 3: Design Considerations

CHAPTER 3

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
 Steel Bridges

CHAPTER 3

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

3.1 DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES

The aim of design is that the bridge should sustain all loads and
deformations liable to occur during its construction and use. A bridge design
should satisfactorily accomplish the objectives of constructability, safety, and
serviceability. Simply stated, a bridge design should permit safe structural
erection as planned and be able to safely perform its intended function during
its design life.

The basis for structural design philosophies is the known stress-strain

relationship of the material. It is usually assumed that the material is (a)
homogeneous, i.e., has the same physical properties at all points, (b) obeys
Hook's low, i.e., the material is linearly elastic, and (c) isotropic, i.e., has the
same elastic properties in all directions.

Two philosophies of design are in current use. The working stress design
philosophy has been the principal one used during the past 100 years.
According to this philosophy, a structural element is designed so that stresses
computed under the action of working, or service, loads do not exceed
predesignated allowable values. These allowable stresses are predescribed by a
building code or specification to provide a factor of safety against attainment
of some limiting stresses, such as the minimum specified yield stress or the
stress at which buckling occurs. The computed stresses are well within the
elastic range; i.e., stresses are proportional to strains.

The other design philosophy is generally referred to as limit states design.

This relatively recent term includes the methods commonly referred to as
"ultimate strength design", "strength design", "plastic design", "load factor
design", "limit design", and more recently, "load and resistance factor design
(LRFD)". Limit states is a general term meaning "those conditions of a
 Chapter 3: Design Considerations

structure in which the structure ceases to fulfill the function for which it was
designed". Those states can be divided into the categories of strength and
serviceability. Strength (i.e., safety) limit states are plastic strength, buckling,
fatigue, fracture, overturning and sliding. Serviceability limit states are those
concerned with the use of the structure, such as deflection, vibration,
permanent deformation and cracking. In limit states design, the strength limit
states are dealt with by applying factors to the loadings, focusing attention on
the failure modes (limit states) by making comparisons for safety at the limit
state condition, rather than in the service load range as is done for working
stress design.

The design philosophy followed throughout this book is based on the latest
edition (2001) of the Egyptian Code of Practice for Steel Constructions and
Bridges (ECP). This code follows the allowable stress design method in which
the bridge elements (members and connections) are proportioned on the basis
of design loads and allowable stresses for the materials under service
conditions. Values of the basic allowable stresses for different cases are given
in Egyptian Building Code for the Design of Steel Structures and Bridges (ECP
2001) chapter 2 for members, chapter 3 for fatigue, and chapters 5, 6 for
welded and bolted connections. The main sections of the code are summarized
in this Chapter.

3.2 ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL

3.2.1 GENERAL APPLICATION

The following prescriptions, together with any other provisions stipulated in

the special specifications, are intended to apply to the design and construction
of steel bridges and buildings.

The structural safety shall be established by computing the stresses produced

in all parts and ascertaining that they do not exceed the allowable (working)
stresses specified herein, when these parts are subjected to the most
unfavourable conditions or combinations of the loads and forces according to
the current Egyptian Code of Practice for Loads and Forces for Structural
Elements. In applying the said prescriptions, approved scientific methods of
design shall be used. Deflections shall be computed and they shall in no case
exceed the limits herein after specified.

3.2.2 PRIMARY AND ADDITIONAL STRESSES

3.2.2.1 For the purpose of computing the maximum stress in a structure, the
straining actions shall be calculated for two cases:
 Steel Bridges

Case I: Primary Stresses due to:

Dead Loads + Live Loads or Superimposed Loads + Dynamic Effects +
Centrifugal Forces.

Case II: Primary and Additional Stresses due to:

Case I + [(Wind Loads or Earthquake Loads), Braking Forces, Lateral Shock
Effect, Change of Temperature, Frictional Resistance of Bearings, Settlement
of Supports in addition to the Effect of Shrinkage and Creep of Concrete]

3.2.2.2 Stresses due to Wind Loads shall be considered as primary for such
structures as towers, transmission poles, wind bracing systems, etc...

3.2.2.3 In designing a structure, members shall, in the first instance, be so

designed that in no case the stresses due to case I exceed the allowable stresses
specified in the present code.

The design should then be checked for case II (primary + additional

stresses), and the stresses shall in no case exceed the aforesaid allowable
stresses by more than 20 %.

