A Review of Cross-Sector Decarbonisation Potentials in The European Energy Intensive Industry

Journal of Cleaner Production 210 (2019) 585e601
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro
Review
A review of cross-sector decarbonisation potentials in the European

energy intensive industry
Timo Gerres*, Jose
Pablo Chaves Avila, s Go
Pedro Linares Llamas, Toma mez San Roma
n
Universidad Pontificia Comillas, ICAI, IIT, Madrid 28015, Spain
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The energy intensive industry (EII) is responsible for two-thirds of industrial carbon dioxide emissions in
Received 14 May 2018 the EU. It has been recognised by both public and private stakeholders that a far-reaching transformation
Received in revised form of these industries is required to comply with the overall emission reduction goals stated by the Euro-
1 November 2018
pean Union for 2050. Contrasting innovations discussed in pathway and roadmap publications for the
Accepted 4 November 2018
Available online 9 November 2018
different industries, it can be concluded that there is little consensus on how deep decarbonisation of the
EII will be achieved. In this paper, a review of pathway and roadmap publications and scientific literature
is presented. This permits to identify key areas for emission abatement across all subsectors. Results
show significant discrepancies in the literature regarding the expected emission reductions achievable,
but permit us to identify areas that are key for the transition towards a low-emission EII: the decar-
bonisation of low temperature heat by cross-sector technologies, use of membranes in the (petro)-
chemical industry, carbon neutral steelmaking, alternative feedstock for the cement production and
carbon capture & storage (CCS).
© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
2. Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
3. Categorisation of findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
4. Evaluation of decarbonisation potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
4.1. Heat recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
4.2. Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
4.3. Carbon capture & storage (CCS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
4.4. Biomass & bio-based waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
4.5. Process heat provision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
4.6. Alternative feedstock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
4.7. Electrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
4.8. Combined heat & power (CHP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
4.9. Industrial ovens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
4.10. Catalyst processes & membrane separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
5. Industrial decarbonisation impact in the 2050 horizon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
5.1. Maximised process optimisation by standardised equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
5.2. Key breakthrough technologies for decarbonisation are required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
5.3. Technological readiness and investment cycles of technology adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
5.4. Uncertainty of emission reduction potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
5.5. Cross-sectoral implications of innovations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: timo.gerres@iit.comillas.edu (T. Gerres), jose.chaves@iit.

comillas.edu (J.P. Chaves Avila), pedro.linares@iit.comillas.edu (P.L. Llamas), tomas.
gomez@iit.comillas.edu (T.G. San Roma n).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.11.036
0959-6526/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
586 T. Gerres et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 210 (2019) 585e601
6. Conclusions & outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598

Supplementary data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
1. Introduction common that a top-down approach is chosen. Based on the

