Sustainability 15 12683
Sustainability 15 12683
Sustainability 15 12683
Article
Classification of 3D Casting Models for Product Lifecycle
Management and Corporate Sustainability
Tzung-Ming Chen * , Jia-Qi Wu and Jian-Ting Lin
Department of Industrial Education and Technology, Bao-Shan Campus, National Changhua University of
Education, No. 2, Shi-Da Road, Changhua 500, Taiwan
* Correspondence: tmchen@cc.ncue.edu.tw
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to combine simulations and experiments in order to present
the first stage of construction in product lifecycle management. Based on the simplification of
casting models, the relationship between the filling and solidification characteristics, casting methods,
and geometrical classifications of aluminum alloy precision casting products was investigated. By
rearranging and summarizing the data, the casting models could be digitally managed; moreover,
the digitized data could be used as the basis for intelligent processes in further developments. The
simulations calculated and analyzed the casting speeds, defect locations, material densities, and
critical fraction of a solid A356 aluminum–silicon alloy; the actual casting was carried out and samples
were taken for metallographic observation to confirm the simulation results. The part model was
simplified with four basic geometric shapes: solid cylinder, tubular, block rectangle, and thin-shell
rectangle. The 150 casting models were summarized using 37 combinations, which were further
classified into five main categories to match the casting method: solid cylindrical, tubular, and
thin-shell rectangular for side casting, and discoidal and plate rectangular for bottom casting. File-
compression rates of up to 75% were achieved after classification and archiving, and data integrity
was maintained. Finally, model training using random forest classification resulted in an 88.8%
accuracy when predicting the casting method. This research is based on the practical issues raised by
business owners and R&D engineers, and a solution was obtained. From the perspective of product
lifecycle management, the results of this study show the consistency and uniformity of product
Citation: Chen, T.-M.; Wu, J.-Q.; Lin,
design rules, as well as the reusability of product process planning, which can be integrated with
J.-T. Classification of 3D Casting
carbon emissions trading and carbon taxes to save energy and achieve corporate sustainability.
Models for Product Lifecycle
Management and Corporate
Keywords: energy saving; precision casting; geometric simplification; PLM; mold flow analysis;
Sustainability. Sustainability 2023, 15,
12683. https://doi.org/10.3390/
process automation
su151712683
digital system built on the existing experience of the company can maintain the level of
process capability and achieve flexibility in sustainable development [4,5].
The energy-intensive processes and repetitive cost depletion in the trial production
stage of the traditional foundry industry are environmental and governance issues, re-
spectively, with respect to corporate sustainability [6]. If product development, design
changes, or process planning can be predicted at each stage, the repeated consumption of
energy and costs can be reduced. In order to achieve this goal, computer-assisted design
(CAD) and computer-assisted process planning (CAPP) are the main practices used to
retrieve product information, such as materials, geometries, design changes, and process
parameters, to facilitate communication with parts’ library features during the design
phase [7,8]. Process planning for digital casting and process parameter selection in the form
of database control can predict the flow, heat transfer, solidification, and defect formation
of metal flow under different casting conditions in advance [9], which can save the cost
incurred by the actual trial and confirm the applicability of the pouring system in advance,
thus improving the success of castings. In the foundry industry, digital construction is
not only a necessary procedure for saving energy [10] but is also the basis for achieving
sustainable development.
During the solidification of castings, isolated molten metal zones are easily generated
that cannot be compensated by the surrounding metal liquid, and the formed shrinkage
holes directly affect the mechanical properties of the castings. Most of these incomplete
fillings are related to poor pouring systems with incorrect filling temperatures. To solve
this problem, using mold flow software to simulate and determine suitable parameters
is an efficient method. In 2019, A. R. Pradhan et al. [11] simulated a modified pouring
system using mold flow software and found that optimizing the flow rate could make
the metal liquid without fluctuation and reduce defects due to turbulence. In 2017, Y. W.