3.2.3 SECONDARY STRESSES

Structures should be so designed, fabricated and erected as to minimize, as

far as possible, secondary stresses and eccentricities.

Secondary stresses are usually defined as bending stresses upon which the
stability of the structure does not depend and which are induced by rigidity in
the connections of the structure already calculated on the assumption of
frictionless or pin-jointed connections.

In ordinary welded, bolted or riveted trusses without sub-panelling, no

account usually needs to be taken of secondary stresses in any member whose
depth (measured in the plane of the truss) is less than 1/10 of its length for
upper and lower chord members, and 1/15 for web members. Where this ratio
is exceeded or where sub-panelling is used, secondary stresses due to truss
distortion shall be computed, or a decrease of 15% in the allowable stresses
prescribed in this code shall be considered.

Bending stresses in the verticals of trusses due to eccentric connections of

cross-girders shall be considered as secondary.
 Chapter 3: Design Considerations

The induced stresses in the floor members and in the wind bracing of a
structure resulting from changes of length due to the stresses in the adjacent
chords shall be taken into consideration and shall be considered as secondary.

Stresses which are the result of eccentricity of connections and which are
caused by direct loading shall be considered as primary stresses.
For bracing members in bridges, the maximum allowable stresses shall not
exceed 0.85 of the allowable stresses specified in this code if the bridge has not
been considered as a space structure.
3.2.4 STRESSES DUE TO REPEATED LOADS
Members and connections subject to repeated stresses (whether axial,
bending or shearing) during the passage of the moving load shall be
proportioned according to Chapter 3 of ECP 2001 which is summarized in
section 3.3 of this Chapter.
3.2.5 ERECTION STRESSES
Where erection stresses, including those produced by the weight of cranes,
together with the wind pressure, would produce a stress in any part of structure
in excess of 25 % above the allowable stresses specified in this code, such
additional material shall be added to the section or other provision made, as is
necessary, to bring the erection stresses within that limit.
3.2.6 ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL

3.2.6.1 General
Allowable stresses for structural steel shall be determined according to the
grade of steel used. Structural sections shall be classified (depending on the
maximum width-thickness ratios of their elements subject to compression) as
follows:
1- Class 1. (compact sections):
Are those which can achieve the plastic moment capacity without local
buckling of any of its compression elements.
2- Class 2. (non- compact sections):
Are those which can achieve the yield moment capacity without local
buckling of any of its compression elements.

The limiting width to thickness ratios of class 1 and 2 compression elements

are given in Table 3.1.
Steel Bridges

Table (3.1a) Maximum Width to Thickness Ratios for Stiffened

Compression Elements

d d d d d h
tw tw tw tw tw
d=h-3t , (t=t f=t w )

13
 Chapter 3: Design Considerations

Table (3.1b) Maximum Width to Thickness Ratios for Stiffened

Compression Elements

2
Fy in t/cm
Steel Bridges

Table (3.1c) Maximum Width to Thickness Ratios for

Unstiffened Compression Elements

Stress distribution
in element

Stress distribution
in element

y
 Chapter 3: Design Considerations

Table (3.1d) Maximum Width to Thickness Ratios for Compression

Elements

Refer also to
(Table 2.1c)
"Outstand flanges"

1. Compact

2. Non-Compact
 Steel Bridges

3- Class 3. (slender sections):

Are those which cannot achieve yield moment capacity without local
buckling of any of its compression elements.

When any of the compression elements of a cross-section is classified as

class-3, the whole cross section shall be designed as class-3 cross section.

3.2.6.2 Allowable Stress in Axial Tension F t R

On effective net area:

F t = 0.58 F y …………………………
R R R R 3.1

Grade of Steel F t (t/cm2)

R R P P

t U 40 40 mm < t U100 mm
St 37 1.4 1.3
St 44 1.6 1.5
St 52 2.1 2.0

3.2.6.3 Allowable Stress in Shear q all R

3.2.6.3.1 The allowable shear stress on the gross effective area in resisting
shear is:
q all = 0.35 3.2
R R

F y ………. R R

Grade of q all (t/cm2)

R R P P

Steel
t U 40 mm 40 mm < t U100
St 37 0.84 0.75
St 44 0.98 0.89
St 52 1.26 1.17

The effective area in resisting shear of rolled shapes shall be taken as the full
height of the section times the web thickness while for fabricated shapes it
shall be taken as the web height times the web thickness.