decarbonisation objectives, cross-sectorial novel technology
Climate change caused by greenhouse gas emissions is consid- penetration as electrolysis processes, hydrogen-based production
ered as one of the main challenges for mankind in the 21st century. routes and carbon capture and utilisation infrastructure are pro-
The need to drastically reduce CO2 emissions has been widely posed. The implementation rates of these technologies are pre-
accepted. The European Union targets an 80e95% reduction of sented with little scientific background and depth regarding the
emissions by 2050 (European Commission, 2011). Multiple Energy feasibility and likeliness of the described technological pathways.
Intensive Industries (EIIs) are major emitters of carbon emissions. A second group of publications presents in-depth analysis of
Namely, the production of iron & steel, (petro)-chemicals, cement, different technology options within each industrial sector. These
ceramics, glass, paper & pulp and food & drinks are the most CO2 publications reflect on the likelihood of the future industry specific
intensive subsectors and account for about 64% of the total indus- implementation of abatement options and their decarbonisation
trial emissions in the European Union (EU) (Buckley and Lemmens, potential. Bottom-up approaches of evaluating industrial decar-
2017). Production in these industries requires high temperature bonisation options are typical for roadmaps published by European
process heat. According to EU consumption data, EII primarily use subsector associations, like the one for the iron & steel (EUROFER,
fossil fuels with high calorific value to generate heat (Capros et al., 2013), cement (CEMBUREAU, 2013) or ceramics industry
2017). Process routes within different subsectors are mature and (Cerame-Unie, 2012). Similar approaches have also been chosen by
standardised, limiting the number of different commercially industry wide reviews like the Industrial Decarbonisation & Energy
competitive production processes. Efficiency Roadmaps to 2050 published by the UK government
Several characteristics of the EII hinder transitions required to (WSP and DNV GL, 2015). Subsector specific technology reviews
achieve sector decarbonisation. Primary process equipment is tend to look at different industrial subsectors as separate entities.
characterised by high initial investment costs with a pay-back Different abatement options like electrified kilns, biomass uti-
period of up to 50 years, as in case of cement plants (Habert lisation or hydrogen are not contrasted with regard to their appli-
et al., 2010), and a long design life of individual equipment of cability for each industry. The cross-sectorial potential of certain
more than 20 years, as in case of furnaces for the iron & steel in- technologies is not captured and the holistic view on industry wide
dustry (van Laar and Corus, 2016). Over the last decade, most decarbonisation is limited. The decarbonisation potential of
economically feasible efficiency improvements have been imple- different technologies presented by these publications varies
mented within subsectors. Fossil fuel intensity of industrial pro- significantly.
cesses reduced significantly (Jones et al., 2015). Technologies and Current roadmap and pathway publications do not offer a clear
other abatement options that could contribute to a further reduc- vision on how the industry can achieve required emission re-
tion of the carbon intensity in these subsectors are not available on ductions over the next decades. Top-down approaches do not tend
commercial scale, yet. It remains uncertain which technologies to focus on technological and economic feasibility. Technology
might become competitive for each of the industries. Early adopters focused bottom-up roadmaps often disregard the cross-sectorial
of new unproven technologies with long payback periods risk dimension of the abatement options considered. This review pa-
economic damage if technologies lack maturity or cannot be cost per addresses this gap by systematically analysing bottom-up
competitive in the long run. The EII is closely linked to the metal roadmap and pathway publications focussed on industrial decar-
and construction sector. These industries are considered as more bonisation. Different common areas of emission abatement with
conservative with regard to changes than other industries (Neuhoff cross-sectorial significance for multiple EIIs are identified. Con-
et al., 2015). Analysing the historic developments of predominant trasting findings with the scientific literature allows us to define
production methods in the cement and glass industries in the 20th ranges of expected decarbonisation potential that abatement op-
century Anderson and Tushman (1990) show that breakthrough tions might have across different industrial sectors. Such review
innovation in these subsectors took 5e20 years after relevant in- has not been done up to now. It offers policy makers, industrial
novations had reached economic viability before becoming the stakeholders and the scientific community a new perspective on
dominant new process design. Recent publications doubt that the different possible technology options which is neither top-down
required sector transformations will be possible without extensive nor sector-specific. Such perspective is key for creating an
public incentives (Neuhoff et al., 2017). industry-wide congruent vision of steps to be taken towards the
In response to the EU 2050 roadmap, multiple public and private decarbonisation of the EII. Findings can be a valuable input for
actors published EEI specific roadmaps and pathways visions. A policy makers to design industry-wide incentives to foster the
comparison of these publications demonstrates a high degree of implementation of low emission technologies. Given that many of
inconsistency of the pathways and expected technologies to reach reviewed technologies might require public support to reach
industry-wide decarbonisation. For the German Federal Environ- sector-wide applicability, the work presented can be used for
ment agency the utilisation of renewable methane as syngas is key designing policy instruments and focus future research on key
(Umweltbundesamt, 2014). The UK (Pye et al., 2015) and US technologies to ensure a cleaner and more sustainable production
(Williams et al., 2015) deep decarbonisation pathway projects within the EII until 2050.
foresee a high dependence on natural gas. Reports outlining the The objective of this paper is to identify the main decarbon-
Dutch (Berenschot, 2017) and Swedish (Brolin et al., 2017) road isation options for the EII to evaluate their cross-sector relevance
towards a low carbon economy focus on the electrification of the and decarbonisation potential for the industrial sector in light of
entire industry. The majority of such pathways publications have in the EU 2050 decarbonisation targets. A systematic approach to
T. Gerres et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 210 (2019) 585e601 587
identify and categorise the most discussed abatement options industries. The mentioned industries currently account for 64% of
within roadmaps and pathway analyses is presented in Section 2. the EU industrial carbon footprint based on data derived from
Initial findings (Section 3) are contrasted with scientific literature Croezen and Korteland (2010) and Buckley and Lemmens (2017)
to estimate their decarbonisation potential and technological (Table 1). Electrified EIIs as the production of aluminium or cop-
readiness (Section 4). The in-depth analysis of the results in light of per are disregarded. Their decarbonisation depends on the future
the EU 2050 decarbonisation roadmap in Section 5 allows us to CO2 intensity of the power sector, which is outside the scope of this
identify five key findings relevant for future research in this field. paper. The authors acknowledge that further efforts in non-energy
intensive industries are also required for reaching deep decarbon-
isation. A reflection on the significance of findings for other in-
2. Method dustrial activities is presented in Section 5.
Carbon intensive EIIs manufacture different final products
Carbon intensive EIIs are defined as the iron & steel, (petro)- ranging from basic materials to chemicals and food. A structured
chemicals, cement, ceramics, glass, paper & pulp and food & drinks approach of analysing available publications is required to evaluate
possible cross-sector potentials and identify similar areas of
abatement options. To seek answers related to the above research
Table 1
objective, two main tasks are identified. First, current publications
EII Share of total EU Industry Emissions in 2017.
are reviewed to enable a categorisation of possible areas of abate-
Iron & steel (Petro)-Chem. Cement Pulp & Paper Ceramics Glass Food ment options across different EIIs. Results are then used to evaluate
23% 18% 16% 4% 2% 1% 1% the decarbonisation potential for each area of abatement option
across all EIIs (see Fig. 1).
Relevant publications are identified by a targeted search for
public and private sector roadmaps and pathway publications
(DATA 1). Publications included in this review are technical road-
maps of European subsector organisations focussed on the imple-
mentation of the EU 2050 targets, cross-sectorial reviews focused
on industrial decarbonisation on the European level and national
and regional industry roadmaps. Best Available Technology (BAT)
reports published by the Joint Research Center of the European
Commission are also considered. Available documentation not
focused on the European context by the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change, US government agencies and others were also
reviewed. All publications have in common that BAT and emerging
technologies for different subsectors are reviewed to a certain level
of detail. A list of publications is shown in Table 2. In total 40
roadmaps, pathway and related publications are reviewed. The
abatement options and prospective technologies mentioned in
these sources are indexed in a database. If available, information
about the applicable subsector, CO2 reduction potential, impact on
the energy consumption and maturity of technology are
documented.
Technologies and abatement options discussed for the different
subsectors are categorised using a multistep techno-economic
criteria approach developed by the authors for this review. First,
all findings are assigned within a simple input-process-output
framework. Inputs, outputs and transformation processes have
physical and non-physical characteristics. A distinction between
“feedstock”, “energy carrier” and “information” as dispositive
dimension based on Gutenberg's theory of production factors
Fig. 1. Review methodology applied in this research.
Table 2
Reviewed publications for TASK 1: Standardisation of findings.
Subsector 2050 roadmaps Cross-sectorial publications National/regional cross- JRC BAT reports Others
sectorial publications
European Cement Research Brolin et al. (2017) Berenschot (2017) Barthe et al. (2015) Baldwin et al. (2015)
Academy (2017)
British Glass (2014) Wyns and Axelson (2016) Samadi et al. (2016) Suhr et al. (2015) Brueske et al. (2015)
CEFIC (2013) Carbon Market Watch (2016) WSP and DNV GL (2015) JRC (2013) Miller et al. (2015)
CEMBUREAU (2013) van Kranenburg et al. (2016) Fleiter et al. (2013) Remus et al. (2013) IPCC (2014)
EUROFER (2013) Åhman and Nilsson (2015) Haydock and Napp (2013) Scalet et al. (2013) Gellings (2009)
Glass for Europe (2013) Chan and Kantamaneni (2015) Åhman et al. (2012) Schorcht et al. (2013) McKinsey&Company (2009)
Cerame-Unie (2012) Napp et al. (2014) Pardo-Garcia et al. (2012)
FoodDrinkEurope (2012) Brown et al. (2012) JRC (2007)
CEPI (2011) Croezen and Korteland (2010)
European Copper Institute
(2014)
(Gutenberg, 1951) is made. Given that most findings are targeting options are identified. The outcome of this standardisation process
manufacturing processes, an additional framework presented by of findings (RESULT 1) is presented in Section 3. A short-list of the
(Groover, 2010) is applied and extended to identify different sub- five most discussed abatement options is determined for each
categories of abatement options. The resulting framework is shown subsector. They serve as input for TASK 2 (see Fig. 1).
in Figs. 2 and 3 demonstrates exemplary how different abatement In a second step, the authors quantify the decarbonisation
Fig. 2. Standardisation of decarbonisation potentials framework.
Fig. 3. Identification of areas of abatement options with most discussed areas highlighted in bold.
potential for the most discussed areas of abatement options iden- Section 4. The authors acknowledge that this method only permits
tified in RESULT 1. Information from publications reviewed for TASK a rough estimation of CO2 reduction potentials.
1 is contrasted with scientific literature and other technology- In Section 5, the quantitative results for the sector-specific
specific publications for main areas of emission abatement with decarbonisation potential of different technologies are contrasted.
cross-sectorial relevance. Brief literature reviews with focus on The analysis of retrieved data (TASK 3) permits to identify key
abatement options for each applicable subsector are required technologies and trends required to reach industrial decarbon-
(DATA 2). With TASK 2 the decarbonisation potential stated by isation in the 2050 horizon (see Fig. 1).
different sources with regard to possible EU subsector decarbon-
isation is quantified (see Fig. 1). If sources state energy saving po-
3. Categorisation of findings
tentials, decarbonisation estimates are derived based on
consumption and emission intensity data for different sub-
This section presents the results obtained by reviewing roadmap
processes. The underlying assumption for the estimation of
and pathway publications. The five most discussed areas of abate-
decarbonisation potentials is the future CO2 neutrality of electricity.
ment potential for each of the reviewed industries are identified.
The transformation of the electricity system will need to be ach-
In total, 834 findings of individual abatement options can be
ieved by 2050 (European Commission, 2011). Emission reduction of
extracted from the 40 reviewed roadmap and pathway publications
the power sector is linked to a high penetration rate of variable
(Table 2). 96% of the findings fit in the proposed categories of the
renewable energy production, demand flexibility and energy stor-
framework introduced in Section 2. About 50% of findings concern
age. The pathway of the electricity system is a separate field of
manufacturing processes. The five most discussed abatement op-
research and not considered further within the scope of this review.
tions are identified for each of the reviewed subsectors. The results
If not stated otherwise, process emission data of current processes
of this review are summarised in Table 3. For simplicity, only
stated in (Fleiter et al., 2013) is used to calculate saving estimates if
findings concerning the categories of the most discussed areas of
the sources reviewed only indicate energy saving potentials. Based
abatement potentials are shown.
on available data, minimum and maximum values for the subsector
Most areas of abatement potential are relevant for more than
specific decarbonisation potential for each industry are calculated.
one industry. Listing the five most discussed areas of emission
These values represent the minima and maxima derived from
abatement for the identified industries shows that decarbonisation
reviewed sources. Findings (RESULTS 2) are presented in detail in
requires technological advances in ten key areas (Fig. 4): heat
Table 3
Abatement options mentioned in reviewed publications (1. Heat recovery, 2. Furnaces, 3. CCS, 4. Biomass & bio-based waste, 5. Process heat provision, 6. Alternative feedstock,
7. Electrolysis, 8. CHP, 9. Industrial ovens, 10. Catalyst processes & membrane technology).
Iron & steel (Petro)-Chemical Cement Pulp & Paper Ceramics Glass Food
Berenschot (2017) 2 9 2 5,9,10