Dong et al. [12] predicted the deformation and shrinkage distribution of castings during the
solidification of investment casting through modeling. It is necessary to take the structural
characteristics and the inhomogeneous shrinkage distribution into account during the
casting process. L. Patnaik et al. [13] conducted an Al-Si-Cu mold flow simulation using
MAGMASOFT in 2020 to predict the filling temperature, filling time, solidification, pressure,
and slagging and finally evaluated the cooling position and made minor modifications to
accommodate a shorter filling time and lower pressure in the mold.
Simplification of the geometry of casting 3D models is a typical method used to reduce
the complexity of mold flow analysis and shorten the development time and cost. The
purpose of retaining the main features and removing the features with smaller influence
factors [14,15] is to maintain the similarity between the original model and the simplified
model in the process of data size reduction. There are many ways to simplify 3D models,
such as maintaining their polygonal shape to reduce the number of vertices and the space
required [16], the boundary representation’s model data to connect geometrical entities
with a topology [17], and rule-based methods with learning-based feature recognition [18].
The ultimate goal of simplification is to automate production. In 2023, C. Li et al. [19]
proposed a unified tool for the design/analysis/virtual evaluation of ship structures based
on multi-domain feature mapping. The design changes are always reflected in CAD and
computer-assisted engineering (CAE) models through data regeneration and analysis
iterations. Automated manufacturing systems are the most efficient methods of finishing a
product from the design to the manufacturing stage, and feature recognition is one of the
most important keys to integrating the two stages.
About 60% of the product design process is spent searching for correct information,
and 80% of the parts can be changed from the existing design. If the new parts can be
reconstructed using the data from the database and then linked with the new process, the
overall efficiency of the design can be greatly improved [20]. In 2021, S. Bickel et al. [21]
applied the geometric similarity from the verified old parts to the new parts to reduce the
development cost and shorten the production startup time. H. Besharati-Foumani et al. [22]
mentioned in 2020 that the development of an ontological approach to feature databases
Sustainability 2023, 15, 12683 3 of 15
Table
Table 2. 2. The
The The
two two
twobasic
basicbasicshapes
shapes
shapes of of of
rectangle
rectangle and and
rectangle cylinder
and
cylinder are are
cylinder further
are
further divided
further
divided into
divided
into solid
into
solid and and
solid hollow
and hol-
hollow
Table
Table
Table 2. 2.
TheThe
2.types.
types. The twotwo
two basic
basic
basic shapes
shapes
shapes ofof
of rectangle
rectangle
rectangle and
and
and cylinder
cylinder
cylinder areare
are further
further
further divided
divided
divided into
into
into solid
solid
solid andand
and hollow
hollow
hollow
low
types.
types.
types.
types.
A1 A1
A1A1 A2 A2 B1 B1
B1 B2 B2
B2
A1
A1 A2A2
A2 B1B1
B1 B2B2
B2
Sustainability
Sustainability
Sustainability 2023,
Sustainability2023,
2023, 15,
15,15,
2023,
15, xxxxFOR
FOR
FOR PEER
PEER
x FOR REVIEW
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 55555of
of
of
5 1515
1515
of
Sustainability
Sustainability
Sustainability 2023,
2023, 15,x15,
2023,
15, FOR
FOR PEER
PEERREVIEW
12683
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW of 515
of of
15 15
Table
Table
Table 3.
Table A
3.A
3. total
Atotal
total
A of
total 150
of150
150
of models
models
150 can
can
models be
can divided
bebe
divided
dividedinto
into
into55categories.
categories.
categories.
5 categories.
Table 3.
Table 3.A
3. A total of
total of 150
of 150 models
models can
models can be
can be divided
be divided into
divided into 555 categories.
into categories.
A/A/A
A/A/A
A/A/A
A/A/A
A/A/A
A/A/A A/A/D
A/A/D
A/A/D
A/A/D
A/A/D A/D/D
A/D/D
A/D/D
A/D/D
A/D/D
A/D/D B/B/D
B/B/D
B/B/D
B/B/D
B/B/D
B/B/D B/D/D
B/D/D
B/D/D
B/D/D
B/D/D
B/D/D
A/A/A A/A/D A/D/D B/B/D B/D/D
2.3.
2.3.
2.3.
2.3.2.3.
2.3.