In addition, the shear buckling resistance shall also be checked as specified

in Clause 3.2.6.3.2 when:
 Chapter 3: Design Considerations

-For unstiffened webs:

d 105
! ………………….…… 3.3
tw Fy

- For stiffened webs:

d Kq
! 45 ………………….…… 3.4
tw Fy

Where K q =buckling factor for shear

R R

kq = 4.00 + 5.34 / D2
R R P P D < 1 …… 3.5
kq = 5.34 + 4.00 / D2
R R P P D > 1 …… 3.6

Where D = d 1 / d & d 1 = spacing of transversal stiffeners

R R R R

3.2.6.3.2 Allowable Buckling Stress in Shear q b R

Depending on the web slenderness parameter :

d / tw Fy
Ȝq = ………………………………… 3.7
57 Kq
R R

The buckling shear stress is :

For Ȝ q d 0.8 q b = 0.35 F y ……….…………………

R R R R
R R R R 3.8
0.8 < Ȝ q < 1.2 q b = (1.5 – 0.625 Ȝ q ) ( 0.35 F y ) …….
R R R R R R R R R R 3.9
Ȝ q t 1.2 q = 0.9 (0.35 F ) ………………….
R R
3.10
b y
Ȝq
R R R R
 Steel Bridges

3.2.6.4 Allowable Stress in Axial Compression F c R R

On gross section of axially loaded symmetric (having compact, non-

compact or slender section) compression members in which the shear center
coincides with the center of gravity of the section and meeting all the width-
thickness ratio requirements of Clause 3.2.6.1:

For O = slenderness ratio = k l/ r  100 :

( 0.58Fy  0.75)
Fc 0.58Fy  4
O2 ….. 3.11
10
Grade of F c (t/cm2)
R R P P

Steel
t U 40 mm 40 mm < tU100 mm
St 37 R O2)
F c = (1.4 – 0.000065O
R P P R O2)
F c = (1.3– 0.000055O
R P P
….….3.12
St 44 R O2)
F c = (1.6 – 0.000085O
R P P F c =(1.5– 0.000075O
R O2) R P P
……..3.13
St 52 R O2)
F c = (2.1 – 0.000135O
R P P R O2)
F c = (2.0– 0.000125O
R P P
……3.14

For all grades of steel

O2 ……………………..
For O = kl/r t 100 : F c = 7500/O R R P P 3.15

For compact and non-compact sections, the full area of the section shall be
used, while for slender sections, the effective area shall be used.

In case of sections eccentrically connected to gusset plates (e.g. one angle),

unless a more accurate analysis is used, the allowable compressive stresses
shall be reduced by 40% from Fc in case the additional bending stresses due to
eccentricity are not calculated.

3.2.6.5 Allowable Stress in Bending F b R

2.6.5.1 Tension and compression due to bending on extreme fibers of

“compact” sections symmetric about the plane of their minor axis:

Fb R = R 0.64 F y 3.16R

……….……………………….
R R
 Chapter 3: Design Considerations

Grade of Steel F b (t/cm2)

R R P P

t U 40 mm 40 mm < t U100 mm
St 37 1.54 1.38
St 44 1.76 1.63
St 52 2.30 2.14

In order to qualify under this section:

1- The member must meet the compact section requirements of Table 3.1.

2- The laterally unsupported length (L u ) of the compression flange is limited

R R

by

i- For box sections:

L u  F84y b f
3.17
M
L u d (137  84 M1 ) b f / Fy
2

ii- For other sections

20b
f
Lu d
F
y
2.18
1380A
f
Lu d Cb
d Fy

Where b f is the compression flange width, M 1 /M 2 is the algebraic ratio of

R R R R R R

the smaller to the larger end moments taken as positive for reverse curvature
bending, d is the web depth and C b is given in Equation 3.27.
R R

3.2.6.5.2 Tension and compression due to bending on extreme fibers of doubly

symmetrical I-shape members meeting the compact section requirements of
 Steel Bridges

Table 2.1(c), and bent about their minor axis; solid round and square bars;
solid rectangular sections bent about their minor axis:

F b = 0.72 F y ………………………… 3.19

R R R R

3.2.6.5.3 Tension and compression on extreme fibers of rectangular tubular

sections meeting the compact section requirements of Table 3.1(b), and bent
about their minor axis:

F b = 0.64 F y ……………………….… 3.20

R R R R

3.2.6.5.4 Tension and compression on extreme fibers of box-type flexural

members meeting the “non-compact” section requirements of Table 3.1(b):

Fb =
R 0.58 R Fy R R 3.21
……………………….…….