Brolin et al. (2017) 2,7 4,6 5,8 4,5
European Cement Research Academy (2017)r 1,2,3,4,6
Carbon Market Watch (2016) 2 4,6,7 3,6,
Samadi et al. (2016) 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,10
van Kranenburg et al. (2016) 5,7,10
Wyns and Axelson (2016) 2,3,7 4,7,10 3,6,7
Åhman and Nilsson (2015) 4 4,6,7 4,6 4
Baldwin et al. (2015) 1 1 1 1 1
Barthe et al. (2015) 3,4,10
Brueske et al. (2015) 2,9,10
Chan and Kantamaneni (2015) 1,2 1,2,8,10 1,3,8,9 8
WSP and DNV GL (2015) 1,2,3,4,7 1,3,4,5,6,7,8,10 1,2,4,6 1,4,5,9 1,2,3,4,5,6,8 1,2,3,6 1,3,4,5,6,8,9,10
Miller et al. (2015) 9,10
Suhr et al. (2015) 1,3,8 8
British Glass (2014) 1,2.3,4,6
IPCC (2014) 2,3,7 8,10 2,3,4,6 3 5
Napp et al. (2014) 1,8 1,2,3 1,3,6
CEFIC (2013) 1,3,4,5,6,7,8,10
CEMBUREAU (2013) 1,2,3,6
EUROFER (2013) 2,3,4,7
Fleiter et al. (2013) 1,2,4,7 4,7,10 1,6 1,3,9 1,2,9 1,2 1,9
Glass for Europe (2013) 2,4,6,
Haydock and Napp (2013) 1,2,3,4,8 1,3,10 3,4,6, 1,4,5,9 1,2,4,6,8 1,2 5,8,9
JRC (2013) 5
Remus et al. (2013) 3,7 8
Scalet et al. (2013) 1,2,4,6
Schorcht et al. (2013) 2,8
Åhman et al. (2012) 2,3,7 4,6 6, 3,5 5
Brown et al. (2012) 1 10 2,6,
Cerame-Unie (2012) 1,2,6,8
FoodDrinkEurope (2012) 4,8
Pardo-Garcia et al. (2012) 2 2,4 4
CEPI (2011) 6 4,9
Croezen and Korteland (2010) 2,3,4,7 2,3,4,6 3,9
European Copper Institute (2014) 5 5 5 5 5 5
Gellings (2009) 2,7,10 9,10 9 2 9,10
McKinsey&Company (2009) 2,3,4,8 3
JRC (2007) 2,8,9
Iron & steel (Petro)- Cement Pulp & Paper Ceramics Glass Food
Chemical
1.
Catalytic Alternative Industrial Process Heat
Most Furnaces Furnaces Furnaces
Processes Feedstock Ovens Provision
mentioned
2. Biomass &
Industrial
Electrolysis Heat Recovery Bio-based Heat Recovery Heat Recovery Heat Recovery
Ovens
Waste
3.
Flue Gas Membrane
CCS CCS CHP Pre-Heater CHP
Recycling Separation
4. Biomass & Biomass & Biomass &
CCS CHP Furnaces Bio-based Bio-based Oxyfuels Bio-based
Waste Waste Waste
5. Recycled
Process Heat Alternative Membrane
Least Heat Recovery CCS Heat Recovery Primary
Provision Feedstock Separation
mentioned Materials
Fig. 4. Areas of most discussed abatement options.
recovery, furnaces, CCS, biomass & bio-based waste, process heat 4.1. Heat recovery
provision, alternative feedstock, electrolysis, combined heat & po-
wer (CHP), industrial ovens, and membrane separation. Areas of The utilisation of off-heat from high temperature processes for
emission abatement coloured in red are related to providing energy other applications with a lower heat demand is not a novel concept.
in form of heat. Green indicates alternative feedstock or fuels. Multiple roadmap and pathway analyses explore this topic
Technologies marked in blue are a loose collection of (electro)- (Table 4). The scientific literature reviewed often uses pinch-
chemical and mechanical separation processes mostly applied to analysis and other economic/technical approaches to determine
liquid media. Carbon Capture & Storage (CCS) is marked in grey. unexploited off-heat potentials. In the following, heat recovery
Electrolysis is only one of the most discussed options for the iron & applications for the iron & steel, (petro)-chemical, cement, pulp &
steel sector. This technology is also key for generating carbon- paper, ceramics and glass industry are reviewed.
neutral hydrogen and is widely discussed in roadmaps and path- In the iron & steel industry two different product methods are
ways arguing for an electricity-to-hydrogen based economy. common today; blast furnaces (BF) used for primary steel making
Therefore, it is relevant for all subsectors. Pre-Heater, recycled- and electric-arc-furnaces (EAFs) for secondary steel making from
primary materials, oxyfuels and flue gas recycling are not reviewed scrap metal. BAT reviewed by Pardo and Moya (2013) could lower
separately. They are only the most discussed for specific industries emissions of the BF-route by 93 kgCO2/t, reducing the carbon
and are taken in consideration while reviewing closely related footprint by 2%. Emerging technologies for furnace (slag) heat re-
areas of emission abatement. covery can reduce the energy demand by 2.5% in BF production
The categorisation of findings obtained from the review of routes and up to 7.5% in the EAF route with today's electricity mix
roadmap and pathway publication shows that especially the (Hasanbeigi et al., 2014). CO2 reductions are within the same range.
decarbonisation of heating processes is essential for reducing the One manufacturer states that commercially available continuous
CO2 emissions of EIIs. Multiple roadmaps consider biomass as a charged EAF furnaces with off-gas pre-heating can reduce CO2
viable alternative to currently used process inputs. CCS is widely emissions by 10e30% compared to batch-charged furnaces
discussed to limit direct carbon emissions of the process output. (Argenta and Bianchi-Ferri, 2005). It remains unclear whether this
reduction includes indirect CO2 emission reduction. A theoretical
4. Evaluation of decarbonisation potential approach by McBrien et al. (2016) shows that optimised heat
network and recovery flows can reduce the energy intensity of
Technologies under development and prospective innovations primary steel making by 3.0 GJ/t. If assuming a BAT energy intensity
are raising high expectations with regard to outperforming pro- of 19.2 GJ/t, carbon intensity of this production route would be
cesses and technologies in place. In this section, the uncertainty of lowered by about 12%. Roadmap and pathway analyses reviewed
the emission abatement potential of the ten different areas iden- expect that emission reductions do not exceed 9% for the entire
tified in Section 3 is addressed. Decarbonisation potential of steel industry. Further reduction can be achieved if off-heat is
abatement options is contrasted with scientific literature and other supplied to external entities like local district heating networks
sources. Technical characteristics of abatement options within the (Schaper, 2017).
different areas are contrasted to study their cross-sector applica- Multiple roadmaps state that further emission reduction can be
bility and identify trends and limitations. achieved in the (petro)-chemical sector by means of waste heat
Table 4
Potential emission abatement per subsector by means of improved heat recovery.
Iron & steel (Petro)-Chemical Cement Pulp & Paper Ceramics Glass
Chan and Kantamaneni (2015) <1% 2% <1%

WSP and DNV GL (2015) 1e5% Electricity from heat 9% 3e5%
Napp et al. (2014) 3e9%
Fleiter et al. (2013) 2% BF/12% EAF <8%
CEFIC (2013) 10%
CEMBUREAU (2013) Electricity from heat
Haydock and Napp (2013) 7e24% 5%
Additional sources: 2.5e12% - < 8% 8e13% 2e8% 6e15%
recovery without quantifying its potential. The decarbonisation Table 5

