Lesson 1: Introduction to Philosophy and Logic FIVE BASIC GROUNDS

DEFINITION OF PHILOSOPHY 1. IT CUTS ALL EFFORTS OF MAN IN

SEARCHING AND TRUE KNOWLEDGE AND

Philein ( “love of” or “friendship for”) FOR LOVE OF WISDOM.
and sophia (“ wisdom”)
 It was coined by Pythagoras (570-495 2. IT HAS THE FORCE TO CONTINUOUSLY
BCE) ANSWER THE NEVER-ENDING QUEST FOR
 It means “love of wisdom” rather than TRUTH AND REALITIES.
“love of knowledge”
3. IT INVOLVES A CRITICAL EVALUATION OF
 Philosophy is the study of fundamental
FACTS AND RENDERS VALUE JUDGEMENT
questions about the nature of reality,
THEREON.
human existence, knowledge, values
and beauty. 4. IT TREATS WITH MENTAL ACTIVITIES OF
REASONING IN DEALING WITH THE
Introduction to Philosophy
MULTIFACETED AFFAIRS OF LIFE.
According to Thales (Greek philosopher,
5. IT MAKES AND SHAPES THE KIND OF
astronomer and mathematician)
HUMAN LIFE.
 “It is an act of one who begins to
PURPOSE OF PHILOSOPHY
wonder, search, and discover the
mysteries of anything.” 1. It expands the knowledge and
 Aristotle said: “All men, by nature, understanding of man on everything from
desire to know" what is in the past, present, and what
maybe in the future.
Nature of Philosophy
2. It is a powerful tool that equips man to
 It is always behind everything that every
more flexible in confronting various
man sees and those he does not see,
difficulties
those he experiences and those which
he does not see. 3. It widens one’s appreciation of the
 It is a science that studies and definiteness to infiniteness of things or from
investigates all sensible things in terms generalization to specification.
of their causes, reasons, principles and
their effects on human existence, and 4. It holds importance in problem-solving,
not by mere opinions, beliefs and persuasive powers, creating and inventing
theories alone. something, and communicating and writing
 It is an art as it adheres to a body of skills.
rules and principles by which man
PURPOSE OF PHILOSOPHY
directs his actions to his desired
choices.
 “While faith and Divine Authority have no 6. Do not use to power to suppress opinions
place in philosophical quest of true you think pernicious, for if you do, the
knowledge, it may serve as guide in starting opinions will suppress you.
the quest.”
7. Do not fear to be eccentric in opinion, for
“The goal of philosophy is achieved through every opinion now accepted was once
the systematized and orderly human eccentric
reasons and not on any authority, as the
latter is only a creation of the former.” 8. Find more pleasure in intelligent dissent
than in passive agreement, for if you value
“Philosophy has reserved the right to render intelligence as you should, the former
value judgments and thus it goes beyond implies a deeper agreement than the latter.
the boundaries of all other arts and
sciences.” 9. Be scrupulously truthful even if the truth
is inconvenient, for it is more inconvenient
“Boredom is a vital problem for the when you try to conceal it.
moralist, since half of the sins of mankind is
caused by the fear of it” -Bertrand Russell 10. Do not feel envious at the happiness of
those who live in a fool’s paradise, for only a
“He who conquers others is strong, and he fool will think what happiness is.
who conquers himself is the greatest
victor”. – Confucius BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY

Ten Commandments in Philosophy TWO MAJOR CATEGORIES OF PHILOSOPHY

1. Do not feel absolutely certain of anything. 1. According to theoretical fields of study

2. Do no think it worthwhile to produce 1.1 Metaphysics – it examines the

belief by concealing evidence, for the nature of reality, of beings, and of
evidence is sure to come to light. existence in general analysis. It is a
quest beyond the physical world of
3. Never try to discourage thinking, for you man- life after death, heaven, spirit,
are sure to succeed. angels, and God.