2.3. Mold
Mold
Mold Mold
Mold
Mold
Mold Flow
Flow
Flow Flow
Flow
Flow
Flow Analysis
Analysis
Analysis
Analysis
Analysis
Analysis
Analysis
In
InIn
In this
Inthis
this
In
In
this
this this
thisstudy,
study,
study,
study,
study,
study,
study, SOLIDCast
SOLIDCast
SOLIDCast
SOLIDCast
SOLIDCast
SOLIDCast
SOLIDCast was
was
was
was
was was
was used
used
used
used
usedused
usedto
toto
to calculate
tocalculate
calculate
to
to calculate
calculate
calculate
calculate the
the
the
the
the thecritical
critical
critical
critical
thecritical
critical fraction
fraction
fraction
fraction
critical fraction
fraction
fraction ofof
of
of solid,
ofsolid,
solid,
of
of solid,
solid,
solid, material
material
material
material
solid, material
material
material
density,
density,
density,
density,
density, temperature,
temperature,
temperature,
temperature,
density, temperature,
temperature, flow flow
flow
flow flowrate,
rate,
rate,
rate,
flow rate,
rate, and and
and
and and pressure
pressure
pressure
pressure
and pressure
pressure inside inside
inside
inside
inside
inside each each
each
each each casting.
casting.
casting.
casting.
each casting.
casting. The The
The
The The simulated
simulated
simulated
simulated
The simulated
simulated casting casting
casting
casting
casting
casting
temperature
temperature
temperature and
and and
and surrounding
surrounding
surrounding
surrounding temperature
temperature
temperature
temperatureof of
of the
the
of the shell
shell
shell mold
mold
mold were
were
were set
setsetto
to 710
to710 ◦
710 °C,
°C,°C,the
the the thick-
thick-
thick-
temperature
temperature and
temperature and
and surrounding
surrounding
surrounding temperature
temperature
temperature ofofthe
of theshell
the
the shell mold
shell mold were
mold wereset
were
were set to
set to
to 710
710 °C,
710 C, the
°C,
°C, thethickness
the thick-
thick-
thick-
ness
ness
ness
nessness
ofof
ness of
of
the
of
of the
the
of
the
the
the the
shellshell
shell
shell
shell
shellshell
mold mold
mold
mold
mold
moldmold
was was
was
was
was
was was
setset
set
set
set
set set
toto
toto
to
to6 666
6
to
mm, mm,
mm,
6 mm,
mm,and
6 mm,
mm, and
and and
andthe
and
and the
the thecasting
casting
thecasting
the
the casting
castingtime
casting
casting time
time
time
timewas
time
time was
waswas
wasset
was
was set
set
setto
set
set to
to
set
to20
to
to 20
20
to s.
20
20s.s.
20
20 s.
s.The
s. The
The
s. The tempera-
tempera-
tempera-
Thetemperature
The
The tempera-
tempera-
tempera-
ture
ture
turedifference
difference
difference
difference in in
in
a a
a
in casting
casting
a
castingcasting
waswas
waswas
not not
notnot
moremore
more
more
than than
than than
100 100
100◦100
C,°C,
°C, the
°C,
the thethedifference
difference
difference
difference in in
in in
the the
thethe
flowflow
flow
flow
raterate
rateratewas
was
was was
not
ture
ture difference in a casting was not more than 100 °C, the difference in the flow rate
ture difference
difference in
in a
a casting
casting was
was not
not more
more than
than 100
100 °C,
°C, the
the difference
difference in
in the
the flow
flow rate
rate was
was
was
not
not
not
not notmore
more
more
moremore
more thanthan
than
than
thanthan
1.5 1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5 m/s,
m/s,
1.5
m/s,
m/s,
m/s,m/s,and
andand
and
andand
thethe
the
the
the thedifference
difference
difference
difference
difference
difference ininin
in
in the the
the
in
the
the pressure
thepressure
pressure
pressure
pressure
pressure
not more than 1.5 m/s, and the difference in the pressure drop was not more than 5 kPa. drop
drop
drop
drop
dropdrop
waswas
was
was
was was
notnot
not
not
not not
moremore
more
more
more more
thanthan
than
than
than than
5 55
kPa.