impact is in the range of 2e10%. Little research can be found to Potential emission abatement per subsector by means of improved furnaces.
validate these figures. This is assumed to be due to the heteroge- Iron & steel Cement Ceramics Glass
neity of the (petro)-chemical industry. European Cement Research 5%
For cement plants, the utilisation of recovered heat is limited by Academy (2017)
the low heat demand of other processes. Pinch analysis for a WSP and DNV GL (2015) 3% 80% 100%
modern plant in Croatia indicates that energy consumption could British Glass (2014) High
EUROFER (2013) 20e48%
be reduced by 14% (Boldyryev et al., 2016). Similar values are stated
Haydock and Napp (2013) 5e50%* 100%
for the Chinese cement industry (Hasanbeigi et al., 2013). Assuming IPCC (2014) 20e50%*
BAT in Europe, a CO2 reduction potential of about 6% can be ach- Croezen and Korteland (2010) 5e20%* 9%
ieved (Gartner and Quillin, 2007). Data published by Benhelal et al. Schorcht et al. (2013) 10%
Additional sources: 17e43% 10e20% 3e50% 4e80%
(2013) suggests that up to 8% of CO2 reductions are feasible for
existing plants, but recovered off-heat would have to be partially
provided to external heat consumers. This option is also outlined by
the European Cement Research Academy (2017), suggesting that 4.2. Furnaces
emissions from district heating could be reduced by 4e11 kg CO2/t.
Higher recovery rates can be achieved by installing Organic High temperature processes are essential for the iron & steel
Rankine Cycles (ORCs) and using off-heat to generate electricity for and non-metallic mineral subsectors. Improved furnace designs for
third parties (Karellas et al., 2013). While the reviewed literature steel, cement, ceramics and glass manufacturing are required to
indicates decarbonisation potentials in the range of up to 8%, reduce the carbon footprint of these subsectors. Publications
roadmap publications limit potentials to waste heat to electricity reviewed for TASK 1 (Fig. 1) estimate that CO2 emission reductions
applications. as stated in Table 5 can be achieved.
In the pulp & paper industry, drying processes are the biggest Innovations in the steel industry primarily concern improved
emitters of waste heat. Laurijssen et al. (2010b) show that a BF-designs. The reduction of emissions from the EAF-route is linked
reduction primary energy consumption by 15% is achievable for to the decarbonisation of electricity supply, whereas the BF-route
paper mills by improved heat recovery for multi-cylinder dryers. used for primary steelmaking highly depends on coal as energy
This technology is currently used for up to 90% of paper production. carrier. Two projects developed within the ULCOS program can
A case study for an integrated pulp & paper mill in Turkey claims reduce emissions of primary steelmaking. Emission abatement of
that an energy saving potential of almost 16% can be achieved by 20% can be achieved by HIsarna. A pilot is in operation in the
improved heat recovery (Utlu and Kincay, 2013). These figures Netherland (TATA Steel, 2017). ULCORED without CCS can reduce
translate into emission reductions between 12 and 13%.1 These emissions by up to 50% (Knop et al., 2009). Instead of coke, natural
values are within the range of potentials indicated in Table 4. gas is used as a reducing agent in the direct reduction (DRI) process
For the ceramics industry, low range emission reduction po- combined with EAFs for smelting. Other non-European initiatives
tentials are confirmed by scientific publications. Values range be- follow similar concepts to improve furnace performance
tween less than 2% (Iban~ ez-Fore
s et al., 2013), in case of ceramic tile (Mathieson et al., 2011). These figures correspond to data published
production, to approximately 4% for cement and ceramic industries in reviewed roadmaps and pathway publications. With reference to
in Spain (Aranda-Uso n et al., 2012). Another approach to maximise today's share of primary and secondary steel production in Europe
off-heat utilisation is mentioned by Fleiter et al. (2013). Off-heat (World Steel Association, 2016) and their energy intensity (Worrell
could dry the final products and make dryers expendable. Energy et al., 2007), these two technologies could reduce subsector emis-
demand could be reduced by up to 30%, lowering emissions by 8%. sions between 17% and 43%.
This figure corresponds to the highest estimate found in publica- Novel fluidised bed kilns are the most discussed innovation for
tions reviewed in TASK 1 (see Fig. 1). cement kilns. Japanese pilot plants emit 10% less emissions than
Roadmaps and pathway analyses are vague about further re- modern rotary kilns (JCoal, 2007). Croezen and Korteland (2010)
covery options for the glass subsector. According to British Glass state that BATs by itself could reduce subsector emissions in
(2014), half of all off-heat is already recovered. Only waste heat Europe by 9%. Approximately 90% of the cement industry in Europe
recovery potentials below 500 C remain. Novel thermoelectric uses dry rotary and multi-stage kilns. The remaining 10% are pro-
technologies could permit its recovery, but scientific publications duced in wet and semi-wet kilns (Wyns and Axelson, 2016). This
are scarce and outdated. Based on laboratory tests Bauer (2003) limits the number of plants that can achieve major improvements
estimate a possible CO2 reduction of 6% using thermo- by installing BAT kilns. According to Lindig-Niklaus (2016), new
photovoltaics. One option to utilise recovered waste heat is the furnace designs with improved pre-heating capabilities could emit
installation of pre-heaters. Different sources state that energy 20% less emissions than BAT. The use of oxyfuel is suggested by
savings and emission reductions of up to 15% are likely (Beerkens, multiple roadmaps. Due to the high process energy required to
2008; Dolianitis et al., 2016). generate oxygen, multiple sources raise concerns that its utilisation
Across all reviewed subsectors emissions can be reduced in the counterbalances possible efficiency gains (Habert et al., 2010). In-
range of around 5%. A redesign of the recovery flows and stand- jection of oxyfuel also changes the combustion characteristics and
ardised equipment like new heat exchangers is required. Heat re- causes additional stress on the kiln (Baukal, 2013).
covery could offer higher reduction potentials, but values given by Partial electrification of furnaces is an option for the ceramic
literature are mostly based on theoretical evaluations. industry. Laboratory tests have shown that microwave supported
heating can reduce process related emissions by more than 50%
(Shulman et al., 2007). New kiln designs would operate with
recuperative or pulsed burners. Agrafiotis and Tsoutsos (2001) state
that fuel demand could be reduced by 10%e30%. Recent publica-
1
tions from equipment suppliers suggest that pulse firing is
For simplification chemical paper making (66%) of EU production with multi-
cylinder dryers (90% utilisation) have been assumed as representative for the commercially competitive nowadays (Gonza lez, 2015). For Spain,
entire industry. energy consumption can be reduced by 5% if replacing the
remaining intermittent kilns by continuous kilns (Zabalza Bribia n In the European context, research efforts in CCS technology for
et al., 2011). A variety of measurements and technologies are dis- the iron & steel industry are bundled in the ULCOS program. CCS
cussed to reduce the carbon emissions originating from furnaces in with top gas recycling can reduce CO2 emissions of a steel plant by
the ceramic subsector. The evolution of current kiln design can 60% (van der Stel et al., 2013), the purified CO2 exhaust stream of
reduce emissions between 3% and 50%. Hlsarna and ULCORED by 80%, and, when equipped to an electrol-
For the glass industry, full electrification of furnace technology is ysis process, by up to 98% (EUROFER, 2013). Similar technologies
stated as feasible by roadmaps and pathway publications. Plasma are currently researched in Asia and the United States (Jahanshahi
melting is the most promising approach. A pilot aiming for high et al., 2016). Retrofitting existing plants with BAT does not achieve
production outputs faced difficulties in achieving power con- the targets set by the ULCOS project (Arasto et al., 2013). Design of
sumption targets and throughput, but showed that full electrifi- BAT is not optimised with regard to CO2 capture. Given that most
cation is achievable (Parker et al., 2006). Yao et al. (2008) compared roadmap and pathway publications refer to targets stated for the
plasma melting to electric-arc and oxy-fuel burners. Plasma ULCOS program, estimates by reviewed sources are very similar.
burners achieved the best final product properties, but the authors CCS is a widely discussed option for the (petro)-chemical in-
suggest a hybrid-solution due to the low thermal efficiency of dustry. Commercial scale CCS projects have been realised (Gale
plasma melting. Energy consumption and emissions could be et al., 2009). Markewitz et al. (2012) reviewed the main capture
reduced by decreasing the size of glass melting tanks. Beerkens methods that permit capture efficiencies between 80% and 95%.
(2008) suggests that a 50% reduction of the tank size requires Captured CO2 can be utilised to produce polymers (Mennicken
85% of input energy per ton of glass. Prototypes have demonstrated et al., 2016), or bulk and fine chemicals (Takht Ravanchi and
that submerged combustion melting, firing burners inside the Sahebdelfar, 2014). Estimations in roadmaps for subsector decar-
melting chamber, can reduce the carbon footprint of glass bonisation range from partial reduction by equipping existing
manufacturing (David and Brown John, 2011). According to furnace stacks (33%) to a 100% emission reduction. Due to technical
Masanet (2008) submerged combustion melting can save 5%e7.5% limitations, a total avoidance of emissions is not feasible so that
of fuel compared to BAT kilns. Given that glass melting accounts for values stated by these source have to be considered as theoretical.
75%e80% of the energy used and emissions in the glass industry High purity of exhaust streams and the lack of alternatives to
(Fleiter et al., 2013), it is assumed that improved furnace technology reduce process related emissions make the cement industry a likely
can reduce the subsector emissions from 4% to 80%. These figures candidate for CCS. Calcium looping, using calcium carbonate as CO2
are significantly lower than stated in roadmap and pathway absorbent, is the key technology to facilitate cost efficient capture.
publications. Roadmaps and pathway analyses estimate the capture efficiency to
Minimising CO2 reduction of furnaces require new furnace de- be between 80% and 90%. Results from pilot projects in Taiwan
signs in all subsectors. Innovations leading to a partial or full (Chang et al., 2014) and Germany (Stro €hle et al., 2014) achieved
electrification are discussed for all reviewed industries except the capture rates of 85% and 90%. Studies estimate the economically
cement subsector. Given that such technologies are not commer- feasible capture rates for commercially operating plans to be within
cially available, additional sources reviewed suggest transitory the range of 52%e84% (Barker et al., 2009; Kuramochi et al., 2012).
technologies with significantly lower emission reduction potential. In practice, capture rates might therefore be lower than indicated in
roadmaps.
4.3. Carbon capture & storage (CCS) The pulp & paper could be fully decarbonised by means of CCS.
Utilising carbon neutral biomass as energy carrier and capturing its
One of the most prominent future technologies to decarbonise CO2 by black liquor gasification reduces the net emissions of a pilot
the industry is the capture and storage of CO2. Instead of attempting plant in Sweden to less than zero (Naqvi, 2012). CO2 from already
to limit the CO2 emissions caused by production processes, elsewise carbon neutral biomass is stored. A capture efficiency of 90% is
emitted gases are filtered from the exhaust streams. Its applicability assumed for black liquor gasification (Jo € nsson and Berntsson,
to industrial processes depends on the industry specific charac- 2012). Compared to other subsectors, carbon capture in the pulp
teristics of exhaust streams. Favoured capture mechanisms differ and paper industry can be realised with low additional costs
for each subsector. It is one of the most discussed abatement op- (Ferreira and Balestieri, 2015). The remote location of plants and
tions for the cement, (petro)-chemicals, pulp & paper and iron & high costs related to the transport of captured gases to storage fa-
steel industry (Table 6). cilities are hurdles for its implementation (Pettersson and Harvey,
2012).
The utilisation of CCS technology has been extensively
Table 6 researched for the reviewed subsectors. As an end-of-pipe solution,
Potential emission abatement per subsector by means of CCS technology.
CCS is only practically feasible in the cement and pulp & paper
Iron & (Petro)- Cement Pulp & industry. The redesign of the industrial process is necessary if
steel Chemical Paper exhaust streams do not have the required CO2 purity. High costs
Samadi et al. (2016) 33e90% and unsolved questions regarding the storage hinder its commer-
Carbon Market Watch 80% cialisation. For carbon capture in the cement subsector, one of the
(2016) cheapest CCS options (Leeson et al., 2017), energy costs for the
Chan and Kantamaneni 100%
(2015)
technology still accumulate up to additional 70% of total production
WSP and DNV GL (2015) 50e80% 80e100% 90% costs. As a consequence, little progress has been observed towards
Napp et al. (2014) 80% full scale introduction (Boot-Handford et al., 2014).
EUROFER (2013) 80e98%
Haydock and Napp (2013) 50e60% 60e80%
Remus et al. (2013) 75%
Croezen and Korteland 52e80% 89% 100% 4.4. Biomass & bio-based waste
(2010)
Åhman et al. (2012) 65e80% 100% Compared to other fuels and feedstock, biomass can be regrown.
CEMBUREAU (2013) 80% Biomass combustion contributes to an increase of atmospheric
Additional sources: 60e90% 80e95% 52e90% 90e100%
carbon in the short-run. In the long it can have a near zero-emission
Table 7 demonstrate that two-third of losses in the food processing in-