4. When you meet with opposition, even if 1.2. Ontology - it concerns on knowing
it is from your family, endeavor to overcome the nature of man and his existence
it with argument and not by authority, for a with respect to place and time.
victory dependent upon authority is unreal
and illusory. 1.3 Cosmology – the deeper study of
the universe as an orderly system, its
5. Have no respect for the authority of origin, structure, elements, principles
others, for there are always contrary and laws underlying its existence and
authorities to be found. operations.
 1.4 Teleology – it examines and 2.5 Logic – the science and art that deals with
elucidates the presence or absence of the principles or laws of accurate thinking and
the purpose and meaning of the systematic and orderly methods of reasoning.
existence of the universe

1.5 Psychology – it deals with the mind or

consciousness. Introduction to Logic

1.6 Epistemology – concerned with the origin, Etymology - From the Greek word “logos”
nature and validity of knowledge in all its forms. which means study, reason or speech. - First
introduced by Greek Philosopher Zeno, using
 Agnosticism - the knowledge of ultimate the term “logike” to mean “ discourse of
reality is of great impossibility. thinking “ or ‘treatise of thought’
 Skepticism - holding that any knowledge
-Logic is the study of the mental analysis of
is impossible.
facts, correct thinking, proper presenting of the
 Posteriori - experience results to
terms and reasoning
knowledge
 Priori - knowledge may be acquired -It deals with the principle of deductive and
through systematic and orderly inductive arguments aimed at distinguishing
reasoning alone and even before valid or invalid reasoning.
experience.
Logic as an Art and Science
1.7 Theodicy – it focuses on investigating the
nature, being, goodness and justice of God, His  It is a science because it involves a
relationship to man and the things in the systematized and orderly-arranged truth
universe, and his divinity. and principles that governs the
propriety of thinking, and the principles
2. Practical Fields of valid reasoning and argument.
 As an art, it concerns with the
2.1 Semantics – the meaning and linguistics
expression of beauty of correct thinking
forms of words, their symbolic functions and
and reasoning.
their influence on human thoughts and
behavior Nature of Logic

2.2. Axiology - it investigates the origin, nature  It uses critical analysis because it
and meaning of values, what is valuable or not. involves various stages of thorough
intellectual or mental activities
2.3 Ethics – it investigates the right and the
before arriving at correct thinking
wrong or propriety of the behavior of man, the
and reasoning and valid inferences.
moral good and evil conduct.
 It uses words and signs appearing as
2.4 Aesthetics – it concerns on the study of terms.
beauty and the value of works of art, what is  It is directed towards the formation
beautiful and what is not. of a correct and valid reasoning,
regardless of whether or not the
 reasons are in agreement with In reasoning the presentation of statement
facts. carries both the form and material to make
such reasoning correct. However, there maybe
statements that may not be valid in either or
both.

Classification of Logic Correct reasoning therefore exist when the

conclusion is validly derived from the given
A. Arriving at Knowledge premises, although it may not necessarily mean
1. Deductive Logic- method of drawing truth. It must have the agreement in the flow or
conclusion from general or universal to arrangement or pattern of reasoning and
particular or specific principle. consistent in form and matter.

Ex. All that have feathers lay eggs. Hens lay LOGIC: ITS IMPORTANCE
eggs. Therefore, hens have feathers.
1. It guides man in his search for truth
2. Inductive Logic – method of generating 2. It develops and perfects reasoning power and
a conclusion based on scientific analysis expressions
of facts using techniques of probability, 3. It assures both the better intrapersonal and
interpersonal relationships
hence more error is likely to occur
4. It improves comprehension in other subjects
which tend to be less accurate than the in philosophy
deductive method. 5. It develops critical thinking and problem
solving
Ex: Jeffrey is reading a book 6. It improves the skill in drawing conclusions
Students are reading books. 7. It helps in increasing the ability to analyze
Therefore, Jeffrey is a student. facts
8. It improves in detecting the fallacious and
logical reasoning
B. Arriving at Valid Reasoning. 9. It develops the value of loving true
knowledge and wisdom
1. Formal Logic- when the reasoning agrees with
10.It helps in distinguishing assumptions from
the rules, structure. (subject-predicate), pattern implications.
or arrangement of parts in presenting an
arguments.