55 kPa.
kPa.
5 kPa.
The
kPa.
kPa.
The
The
The
The
TheThemesh
meshmesh
mesh
mesh
meshmesh
ofof of
of
the
of
of the
the
of
the
the
the thesimulation
simulation
simulation
simulation
simulation
simulation
simulation waswas
was
was
was
was was
set set
setset
set
set toto
to
toset
1.5
to
to 1.5
1.5
to
1.5 1.5
mm.
1.5
1.5 mm.
mm.mm.
mm.
mm. mm.AllAll
AllAll
All
All All
the the
the
the
the
the the
datadata
data
data
data
datadata
are are
are
are arelisted
listed
listed
are
are listed
listed
listed
listed ininin
in
inin Table
Table
in
Table
TableTable
Table
Table 4.4.4.
4. 4.
4.
4.
Table
Table
Table 4.
Table 4.
The
4.The
The
4. The simulation
simulation
simulation
The simulation parameters
parameters
parameters and
and
and
parameters and constraints
constraints
constraints
constraints used
used
used
usedin in SOLIDCast
SOLIDCast
inSOLIDCast
SOLIDCast
in SOLIDCast 9.0.
9.0.
9.0.
9.0.
Table
Table 4.
Table 4. The
4. The simulation
simulation parameters
simulation parameters and
parameters and constraints
and constraints used
constraints used in
used in SOLIDCast
in SOLIDCast 9.0.
9.0.
9.0.
Shell Casting Tempera-
Temperature
Tempera- Flow Rate
Tempera-
Tempera- Pressure Simulation
Temperature
Tempera-
Tempera-
Tempera- Casting
Casting
Casting Tempera-
Tempera- Flow
Flow
Flowrate
rate
rate Pressure
Pressure
Pressure Simulation
Simulation
Simulation
Tempera-
Tempera-
Tempera- Shell
Shell Mold
Shell Mold
Mold Casting
Casting
Time
Casting
Mold Difference
ture
ture
tureDiffer-
Differ- Flow
Flow
Differ- rate
rate
Difference
Flow rate Pressure
Pressure
Drop Simulation
Simulation
Pressure SimulationMesh
ture
ture
ture Shell
Shell
Shell Mold
Mold
Mold Time
Time
Time ture
ture
ture Differ-
Differ-
Differ- Difference
Difference
Difference Drop
Drop
Drop Mesh
Mesh
Mesh
ture
ture
ture710 ◦ C 6 mm Time
Time
Time
20 s ≤ 100
ence
ence
◦C
ence Difference
≤1.5 m/s Drop
Difference
Difference Drop
≤
Drop 5 kPa Mesh
Mesh
Mesh
1.5 mm
ence
ence
ence
710
710
710
710
710 °C
°C°C
710
°C
°C
°C 66666mm
mm
mm
6 mm
mm
mm 20
20
20
20 ssss s
20s20 ≤100
≤100
≤100≤100
≤100
≤100 °C
°C
°C
°C ≤1.5
≤1.5
°C°C ≤1.5 ≤1.5
≤1.5
≤1.5 m/s
m/s
m/s
m/s
m/s ≤5
≤5≤5
m/s ≤5
≤5
≤5 kPa
kPa
kPa
kPa
kPakPa 1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5 mm
1.51.5
mmmm
mm
mm mm
2.4. Specimen Preparation
2.4.
2.4.
2.4.
2.4. The casting
Specimen
Specimen
2.4. Specimen
Specimen
Specimen Preparation
Preparationparameters of the experimental sample followed the simulated results of
Preparation
Preparation
Preparation
2.4. Specimen Preparation
thisThe
Thestudy
The and
casting
casting
casting were
parametersthen verified
parameters
parameters of the
ofthe
the
of with metallographic
experimental
experimental
the experimental sample
sample
sample observation
followed
followed
followed the
the to
the match
simulated
simulated
simulated theresults
results.