Potential emission abatement per subsector by means of biomass & bio-based waste dustry are unavoidable. Such bio residues are currently used as feed
utilisation.
for the animal production. Using the conversion factors presented
Cement Pulp & Paper Ceramics Food by Banks (2009) transforming this energy into usable biogas could
Brolin et al. (2017) 97% (achieved in reduce subsector emissions by more than 7%. Pilots, like the “green-
Sweden) brewery” concept (Muster-Slawitsch et al., 2011), demonstrate that
WSP and DNV GL 30% 100% 29% 90% some food production processes can cover their entire thermal
(2015)
energy demand by using biogas produced from process related
Haydock and Napp 28%
(2013) waste streams.
Cerame-Unie (2012) 30% Biomass can play an important role in the decarbonisation of the
Åhman et al. (2012) 50% cement industry. It can serve as fuel with little pre-treatment
CEPI (2011) 50% (achieved in
required. Regardless of the limits imposed by the availability of
EU)
Croezen and 35%
biomass and restricted capacities of extending the production
Korteland (2010) (Haberl et al., 2010), the use of internal bio-based waste streams
Additional sources: 24% e 64% 7e100% can play an important part in decarbonising subsectors with bio-
(theoretical) (theoretical) based feedstock, in particular in the food and pulp & paper
industry.
balance given emission-free handling and transport (Sedjo, 2011).