3.2.6.5.5 On extreme fibers of flexural members not covered by Clauses

3.2.6.5.1 – 3.2.6.5.4 :

1- Tension F bt R

F btR= 0.58
R F y 3.22
R

……………………………...
R

Hence, F bt is taken as follows:

R R

Grade F bt (t/cm2)
R R P P

of
Steel
t U 40 mm 40 mm < t
St 37 1.4 1.3
St 44 1.6 1.5
St 52 2.1 2.0

2- Compression F bc R

I. When the compression flange is braced laterally at intervals exceeding L u R R

as defined by Equations 3.17 or 3.18, the allowable bending stress in

compression F bc will be taken as the larger value from Equations 3.23 and
R R

3.24 or 3.25) with a maximum value of 0.58 F y : R R

 Chapter 3: Design Considerations

i- For shallow thick flanged sections, for any value of L/r T , the lateral R R

torsional buckling stress is governed by the torsional strength given by:

800
Fltb1 C b d 0.58 Fy ………..…….3.23
L u .d / A f

ii- For deep thin flanged sections, the lateral torsional buckling stress is
governed by the buckling strength given by:

Cb C
a- When 84 d L u / rT d 188 b ,then :
Fy Fy

( L u / rT ) 2 Fy
Fltb 2 ( 0.64  )Fy d 0.58 Fy …….……..3.24
1.176x10 5 C b

Cb
b- When L u / rT ! 188 , then:
Fy
12000
Fltb 2 C b d 0.58 Fy …………...……3.25
( L u / rT ) 2

Alternatively, the lateral torsional buckling stress can be computed more

accurately as the resultant of the above mentioned two components as:

Fltb Fltb2 1  Fltb2 2 d 0.58 Fy ……….……………3.26

In the above Equations:

Lu = Effective laterally unsupported length of compression flange

= K. (distance between cross sections braced against twist, or lateral
displacement of the compression flange in cm).
K = Effective length factor (as given in Chapter 4 of Code)
r T = Radius of gyration about minor axis of a section comprising the
R

compression flange plus one third of compression web area (in

cms)
A f = (b f * t f ) Area of compression flange (in cm2)
R

R R R R
 Steel Bridges

D = Depth of web (in cm)

Fy = Yield stress (t/cm2) P
P

t f = Compression flange thickness (in cm)

R

C b = Coefficient depending on the type of load and support conditions as

R

given in Table 3.2. For cases of unequal end moments without

transverse loads, (C b ) can be computed from the expression :
R R

C b = 1.75 + 1.05 (M 1 /M 2 ) + 0.3 (M 1 /M 2 )2

R R R R R R R R R R d 2.3 3.27
………………...
M1
M2

Where: (M 1 /M 2 ) is the algebraic ratio of the smaller to the larger end

R R R R

moments taken as positive for reverse curvature bending. When the bending
moment at any point within the un-braced length is larger than the values at
both ends of this length, the value of (C b ) shall be taken as unity. R R

II- Compression on extreme fibres of channels bent about their major axis and
meeting the requirements of Table 3.1.

800
Fltb Cb d 0.58 Fy .… 3.28
( L u .d / A f )

III. Slender sections which do not meet the non-compact section requirements
of Table 3.1 shall be designed using the same allowable stresses used for non-
compact sections except that the section properties used in the design shall be
based on the effective widths b e of compression elements as specified in Table
R R

3.3 for stiffened elements and Table 3.4 for unstiffened elements. The effective
width is calculated using a reduction factor ȡ as b e ȡ b R R

Where:
2
ȡ = ( O p  0.15  0.05 \ ) / O p d 1 ……………...……3.29
and
O = normalized plate slenderness given by
p

F
b/t y
O ……………………… 3.30
p 44 K
V
 Chapter 3: Design Considerations

K V = Plate buckling factor which depends on the stress ratio ȥ as

R

shown in Tables 3.3 and 3.4.

b = Appropriate width, (see Table 3.1) as follows :
b = d for webs
b = b for internal flange elements (except rectangle hollow sections)
b = b-3t for flanges of rectangle hollow sections.
b = c for outstand flanges
b = b for equal leg angles
b = b or (b+h)/2 for unequal leg angles
t = relevant thickness.