results
resultsof In
ofof
The
The
The casting
casting
casting parameters
parameters
parameters of
of
of the
the experimental
experimental
experimental sample
sample
sample followed
followed
followed the
the
the simulated
simulated
simulated results
results
results of
of
of
order
this
this study
thisstudy to
study analyze
and
and
and were
werewerethe internal
then
then verified
thenverifiedorganization
verified with
with
with of the
metallographic
metallographic
metallographicmaterial, the
observation
observation preparation
observation to match
tomatch
match
to matchofthe
thethe
the specimens
results.
results.
results.In
InIn
this
this
this study
study
study and
and
and were
were
were then
then
then verified
verified
verified with
with
with metallographic
metallographic
metallographic observation
observation
observation to
to
to match
match the
the
the results.
results.
results. In
In
included
order
order
order to
to location
analyze
analyze
to analyze the
thethe selection,
internal
internal
internal cutting,
organization
organization mounting,
organization of
of the
the
of the grinding,
material,
material,
material, the
the etching,
thepreparation
preparation
preparationand cleaning.
of
of the
the
of the The In
specimens
specimens com-
specimens
order
order
order to
toanalyze
to analyze
analyze the
theinternal
internal organization
organization of
ofthe
of theinmaterial,
the material, the
theispreparation
the preparation of
ofthe
of the5.specimens
the specimens
position
included
included
included of thethe
location
location
location A356internal
selection,
selection,
selection,
organization
aluminum
cutting,
cutting, alloy
cutting, used
mounting,
mounting,
mounting,
material,
this study
grinding,
grinding,
grinding,
preparation
shown
etching,
etching,
etching, and
and incleaning.
and Table
cleaning.
cleaning.
specimens
The
The
The
Theetching
com-
com-
com-
included
included
included location
location
location selection,
selection,
selection, cutting,
cutting,
cutting, mounting,
mounting,
mounting, grinding,
grinding,
grinding, etching,
etching,
etching, and
and
and cleaning.
cleaning.
cleaning. The
The
The com-
com-
com-
solution
position
position
position of
of was
the
the
of the 5
A356g
A356 of
A356 sodium
aluminum
aluminum
aluminumhydroxide
alloy
alloy and
used
used
alloy used in
in100
this
this
in c.c.
this of
study
study water,
study is
is and
shown
shown
is shown the
in
in etching
Table
Table
in Table5.
5. time
The
The
5. The was
etching400 s.
etching
etching
position
position of
position of the
of the A356
the A356 aluminum
A356 aluminum alloy
aluminum alloy used
alloy used in
used in this
in this study
this study is
study is shown
is shown in
shown in Table
in Table 5.
Table 5. The
5. The etching
The etching
etching
solution
solution
solution
solution was
was
was was555composition
ggg5of
of
of sodium
sodium
g sodium
of sodium hydroxide
hydroxide
hydroxide and
and
and100
100 c.c.
100c.c. of water,
ofwater,
c.c. water,
of water, and
and
and the
the the etching
etching
etching time
time
timewas
was
was 400
400400
solution
solution
Table 5. was
was The55 gg of
of sodium
sodium ofhydroxide
hydroxide
hydroxide
A356. and
and
and 100
100
100 c.c.
c.c.
c.c. of
of
of water,
water, and
and
and the
the
the etching
etching
etching time
time
time was
was
was 400
400
400
s.s.
s.
s.
s. s.
Element Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Ti Zn Al
Table
Table
Table
Table 5.
Table
5.
5. The
5.The
The
5.
The composition
composition
The
composition
composition of
composition
of A356.
ofA356.
of A356.
of A356.
A356.
Wt% 6.5–7.5 Table 5.
≤0.15 The composition
≤0.2 of A356.≤0.1 0.25–0.45 ≤0.2 ≤0.1 Bal.