The authors acknowledge that major efforts are required to provide 4.5. Process heat provision
CO2 neutral biomass. To ease the comparability between different
subsectors and technologies it is assumed that net zero emissions All EIIs have process steps requiring process heat as an input. For
for biomass are achievable. Increasing the share of biomass is one of subsectors with multiple process steps like the food & drinks and
the most discussed areas of emission abatement in the cement, pulp & paper industry, efficiency improvements in the provision
pulp & paper, food and ceramics subsector (Table 7). and management of process heat is one of the most discussed op-
Almost any burnable material can be used in cement kilns. tions to abate emissions (Table 8). In this section, multiple non-CHP
Given the high share of total costs dedicated to energy, the main options are discussed.
criteria for fuel choice is its price. Switching to 100% bio-based fuels In the pulp & paper industry, process heat provision is one of the
can reduce industry CO2 emissions by 50%. Half of the emissions main consumers of fossil fuels. For the Taiwanese industry, 29.8% of
originate from the chemical transformation process of limestone to a mill's fuel consumption is related to boilers for steam provision
clinker and are not impacted by a fuel switch. Biomass is widely (Hong et al., 2011). A study about the US pulp & paper industry
used in Europe with a quota of 7% in Greece to 85% in the (Miller et al., 2015) dedicates about 30% of the entire subsector's
Netherlands (OFICEMEN, 2016). The remaining emission reduction consumption to steam used as process heat. Given that CHP already
potentials is estimated to be 24% (Barcelo et al., 2014). plays an important role within the industry and can be seen as a
Most of the feedstock and final products of the pulp & paper competing technology, the impact of possible innovations in boiler
industry are biomass. In 2016, the fraction of biomass in the sub- technology for process heat provision or novel heat pumps is
sector's total fuel consumption in Europe was 57.7% with 52.3% of difficult to estimate. According to roadmaps, decarbonisation op-
the net electricity demand being covered by onside CHP in- tions range from exchanging existing boilers and a resulting fuel
stallations (CEPI, 2017). In Sweden, 97% of emissions are related to reduction in the 2% range to full electrification of heat. Based on
biomass usage and only 3% originated from fossil fuels (Brolin et al., energy flows of the UK pulp & paper industry in (Griffin et al., 2018)
2017). A switch to a 100% biomass-based production is achievable it is estimated that heat electrification can reduce emissions by up
using BAT. Given increased recycling rates and the possible excess to 29%.
of hog fuel, one option for the future of the industry is that of a bio- Natural gas fired boilers are the primary source for steam in the
refinery producing biomass-based syngas (IEA, 2017). Multiple food industry with cogeneration systems offering a valuable alter-
studies evaluate the feasibility of such concept (Pettersson and native (JRC, 2013). Processes are characterised by low temperature
Harvey, 2012). Open questions regarding the carbon neutrality of ranges. Data for the French food & drinks industry shows that
biomass provision, e.g. transport, or other aspects such as avail- almost all heat is required at temperatures below 140 C (Hita et al.,
ability and storage capacity need to be addressed. 2011). Roadmaps and pathway analyses suggest electro-thermal
The ceramic industry uses kilns fired by natural gas. A full switch technologies, especially heat pumps, for providing the required
to bio-based fuels is not possible without novel kilns (Cavazzuti heat. A study of novel and emerging technologies for food pro-
et al., 2013). Emission reductions of 64% can be achieved, given cessing ranks heat pumps first before other electromagnetic tech-
that 80% of the fuel in ceramic plants is used in the kiln (Cerame- nologies (Jermann et al., 2015). Heat pumps can reduce fuel
Unie, 2012) and current kilns permit the substitution of 80% of consumption for specific diary processes by more than 40% (Becker
natural gas by bio-based syngas (Haydock and Napp, 2013). Data
published in roadmaps indicate a decarbonisation potential of
Table 8
28%e30%. Given the different properties of bio-based syngas Potential emission abatement per subsector by means of improved process heat
compared to natural gas, utilisation of high shares of syngas in provision.
today's installations reduces burner efficiencies (Duclos et al.,
Pulp & Paper Food
2014).
All feedstock and final products from the food & drinks industry Berenschot (2017) Electrification of heat
Brolin et al. (2017) 100% (of boilers)
are biomass. Waste and excess production can serve as energy WSP and DNV GL (2015) 100% (heat provision)
carrier. Anaerobic digestion can transform waste with wet contents Haydock and Napp (2013) 2%
above 60% into usable biogas without further pre-treatment JRC (2013) Electrification of heat
(Appels et al., 2011) and at a maximum conversion efficiency of Åhman et al. (2012) Electrification of heat
Additional sources: <29% <57%
80% (Hall and Howe, 2012). For Switzerland, Beretta et al. (2013)
et al., 2011). In case of Spain, process heat accounts for 37% of the use are lower. Instead of replacing base materials, solid waste like
energy required in the food processing industry and is entirely scrap glass, paper sludge and other organic and inorganic additives
provided by fossil fuels (Aranda-Uso n et al., 2012). Electrification of can be introduced to the manufacturing process. While impact of
heat provision can reduce emissions related to these thermal pro- using waste materials on the CO2 balance is only indirect, some
cesses. Wang (2014) estimates that 57% of fossil fuel used in food additives permit lower kiln temperatures and reduce the energy
processing is used for steam production. Electrifying the steam intensity of processes. On laboratory scale it has been shown that
provision could reduce emission reduction by 57%. recycled scrap glass can reduce the kiln temperature from 1250 C
A high share of energy is required for boilers providing process to 1000 C for ceramic tile production (Andreola et al., 2016).
heat for both reviewed industries. Heat pumps are the most dis- Reduced kiln temperatures can also be achieved by means of waste
cussed option for electrifying process heat provision in the food additives in the red ceramics subsector (Vieira and Monteiro, 2009).
subsector, while this technology is less prominent for the pulp &
Based on laboratory tests Sveda et al. (2017) estimate that a new
paper industry. Temperature ranges in both industries are reaching additive containing aldehyde condensates reduces CO2 emissions
up to 200 C. Heat pumps can theoretically be used to electrify heat of the brick production by 60%. Inorganic additives can negatively
provision in both subsectors (Wolf et al., 2012). Future emission affect the plasticity of ceramic materials while organic additives as
reductions can range from incremental improvements of the bio-waste negatively impact CO2 process emissions (Demir, 2008).
existing technologies to a full electrification of heat provision. Little information about corresponding CO2 emission reduction can
be found in scientific literature and roadmap and pathway analyses.
4.6. Alternative feedstock The 10% reduction stated in (WSP and DNV GL, 2015) remains the
only available estimate.
Mining, pre-treatment and processing operations have distinct Clinker substitutes can help to reduce emissions from the
carbon footprints for different types of feedstock. Non-bio-based cement industry significantly, but might require novel process de-
alternative feedstock could reduce process emissions in the signs. New additives or small changes to the feedstock decompo-
cement and ceramic industry. It can lower process temperatures sition are expected to bring only minor improvements in both the
and/or reduce material-specific emissions. Publications reviewed ceramic and cement subsector.
for TASK 1 (Fig. 1) state possible decarbonisation potentials as
summarised in Table 9. 4.7. Electrolysis
The base material for cement clinker is limestone. It can make
up to 95% of feedstock and its processing accounts for 50% of sub- Electrochemical separation techniques as electrolysis do not
sector emissions (CEMBUREAU, 2013). CO2 is a side product of the require excessive thermal energy. Electrolysis with zero-emission
chemical transformation of clinker to cement inside the kiln. By electricity can be an alternative to furnaces and kilns for different
substituting clinker, emissions can be reduced. The degree of EII. State of the art in the aluminium, zinc or nickel production,
decarbonisation depends on the substitution rate. In reviewed electrolysis could potentially be used for steel making and for the
roadmap publications, estimates of the decarbonisation potential production of hydrogen.
vary. A clinker ratio to 70% results in a 4% emission reduction. ULOLYSIS and ULCWIN are two different approaches towards
Reduction rates for novel clinker materials are prospected to be 30% carbon neutral steel making by electrolysis. Research is currently in
for BCSAF (Belite Calcium Sulfo-Aluminate Ferrite) and up to 50% the laboratory phase (ULCOS, 2008). Both are stated by multiple
for Celitement or magnesium-based cement. These estimates are in roadmaps and pathway projects as possible technologies with low
line with recent scientific publications. According to Kim et al. introduction probability until 2050 (Table 10). ULCOLYSIS requires
(2013) reductions of up to 7% have been achieved by varying the temperatures of up to 1600 C. ULCOWIN can be carried out at
share of admixtures. Calcium Sulfo-Aluminate Ferrite cement re- 110 C (Goel and Sudhakar, 2017). If carbon-neutral electricity is
quires a 200 C lower kiln temperature, with emission reductions used, maximum decarbonisation potential for both is stated as 98%.
varying between 20% and 30% depending on manufacturer infor- Based on primary steel production in Europe (World Steel
mation (van Lieshout, 2015). Additional savings can be achieved if Association, 2016) and its energy intensity (Worrell et al., 2007)
furnaces slag, a by-product of steel plants, is used as feedstock for the carbon footprint of the industry would decrease by 84% if
the cement industry (Davidovits, 2011). Alternatively, cement electrolysis was used and EAF continued to be used for secondary
recycling is discussed and with pilots in operation in Japan (Shima steel making.
et al., 2005) and the Netherlands (van Lieshout, 2015). Emission Producing hydrogen by means of electrolysis could help to
reduction is limited (less than 4%), energy intensive and requires reduce emissions of all EIIs further. Utilising existing natural gas
extra process steps. transport infrastructure, hydrogen could be a carbon-neutral sub-
In the ceramic industry, emissions originating from feedstock stitute for natural gas. Today, hydrogen is produced using natural
gas, emitting 11.9 t CO2/t of hydrogen produced (Spath and Mann,
2000). Hydrogen from electrolysis is carbon-neutral, but energy
Table 9
Potential emission abatement per subsector by means of alternative feedstock
intensive and requires 4.5e5.0 kWh/m3 of electricity (Wang et al.,
utilisation. 2014).
Cement Ceramic
Berenschot (2017) Table 10

Brolin et al. (2017) Potential emission abatement per subsector by means of electrolysis.
WSP and DNV GL (2015) 10%
Iron & steel
Haydock and Napp (2013) 50%
JRC (2013) WSP and DNV GL (2015) 80%
Croezen and Korteland (2010) 50% Croezen and Korteland (2010) 100%
Carbon Market Watch (2016) 30% EUROFER (2013) 30%
Fleiter et al. (2013) 50% Fleiter et al. (2013) 100%
CEMBUREAU (2013) 4% Remus et al. (2013) <98%
Additional sources: <4e30% e Additional sources: 84e98%
4.8. Combined heat & power (CHP) achievements are likely as soon as novel Rankine cycles utilising
process off-heat are commercially available (Peris et al., 2015).
Cogeneration, the combined generation of power and heat, is Based on the available data on European subsector penetration, it is
not a novel technology and BAT for various industries. Penetration likely that subsector emissions could be reduced between 5% and
in EU member states varies significantly due to different regula- 10%.
tions and support schemes (CODE2, 2015). According to roadmap The ceramic and food & drinks subsector are both heat and
and pathway analyses, advances and untapped potentials are key electricity intensive, making cogeneration a viable option. For both
for the ceramics, food and (petro)-chemical subsector (Table 11). subsectors, the installation of a CHP system reduces fossil fuel input
For the (petro)-chemical industry, no clear differentiation be- and emissions. Lack of information about CHP penetration within
tween currently installed equipment and remaining subsector po- both subsectors in EU member states hampers the estimation of the
tential is possible. High penetration within the subsector have been untapped decarbonisation potential by this technology. Minimum
reported for the UK (COGEN, 2013), Germany (Suttor, 2011) and abatement potential for both subsectors is calculated assuming a
Austria (Büchele et al., 2015). Saygin et al. (2011) state high po- 50% CHP penetration today. For the (petro)-chemical subsector a
tentials for the industry, but reference 15-year-old data (IEA, 2007). high CHP penetration is assumed, making additional reductions
According to recent data by the European industry association difficult to achieve.
(CEFIC, 2017), the energy intensity of the subsector decreased by
59.7% since 1990. In 2015 the sectors energy intensity was more
than 20% lower than in 2005. According to Boulamanti and Moya 4.9. Industrial ovens
(2017) 22 GW of CHP capacity are installed in the European
(petro)-chemical subsector with additional potential estimated to Heating, cooking, baking or drying processes are required in all
be 2750 MW. Additional installations could only reduce subsector subsectors of the EII. For the scope of this review, industrial ovens
emissions by less than 2% compared to today. are defined as processes with direct heat application below 500 C.
Additional potentials for the food & drinks subsector depend on According to publications reviewed for TASK 1 (Fig. 1), such low to
the current penetration rate in Europe. Estimates for Italy suggest medium temperature application are especially relevant for the
that more than 15% of heat used in the subsector is supplied by pulp & paper and food & drinks industry (Table 12).
onsite CHPs (Destro et al., 2017), whereas data for Austria indicates Drying is the most energy intensive process step of paper
that CHP penetration in the food & drinks industry is close to its making, accounting for 50% of the energy consumption (Laurijssen
maximum (Büchele et al., 2015). Case studies for the food industry et al., 2010a) and 70% of fossil fuel use (Fleiter et al., 2013). Multiple
(Bianco et al., 2016) demonstrate that the installation of co- and tri- novel technologies for paper drying are discussed within roadmaps
generation facilities, additionally used for cooling, can reduce pri- and pathway projects. Impulse drying is a concept that was
mary energy demand and emissions further. The potential is higher developed in the 1970s. Research on the technology is ongoing in
than stated in roadmap and pathway analyses. CO2 reductions of up Sweden. Its limited potential for fine paper production hinders its
to 40% for an olive processing plant in Spain (Celma et al., 2013) and application (Lucisano, 2016). Higher process temperatures by su-
30% for industrial bakeries in Poland (Meyers et al., 2016) are stated perheated steam drying, an increased dew point in the hood, or a
as feasible given today's energy mix. The installation of novel ORCs steam box can reduce process related energy requirements.
for low temperature heat applications can increase the efficiency of Laurijssen et al. (2010a) show that total energy consumption, and
cogeneration systems further (Law et al., 2013). Given CHP pene- thereby emissions, of the paper mill can be reduced by 15%. This
tration in Europe taking into account national penetration rates as would require an increased drying temperature, utilising off-heat
presented by Tudoroiu-Lakavice (2016), the authors estimate that in pre-heating equipment and better process control. With refer-
an increased share of cogeneration can reduce subsector emissions ence to Fleiter et al. (2012) new drying techniques can reduce
by 5%e15%. emissions by about 4%. Temperature ranges between 100 C and
Multiple roadmaps estimate that CHP will play an important 200 C make cooking and drying processes a candidate for elec-
role in reducing emissions of the ceramics industry. In southern trification. According to the European subsector association,
European countries additional reduction potential is limited due to infrared drying can lower emissions of the European industry by up
subsector wide implementation of CHP systems in the 1990s. to 1e2 Mt CO2/year until 2050 (CEPI, 2011). Full electrification of
Spanish, Portuguese and Italian manufacturers, accounting for drying processes can reduce emissions by up to 70%.
more than 50% of the European ceramics production (EUROSTAT, For the food industry, the main decarbonisation pathway is the
2018), employ CHP (Batier, 2013). Replacing existing installations electrification of low temperature cooking and baking processes.
with new CHPs can improve the system efficiency. According to Electric heating technologies are the main emerging technologies
Suttor (2011), cogeneration is not widely used in the German ce- for food processing (Jermann et al., 2015). Assuming that thermal
ramics industry. Novel kiln designs with integrated cogeneration energy use in the food processing subsector in Spain as stated by
capabilities as developed in the DREAM project could reduce the Aranda-Uso n et al. (2012) is representative for other EU member
emissions of these plants by up to 20% (Gabriele, 2016). Updating a states, electrification of ovens and furnaces reduces the carbon
plant without CHP with a BAT system reduces primary energy
consumption by 10% (Zabalza Bribia n et al., 2011). Additional
Table 12
Potential emission abatement per subsector by means of improved industrial ovens.
Pulp & Paper Food & Drinks