Table (3.2) Values of Coefficients K and C b R

Steel Bridges

Bending Moment End Restraint Effective

Loading Daigram Cb
About Y-axis Length
Factor K

Simple 1.0 1.00

Fixed 0.5 1.00

Simple 1.0 2.30

Fixed 0.5 2.30

Simple 1.0 1.13

Fixed 0.5 1.00

Simple 1.0 1.30

Fixed 0.5 0.90

Simple 1.0 1.35

Fixed 0.5 1.07

Simple 1.0 1.70

Fixed 0.5 1.04

Warping
1.0 1.50
Restrained

Restrained 1.0 2.10

 Chapter 3: Design Considerations

Table (3.3) Effective Width and Buckling Factor for Stiffened

Compression Elements
For 1 > > -1:
16
k 2 -1> >-2
[(1+ ) + 0.112(1- )2 ] 0.5+(1+ )
f2 f1 1 1> >0 0 0 > > -1 -1
Buckling
k 4.0
8.2
7.81 7.81-6.29 +9.78 2 23.9 5.98(1- )2
Factor 1.05+

Effective Width be for

Stress Distribution 2
= ( p -0.15 - 0.05 )/ p < 1

f1 f2
be = b

b e1 b e2 b e1 = 0.5 b e
b
b e2 = 0.5 b e

f1
f2
be = b
b e1 b e2 b e1 = 2 b /(5- )
b
b e2 = b e b e1

f1 bc bt
be = bc = b /(1- )
+
b e1 b e2
f2 b e1 = 0.4 b e
b
b e2 = 0.6 be
 Steel Bridges

Table (3.4) Effective Width and Buckling Factor For Unstiffened

Compression Elements
Effective Width be for
Stress Distribution 2
= ( p -0.15 -0.05 ) / p < 1

1 1> >0 0 0 > >-1 -1

0.578
Buckling factor k 0.43 1.70 1.7-5 +17.1 23.8
+ 0.34

c 1 > > 0:

be
be

bc bt be
c

Buckling factor k 0.43 0.57 0.85 0.57-0.21 +0.07

be
1 > > 0:

bc

be
be
c

3.2.6.6 Allowable Crippling Stress in Web Fcrp

Web crippling is a localised yielding that arises from high compressive

stresses occurring in the vicinity of heavy concentrated loads.

On the web of rolled shapes or built-up I-sections, at the toe of the fillet, the
allowable crippling stress shall not exceed:
 Chapter 3: Design Considerations

R
n
k
n+2k tw
n+k
k

Fcrp = 0.75 Fy …………………………………….. 3.31

Grade Fcrp (t/cm2)
P P

of
Steel
t U 40 mm 40 mm < t
St 37 1.8 1.6
St 44 2.1 1.9
St 52 2.7 2.5

The crippling stress (fcrp) at the web toes of the fillets resulting from
concentrated loads (R) not supported by stiffeners shall be calculated from the
following Equations:

R
for interior loads f crp ………………… 3.32
t w ( n  2k )

R
for edge loads f crp 3.33
t w ( n  k ) ……………………

3.2.6.7 Combined Stresses

3.2.6.7.1 Axial Compression and Bending

Members subjected to combined axial compression (N) and simple bending

moment (M) about the major axis shall be proportioned to satisfy the following
interaction Equation:

f ca f bx f
 A 1  by A 2 d 1.0 ……….. 3.34
Fc Fbcx Fbcy
 Steel Bridges

For cases when fca/ Fc < 0.15, A1 = A2 = 1.0.

otherwise:
C mx C my
A1 A
f ca , 2
f
(1  ) (1  ca )
FEx FEy

fca = Actual compressive stress due to axial compression.

Fc = The allowable compressive stress, as-appropriate, prescribed
in Clause 3.2.6.4.
fbx, fby = The actual bending stresses based on moments about the x
and y axes respectively.
Fbcx,Fbcy = The allowable compressive bending stresses for the x and y
axes respectively, considering the member loaded in bending
only as prescribed in Clause 3.2.6.5.
FEx, FEy = The Euler stress divided by the factor of safety for buckling in
the x and y directions respectively (t/cm2).
P P

7500 7500
FEx 2 , FEy 2 ………………………..3.35
Ox Oy

Cm = Moment modification factor, and to be taken according to the

following:

a- For frames prevented from sway without transverse loading between

supports Cm = 0.6 - 0.4 (M1/ M2) > 0.4 where the end moments M1 and M2
carry a sign in accordance with end rotational direction; i.e. positive moment
ratio for reverse curvature and negative moment ratio for single curvature (M2
> M1).

b- For frames, prevented from sway, with transverse lateral loading between
supports, Cm may be taken:

i- For members with moment restraint at the ends Cm = 0.85.

ii- For members with simply supported end Cm = 1.0.

c- For frames permitted to sway, Cm= 0.85.