Element
Element
Element
Element
Element
Element Si
SiSi
Si
Si
Si FeFe
Fe
FeFeFe CuCu
Cu
CuCu Cu Mn Mn
Mn
MnMn Mn Mg Mg
Mg
Mg
Mg Mg Ti Ti
TiTi
Ti
Ti ZnZn
Zn
ZnZnZn Al
AlAl
Al
Al
Al
Wt%
Wt%
3. Wt% Wt%
Wt% and6.5–7.5
Results
Wt% 6.5–7.5
6.5–7.5
6.5–7.5
Discussion
6.5–7.5
6.5–7.5 ≤0.15
≤0.15
≤0.15
≤0.15
≤0.15≤0.15 ≤0.2
≤0.2
≤0.2
≤0.2
≤0.2 ≤0.2 ≤0.1
≤0.1
≤0.1 ≤0.1
≤0.1 0.25–0.45
≤0.1 0.25–0.45
0.25–0.45
0.25–0.45
0.25–0.45 ≤0.2
0.25–0.45 ≤0.2
≤0.2
≤0.2
≤0.2 ≤0.2 ≤0.1
≤0.1
≤0.1
≤0.1
≤0.1 ≤0.1 Bal.
Bal.
Bal.
Bal.
Bal.Bal.
The construction rules of model classification are discussed in this study. A simulation
3.3.
3.
3. Results
3.Results
Results
3. Results
Results
was
Results used and
and
and
and
and and
to Discussion
Discussion
Discussion
Discussion
Discussion
construct
Discussion and predict the correlation between 3D model geometry, pouring
The
The
system,
The The construction
construction
construction
and casting
The construction rules of
The construction
construction rules
rules
rules
method.
rules
rules of
of
of model
ofmodel
model
of
model
modelmodel classification
classification
Therefore, classification
classification
classification
classification are
are
the simulation
are
are
are discussed
arediscussed
discussed
discussed
discussed
discussedresults inin
in
in this
inthis
this
in
of
this
this this
thestudy.
study.
study.
study.
study.study.
design AA
A
A simula-
Asimula-
simula-
A simula-
solutions
simula-
simula-
tion
tion
tion tion
tion was
tion was
was was
consistent
was used
was used
usedused
used to
used withto
to
to construct
construct
to construct
the
to constructactual
construct and
construct and
and
and and predict
castingpredict
and predict predict
results
predict the
predict the
the thecorrelation
correlation
werecorrelation
the correlation
the the
correlation between
correlation between
basisbetween
between
of the
between 3D
between 3D
3D 3D model
model
usability
3D model
3D model ofgeometry,
model geometry,
model geometry,
geometry,
the pour-
pour-
simulation.
geometry, pour-
geometry, pour-
pour-pour- In
ing
ing
ing ingsystem,
system,
system,
addition,
ing system,
ing system, and
system, and
and
the
and and casting
casting
casting
consistency
and casting method.
method.
casting method.
casting method.
method.between
method. Therefore,Therefore,
Therefore,
Therefore,
the
Therefore, the
Therefore, the
the
simulation thesimulation
simulation
simulation
the simulation
the results
simulation results
simulation results
results
of results
the
results of
results of
of
original
of the
of the
the
of thedesign
design
3D
the design
the design
modelsolutions
solutions
design solutions
design solutions
and
solutions
solutions the
consistent
simplified
consistent
consistent
consistent
consistent with
with
with
with model
with the
the
the
the theactual
was
actual
actual
actual an
actual casting
important
casting
casting
casting
casting results
results
results
results link
results were
wereto
were
were the
were the
the
the
the
consistent with the actual casting results were the basis of the usability of the simulation. basis
reliability
thebasis
basisbasis
basis ofof
of
of the
of
the
of
the
the the usability
the
usability
usability
usability
usability ofof
classification
of
of the
the
of
the
the the simulation.
rules. Finally,
simulation.
simulation.
simulation.
simulation.
InIn
In the correspondence
addition,
Inaddition,
addition,
In addition,
addition, the
the
the
the the between
consistency
consistency
consistency
consistency
consistency betweenthe classified
between
between
between
between the
thethe
the the model and
simulation
simulation
simulation
simulation
simulation the of
results
results
results
results
results casting
of
ofthe
of ofthe
the
the the method
original
original
original
original
original 3D
3Dwas
3D
3D3D the
model
model
model basis
model
model and
and
and
and for
and
In addition, the consistency between the simulation results of the original 3D model and
the
the
the
the the classification
simplified
simplified
simplified
simplified
simplified model
model
model
model and
model was
was
was training
waswas an
an
an
an an accuracy
important
important
important
important
important oflink
link
link
link
link machine
to
to
toto tothe
the
the
the the learning.