Examples All men are mortal. All people

identical to Socrates are men. Therefore, all
people identical to Socrates are mortal. PROPOSITIONS
Definition- It is a statement based on judgment
Material Logic – when the reasoning method of a thing, event or phenomenon.
considers the substance of the matter or  This statement must be expressed in
content of being thought to arrive at the truth. declarative form where judgment is
possible, and not in imperative,
Examples: Many birds can fly All monkeys eat interrogative and exclamatory
banana All birds sing statements.
  This declarative expression originates
the framework of enunciating falsity or Properties of a Proposition
truth, and affirmation and denial 1. Qualitative –it is based on the copula used,
through the union of two opposing either negative or affirmative.
terms of what the thing “ is” and is not
in the mind.

NATURE JUDGMENT OF A PROPOSITION Qualifiers:

1.ARISTOTELIAN PROPOSITION – it points to Affirmative – is, are, were, can, have
the universally accepted existence of the thing Negative – are not, were not, cannot, have not,
talked about. no, none, never, etc.

2.BOOLEAN PROPOSITION – it advances the 2. Quantitative – it is determined by the

inexistence of universally accepted proposition. extension of the subject term, either universal,
particular, or singular.
Example:
Universal quantifiers - all, every, nothing,
1. All teachers are educated. (This is correct in whoever, everybody, which ever
form and has existence).
Particular quantifiers – some, few, majority,
2. All unicorns are one-horned animals.( This is most, many, several
correct in form and has no existence)
Singular quantifier – it uses the copula term “ is”
 THEREFORE, AN ARGUMENT MAY except if it follows after the universal quantifiers
CONSIST OF A PREMISE THAT IS regardless of the quantity of the quantity of the
CORRECT IN FORM AND HAVE predicate terms that follows.
EXISTENTIAL IMPORTS WHILE OTHERS
MAY NOT. Example:

PROPOSITIONS All Filipinos are beautiful.

All- quantifier (universal)
Elements of a Proposition Filipinos- Subject
Are- the copula( positive qualifier)
1. Subject term- refers to something affirmed or Beautiful- predicate
denied Some Davaoenos are not lazy.
Some- Quantifier (particular)
2. Predicate term – refers to what is affirmed or Davaoenos- Subject Are not- the copula
denied. (negative qualifier)
Lazy- predicate
3. Copula – a formal term that links the subject
and predicate terms using either agreement or
disagreement. Kinds of Proposition

EXAMPLE Square is a plane 1. Simple – also known as attributive

Square = the subject term proposition where it simply limits a statement
Plane = the predicate term to a specific characteristic or a thing.
is = copula
1.1. As to mode ( Affirmative or Negative)  Desiree is either a mechanical engineer
Example: or automotive mechanic.

 Explosives can harm B. Conjuctive – it contains two or more possible

 Plants do not crawl propositions and which cannot exist to be true
simultaneously or altogether.

Example
1.2. As to quantity( Universal, Particular,
Singular)  Dr. Smith cannot have an academic
ranks of a Professor and Asst. Professor
Example: in the University.
 All ants crawl. C. Combination – it contains two or more
 Every boxer has firm fist proposition either or both can be true. This
 Many are electricity non-conductor contains the conjunctive or disjunctive and
2. Complex –it allows the mind to think deeply ”either, neither, both.”
on the possible alternative that is clear and Example:
definite. This also known as hypothetical
proposition.  Sam is either or neither or both an
electronics and computer engineering
2.1. Categorical – it either affirms or student
denies something without any qualification or
condition.