Table 11 WSP and DNV GL 5e50% (depending on 5e63% (depending on
Potential emission abatement per subsector by means of furnaces. (2015) technology) technology)
Croezen and Korteland 10e60% (depending on
(Petro)-Chemical Ceramics Food & Drinks
(2010) technology)
Chan and Kantamaneni (2015) 10% Berenschot (2017) 70% (full electrification)
WSP and DNV GL (2015) 15% 11% Haydock and Napp 70% (ohmic heating for
JRC (2013) 10% (2013) ovens)
Additional sources: <2% 5e10% 5e15% Additional sources: 4e70% 37%
footprint by up to 37%. reverse osmosis can be improved significantly by heat recovery

In both the food and the pulp & paper industry, direct heat (Wang and Chung, 2015). Advances for the separation process have
applications below 500 C are the principal emitters of CO2 emis- the potential to reduce subsector emissions between 5% and 45%.
sions. Electrification presents itself as the main alternative to Abatement options as improved catalyst, MD and full imple-
reduce fossil fuel dependence. Given that temperature ranges in the mentation of membrane technology offer multiple approaches to
pulp & paper subsector are significantly higher than in the food reduce the CO2 intensity.
subsector, electrification of existing equipment is less prominent. Advancements in membrane technology can also reduce heat
The high share of fossil fuel use for drying applications in the pulp & and energy intensity of the food-processing subsector. The advan-
paper industry, though, results in a higher theoretical potential tages of large scale implementation of membrane technology in the
than for the food & drinks subsector. Electrification options for the food industry are discussed by multiple authors, as Cassano (2015),
food subsector are closer to commercialisation and pilots are but many applications are still in laboratory or pilot phase
ongoing. (Alkhudhiri et al., 2012). No quantification of the abatement po-
tential for the subsector is possible. Applications are too process
specific for the different production routes.
4.10. Catalyst processes & membrane separation
5. Industrial decarbonisation impact in the 2050 horizon

Most chemicals are gaseous or liquids. This distinguishes the
final products and production technologies in the (petro)-chemical
Options to reduce carbon emissions within the different sub-
from most of the other industries. Today, distillation of liquids
sectors, their technological readiness and their impact on the car-
utilising catalysts is the most common separation method.
bon footprint are a diverse collection of technical solutions. Section
Advanced membranes could be used instead and reduce heat re-
4 shows that roadmaps and literature favour distinct areas of
quirements to a minimum. In this section, the prospective abate-
abatement potentials for the different industries. In this section,
ment potential of these technologies for the (petro)-chemical
results of this review are analysed and contrasted. Five main find-
industry is discussed. Membranes can also replace currently used
ings about the industrial decarbonisation process until 2050 are
separation methods in the food & drinks industry and are studied
presented within separate subsections, each of them indicating
as well (Table 13).
knowledge gaps that need to be addressed by further research.
Separation and cracking processes account for about 50% of the
process emissions in the (petro)-chemical industry (Bazzanella and
5.1. Maximised process optimisation by standardised equipment
Ausfelder, 2017). Novel catalysts can reduce the reaction tempera-
ture in distillation and separation. This alternative has been widely
Main processes for the different EIIs are tailor-made to manu-
discussed in roadmaps, but little research about recent advance-
facture specific basic materials. Incremental efficiency improve-
ments can be found. Rahimpour et al. (2013) reviewed the devel-
ments for process specific equipment like distillation columns,
opment of novel catalysts for naphtha reforming over the last 50
furnaces, kilns and drying routes are likely, but innovations remain
years with the most recent advancement dating back from the early
sector specific. In the cement industry, additional pre-heater/pre-
2000s. Figures stated by Rafiqul et al. (2005) indicate that novel
calciner can improve efficiency in case that no multi-stage kilns
catalysts for the ammonia production can reduce energy demand
have been installed, yet. Novel catalysts can improve distillation
and CO2 emissions by a few percentage points. Measurements
processes, and redesign of furnaces can reduce emissions in the
presented by Chan and Kantamaneni (2015) show how subsector
steel industry. Cross-sectoral synergies for new equipment exist for
energy consumption could be reduced by 5%.
low temperature heating and auxiliary processes. Equipment like
To achieve major emission cuts in the industry, catalytic pro-
heat exchangers, heat pumps or (hybrid)-boilers, is standardised
cesses need to be replaced by membranes. This means a shift from
for lower temperature ranges and is an effective option to reduce
thermal-chemical separation to mechanical separation processes.
the carbon footprint of the entire industrial sector. Advances in
Compared to thermal separation processes, membrane-based
areas like improved heat recovery, heat provision or process control
separation requires 90% less energy (Sholl and Lively, 2016). Ac-
cannot decarbonise the industry completely, but enable it to reduce
cording to multiple publications nano-membranes are key for
emissions without changing the currently used subsector specific
achieving decarbonisation objectives. This novel technology is still
production routes. The role of such standardised equipment in
in the early research phase and not commercially available. Appli-
decarbonising both energy intensive and non-intensive industries
cations are limited due to the low purities that can be achieved
needs to be evaluated further. It is important to understand by how
(Sanders et al., 2013). Membrane distillation (MD) or hybrid
much and until when the EII can reduce their emissions holding on
distillation is a combination of membrane and distillation tech-
to current process designs and upgrading such standardised
nology. Caballero et al. (2009) shows that for the separation of near
equipment.
ideal substances, as processed in the (petro)-chemical subsector,
energy saving potentials of 30% compared to distillation are
5.2. Key breakthrough technologies for decarbonisation are
possible. Energy is used in form of pressure instead of heat. The
required
energy efficiency of MD applications with lower temperatures like
Optimising current production processes will not reduce emis-