 Chapter 3: Design Considerations

d- In addition, sections at critical locations, e.g. at member ends, shall satisfy

the following Equation:

f f f
ca  bx  by d 1.0
F F F …………………...………… 3.36
c bcx bcy

3.2.6.7.2 Axial Tension and Bending

Members subjected to combined axial tension "N" and bending moment "M"
shall be proportioned to satisfy the following conditions:

fN + fM d 0.58 Fy ……………………………………. 3.37

Where:
fN = the tensile stress due to the axial tensile force (N)=N/Anet
fM = the maximum tensile stress due to the bending moment (M).

In addition, the compressive bending stress alone shall be checked against

the lateral torsional buckling stress.

3.2.6.8 Equivalent Stress fe

Whenever the material is subjected to axial and shear stresses, the equivalent
stress (fe) must not exceed the permitted stresses given in this code plus 10%,
and the equivalent stress shall be calculated as follows:

fe f 2  3q 2 d 1.1 Fall ……………………………… 3.38

3.2.7 ALLOWABLE STRESSES IN BEARINGS AND HINGES

3.2.7.1 Table 3.5 gives the allowable stresses in (t/cm2) in the parts of bearings
P P

and hinges made of cast iron, cast steel, and forged steel subject to bending or
compression.

These allowable stresses may be exceeded by 20% when the maximum

combination of primary and additional stresses is taken into account.
 Steel Bridges

Table (3.5) Allowable Stresses in Parts of Bearings and Hinges

Primary Stresses (t/cm2)

Material
P P

Bending
2B Compression
4B

Cast steel CST 55 1.80 1.80

Forged steel FST 56 2.00 2.00
Cast Iron CI 14:
Tension 0.30 0.90
Compression 0.60 0.90

3.2.7.2 According to Hertz formula, the bearing pressure between a cylinder

and a plane surface is calculated as follows:

EV
f
max
0.423 …………. 3.39
"

Where:
fmax = Maximum actual bearing pressure at the surface of contact (t/cm2). P P

r = Radius of cylinder or sphere (cm).

E = Young's modulus (t/cm2). P P

V = Maximum load on bearing (ton).

Ɛ = Bearing length (cm).

For fixed, sliding, and movable bearings with one or two rollers, the
allowable bearing stresses (t/cm2) shall be as given below, when the surface of
P P

contact between the different parts of a bearing are lines or points and when
their design is carried out according to Hertz formula, assuming these bearings
are subjected only to the primary stresses designated in Clause 3.2.2.1.

Allowable Bearing Stress

Material
5B

(t/cm2)
P P

For Cast Iron Cl 14 5.00

For Rolled Steel St 44 6.50
For Cast Steel CST 55 8.50
For Forged Steel FST 56 9.50
 Chapter 3: Design Considerations

3.2.7.3 The allowable load V (ton) on a cylindrical expansion roller shall not
exceed the following values:

Material Allowable Reaction (ton)

Rolled steel St 37 0.040 d.Ɛ
Rolled steel St 44 0.055 d.Ɛ
Cast steel CST 55 0.095 d.Ɛ
Forged steel FST 56 0.117 d.Ɛ

Where:
d = Diameter of roller (cm).
Ɛ = Length of roller (cm).

In the case of movable bearings with more than two rollers, where the
compressive force affecting the said rollers cannot be equally shared by all
their parts, the aforesaid allowable reactions shall be increased by 20%.

3.2.7.4 When bearings are provided with cylindrical cast steel knuckle pins, the
diameter (d) of the pins shall be given by the formula:

4 V
d . ……………………………… 3.40
3 "

Where:
d = Diameter of pin (cm).
V = Vertical load (ton).
Ɛ = Length of pin (cm).

The bearing pressure between pins made of cast or forged steel and the
gusset plates shall not exceed 2.40 t/cm2.
P P