Examples: CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS

 Engineering courses are not easy. Definition

 Our Chemistry professors are smart.
 A PROPOSITION THAT RELATES TWO
2.2. Conditional- it asserts something with CLASSES OR CATEGORIES
qualification or condition. It can be disjunctive,  TWO CLASSES OR CATEGORIES ARE
conjunctive and combination. DENOTED RESPECTIVELY BY THE
SUBJECT TERM AND THE PREDICATE
Kinds of Conditional Proposition TERM.
A. Disjunctive – also known as alternative  THE PROPOSITION ASSERTS THAT
proposition, where it allows two or more EITHER ALL PART OR PART OF THE CLASS
possible propositions to be formed, but only DENOTED BY THE SUBJECT TERM IS
one will exist as true. INCLUDED IN OR EXCLUDED FROM THE
CLASS DENOTED BY THE PREDICATE
No two or more conditions will exist at the same TERM.
time. It contains the disjunctions “either, or”.
Example Four Types of Categorical
Propositions( STANDARD FORM)
 Katrina is either dull or bright.
 1. Those that assert that the whole subject class Copula : are
is included in the predicate class ( All S are P) Predicate Term : professionals holding degrees
Example. All monkeys are animals from recognized institutions
DISTRIBUTION OF TERMS
2. Those that assert that the whole subject is
excluded from the predicate class. (No S are P) Distribution is an attribute of the terms
Example. No roses are daisies (subject and predicate) of propositions.
A term is said to be distributed if the
3. Those that assert that the part of the subject proposition makes an assertion about
class is included in the predicate class ( Some S every member of the class denoted by
are P) Example. Some animals are mammals the term; otherwise, it is undistributed.
A term is distributed if and if the
4. Those that assert that part of the subject
statement assigns (or distributes) an
class is excluded from the predicate class ( Some
attribute to every member of the class
S are not P) Example. Some animals are not
denoted by the term.
mammals
Thus, if a statement asserts something
PROPOSITION Letter Quantity Quality Terms about every member of the S class,
Nam Distribut then S is distributed; if it asserts
e ed something about every member of the
All S are P A Universal Affirmative S P class then P is distributed, otherwise S
No S are P E Universal Negative S&P & P are distributed.
Some S are P I Particular Affirmative None
Some S are O Particular Negative P PROPOSITION MEANING IN
not P CLASS NOTATION
Some Nonstandard Formulations All S are P Every member of
the S class is a
• Universal Affirmative- Wherever, whenever, member of the P
whomever, whatever, any... class; that is, the S
class is included in
• Universal Negative- Never, none, not even the P class
one, all are not, no one No S are P No member of the
S class is a member
• Particular Affirmative- Many, most, quite a of the P class; that
few, several, a lot.... is, the S class is
excluded from the
Particular Negative- Not all, most aren't, not P class
every... Some S are P At least one
member of the S
STANDARD FORM CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION class is a member
Example: All members of the Philippine Institute of the P class
of Industrial Engineers are professionals holding Some S are not P At least one
degrees from recognized academic institutions member of the S
Quantifier : All class is not a
Subject Term : members of the Philippine member of the P
Institute of Industrial Engrs. class
 MODERN AND TRADITIONAL SQUARE OF
OPPOSITION

• Contradictory means they have opposite truth

values.

 The other unlabelled relationships (like

A to I, E to O, etc.) are logically
undetermined, meaning their truth
values can’t be determined by the
relationship between them.

According to the existential fallacy, it is only

committed in the Aristotelian Standpoint only
when drawing a conclusion from a premise
EXISTENTIAL IMPORTS that has no existence on the contrary,
subcontrary, and subalternation. The fallacy is
Boolean Standpoint never committed in contradictory regardless of
existence.
 All universals have no existence
regardless of the existence of the An example of the existential fallacy in
Aristotelian is:
subject or validity.

Aristotelian All unicorns are one-horned animals

 All universals have existence provided Thus, No unicorns are one-horned animals.
that the subject exist in the real world. The above example commits fallacy since the
premise has no existence and that the conclusion
MODERN SQUARE OF OPPOSITION precedes it.

When an I proposition transmits Truthness,

the O proposition will become logically
undetermined. Thus, the inference is invalid
since it will commit a formal fallacy, illicit
subcontrary.

To illustrate:

Some S are P is true.

Therefore, Some S are not P.

Some S are not P is true.

Therefore, Some S are P.

Since by definition subalternation implies the

subaltern which means that if the movement
in the square is downward, it should always
transmit truthness while upward transmit
falsity so that the corresponding proposition
will have the same truth value. A formal
fallacy, illicit subalternation, is committed if
the movement downward transmit falsity while
upward transmit truthness. Thus, the
inference will become invalid.

Form of the fallacy below:

All S are P is false.

Therefore, Some S are P

Some S are P is True.

Thus, All S are P.

No S are P is false.
Therefore, Some S are not P.

Some S are not P is true.

Therefore, No S are P.