Table 13 sions sufficiently. Breakthrough innovations are required in all
Potential emission abatement per subsector by means of novel catalyst & membrane reviewed industries. Electrolysis could permit the deep decarbon-
technologies.
isation of the iron & steel industry. The electrification of drying and
(Petro)-Chemical Food & Drinks heating processes is key for the pulp & paper, food & drinks and
Samadi et al. (2016) 0e33% (distillation) glass subsectors. For the cement industry, CCS and alternative
66e100% (membranes) feedstock offer the highest emission reduction potentials. Novel
WSP and DNV GL (2015) 2e15% 19% membranes and carbon capture are discussed for the (petro)-
Haydock and Napp (2013) 33% (distillation) chemical industry. A high share of biomass could be the solution for
Additional sources: 5e45% e
the ceramics subsector. Most of these solutions are subsector
specific and technologies are not market ready. Contrasting the abatement, only CCS and biomass & waste utilisation can be
individual subsector impacts of these technologies with the carbon considered as front- or end-of-pipe innovations. The review pre-
intensity of the different subsectors presented in Table 1, four key sented in Sections 4.3, 4.4 and 4.6 shows that innovations con-
technology areas can be identified: novel membrane technology, cerning CCS, biomass, waste and alternative feedstock often do
carbon-neutral steelmaking, alternative clinker materials in the require a process redesign and will not be implemented on short
cement industry and CCS (Fig. 5). Each of these technologies by notice. Improvements of auxiliary heat provision, recovery and re-
itself could abate industrial emissions by 8% to more than 20% if use do not imply changes to the production system.
implemented in the reviewed subsectors. As of today, the imple- Market penetration of commercially competitive novel solu-
mentation of these technologies on commercial scale is not tions in these areas will take place incrementally over a medium-
feasible. Carbon-neutral steelmaking and membrane technologies term time horizon. Breakthrough innovations discussed previ-
are still in early research phases. No alternative material for the ously in Section 5.2 involve a complete transformation of produc-
cement production is more price competitive than limestone based tion systems. Sector wide implementation will happen over a time
clinker. Carbon capture has been implemented on pilot scale, but horizon of 20 years and more after market-readiness. Some
operational costs and uncertainty concerning its long term storage equipment has an economic lifetime of 40e50 years (Habert et al.,
hinder industry wide application. A review of scientific publications 2010). If replaced today, such equipment will still be in operation
about CCS infrastructure in the EII expects sector wide imple- post 2050 if opportunity costs for alternative installations do not
mentation in the 2030 to 2050 (Leeson et al., 2017). Market readi- justify premature replacement. This path dependency of technol-
ness of membrane and electrolysis technologies is unlikely before ogies has to be considered when formulating refined decarbon-
2040 (WSP and DNV GL, 2015). The question needs to be asked isation targets and designing policies aiming for an industrial
whether intensified support for breakthrough key technologies is decarbonisation until 2050.
required to accelerate their penetration and the industrial
transition.
5.4. Uncertainty of emission reduction potential
5.3. Technological readiness and investment cycles of technology The performance characteristics of prospective future technol-
adoption ogies are based on assumptions regarding their applicability and
operating efficiencies. This results in major uncertainties regarding
Many reviewed abatement options have in common that market the possible minimum and maximum decarbonisation potential
readiness is not expected before 2030. In this context, the rate at that can be achieved across all subsectors. Fig. 6 shows the mini-
which existing installations are replaced by new technologies is an mum/maximum range of sector specific abatement potential for all
important factor when evaluating industrial decarbonisation op- reviewed findings within each of the reviewed areas of emission
tions. EIIs can be characterised by the longevity of their process abatement. Ranges can cover values between close to BAT and
equipment. Replacement and update of existing process technol- maximum theoretical potentials. For the glass industry, for
ogies depends on the remaining lifetime of currently installed example, the impact of novel furnace designs on decarbonisation
equipment, its operational costs and expected costs for new tech- varies between 4% and 80% (Table 5). Some publications only refer
nologies. According to Vellinga (1999) innovation cycles range be- to minor improvements to currently used kiln technology, while
tween 5 years for end-of-pipe solutions, 10e15 years for process others discuss theoretical concepts like the full electrification for
and product adjustments and up to more than 20 years for entire the mass-production of glass.
production system changes. Of the reviewed areas of emission Uncertainty gaps also exist for areas of abatement potentials for
Fig. 5. Reduction of total industrial CO2 emissions by abatement options per industry (values based on min/max ranges derived from Section 4 multiplied by subsector emission
shares as shown in Table 1).
Fig. 6. Key technological abatement options across all reviewed industries and their min/max potential for total industrial decarbonisation (subsector impact as shown in Table 1 is
multiplied by identified potentials stated in Section 4).
which roadmaps and pathways publications primarily consider the 6. Conclusions & outlook
full implementation of BAT. CHP, for example, is a mature tech-
nology. It will only account for an additional cross-sectoral emis- In this review, different areas of possible emission abatement for
sion abatement between 0.3% and 0.8% for reviewed industrial the energy intensive industry were identified and subsequently
subsectors. The maximum potential is more than twice as high as analysed. Contrasting innovations discussed in pathway and road-
the minimum potential. The main source for this uncertainty is the map publications for the different industries, it can be concluded
lack of knowledge regarding the current penetration of the tech- that there is little consensus on how deep decarbonisation of the EII
nology within the reviewed subsectors. Such uncertainties are will be achieved. Key areas of emission abatement across all sub-
present for heat recovery, process heat provision, biomass uti- sectors are reviewed and are contrasted with scientific literature.
lisation and BAT furnace design. A better understanding of the The findings presented in Section 5 allow the following
current state of technology is essential to evaluate the improve- conclusions.
ments possible with BAT and novel technologies. Future research Standardised cross-sector technologies exist for auxiliary and
into industrial decarbonisation should address this uncertainty. lower temperature heat applications. Improvements and increased
electrification of these areas will not be enough to lower industrial
CO2 emissions sufficiently. Breakthrough technologies are required
to achieve deep decarbonisation of the EII. Key are especially the
5.5. Cross-sectoral implications of innovations emergence of membrane technology in the (petro)-chemical in-
dustry, carbon neutral steelmaking, alternative feedstock for the
Technologies presented in this review are contrasted with cement production and carbon capture & storage (CCS). None of
respect to their ability to decarbonise specific subsectors. In some these technologies is market ready and commercially availability is
cases, abatement options for the industrial sector could require the not expected before 2030. In the light of long innovation cycles
emergence of external infrastructure and in others help to reduce within the industry, their sector wide implementation by 2050 is
cross-sectoral instead of subsector-specific emissions. CCS, dis- questionable. Policies designed to foster such key technologies and
cussed within 4.3, is only feasible if appropriate transport and accelerate their development and implementation is essential for
storage infrastructure exist. It is more likely to be economically reaching CO2 reduction targets. A better understanding of the
feasible within industrial clusters with a shared transport infra- expectable decarbonisation potential of novel technologies and the
structure, than for isolated plants built in the vicinity of the pro- technological status-quo within the entire industry is prerequisite
cessed raw materials. for designing such policies. Uncertainty has to be reduced. Further
Processes utilising hydrogen instead of fossil fuels call for the research is necessary to understand how the decarbonisation of the
emergence of a hydrogen based economy. An example presented industry affects the transformation of other sectors of the economy
within this review is carbon-neutral steelmaking by means of DRI. and their carbon footprint. Models and simulations used for poli-
For electrified processes to be carbon-neutral, electricity needs to cymaking need to account for these cross-sectorial interactions to
be provided from renewable sources. External system trans- capture the full impact of the deep decarbonisation of the EII.
formations have to be considered when evaluating decarbonisation
pathways encompassing CCS, electrification and a hydrogen econ-
Appendix A. Supplementary data
omy. Another aspect will become relevant in case of heat recovery
technologies. Recoverable heat can be provided to external parties
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
without direct effects on the carbon footprint of the industrial
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.11.036.
subsector itself. Using off-heat from cement kilns to generate
electricity can reduce cross-sectoral carbon emissions. However, as
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Journal of Cleaner Production 210 (2019) 585e601

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

A review of cross-sector decarbonisation potentials in the European

6. Conclusions & outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598

1. Introduction common that a top-down approach is chosen. Based on the

Fig. 2. Standardisation of decarbonisation potentials framework.

Berenschot (2017) 2 9 2 5,9,10

Fig. 4. Areas of most discussed abatement options.

Chan and Kantamaneni (2015) <1% 2% <1%

recovery without quantifying its potential. The decarbonisation Table 5

Table 7 demonstrate that two-third of losses in the food processing in-

balance given emission-free handling and transport (Sedjo, 2011).

Berenschot (2017) Table 10

Pulp & Paper Food & Drinks

footprint by up to 37%. reverse osmosis can be improved signiﬁcantly by heat recovery

5. Industrial decarbonisation impact in the 2050 horizon

Optimising current production processes will not reduce emis-

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