reliability
reliability
reliability
reliability
reliability Therefore,
ofof
of
of ofthe
thethe
the the the following
classification
classification
classification
classification
classification rules.
rules.
rules.
rules. four
rules.
the simplified model was an important link to the reliability of the classification rules.
subsections
Finally,
Finally,
Finally,
Finally,
Finally, the
the
the
the the address the above
correspondence
correspondence
correspondence
correspondence
correspondence between
between
between
between aspects.
between the
the
the
the theThe
classified
classifiedmainmodel
classified
classified
classified purpose
model
model
modelmodel and
and
and
and ofthe
and Section
the
the
the thecasting
casting3.4method
casting
casting
casting is to show
method
method
method
method was
was
was
was that
was the
thethe
the the
Finally, the correspondence between the classified model and the casting method was the
digitized
basis
basis
basisbasis for
for forthe
the system
the constructed
classification
classification
classification and
and and in this
training
training
training study
accuracy
accuracy can
accuracy be
of
of directly
machine
ofmachine
machine used
learning.
learning.for
learning. machine
Therefore,
Therefore,
Therefore, learning,
the
the
the fol-
fol-but
fol-
basis for
basis for the
for the classification
the classification and
classification and training
and training accuracy
training accuracy of
accuracy of machine
of machine learning.
machine learning. Therefore,
learning. Therefore, the
Therefore, the fol-
the fol-
fol-
the machine
lowing
lowing
lowing
lowing four
fourfour learning address
subsections
subsections
subsections algorithm
address
address
address isthe
the
the outside
above
above
above ofaspects.
the scope
aspects.
aspects. The
TheThe ofmain
main
main this study.
purpose
purpose
purpose of
of Section
Section
of Section 3.4
3.43.4is
is to
toto
is
lowing four subsections address the above aspects. The main purpose of Section 3.4 is to
lowing four
four subsections
subsections address the
the above
above aspects.
aspects. The
The main
main purpose
purpose of
of Section
Section 3.4
3.4 is
is to
to
show
show
show
show
showshow that
that
that
that that the
the
the
the the digitized
digitized
digitized
digitized
digitized system
system
system
system
system constructed
constructed
constructed
constructed
constructed inin
in this
inthis
this
in
this thisstudy
study
studystudy
study can
can
can
can can be
be
be directly
bedirectly
bedirectly
directly
directly used
used
used
used used for machine
forfor
for
for machine
machine
machine
machine
3.1.that
learning,
learning, Design
learning,
the
but
but but
digitized
Solution
the
the themachine
machine
system
and
machine learning
constructed
Experimental
learning
learning algorithm
algorithm
in
Verification
algorithm
this
is
is
study
outside
outside
is outside
can
of
of the
the
of
be
the
directly
scope
scope
scope of
of
used
this
ofthis
this
for
study.
study.
machine
study.
learning,
learning, but
but the
the machine
machine learning
learning algorithm
algorithm
learning, but the machine learning algorithm is outside of the scope of this study. is
is outside
outside of
of the
the scope
scope of
of this
this study.
study.
To confirm the correctness of the casting method, an A356 casting with a thin shell
was simulated and analyzed. It is easy to determine the degree of consistency between the
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 15
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 15
Sustainability 2023, 15, 12683 3.1. Design Solution and Experimental Verification 6 of 15
3.1. Design Solution and Experimental Verification
To confirm the correctness of the casting method, an A356 casting with a thin shell
To confirm the correctness of the casting method, an A356 casting with a thin shell
was simulated and analyzed. It is easy to determine the degree of consistency between the
was simulated and analyzed. It is easy to determine the degree of consistency between the
simulation
simulation and and the
the actual
actual casting
casting as
as the
the thin
thin shell
shell is prone
prone to producing
producing internally
internally isolated
isolated
simulation and the actual casting as the thin shell is prone to producing internally isolated
zones
zones and
and causing
causing shrinkage
shrinkage holes.
holes. Through the analysis of casting bare parts, parts, it
it can
can bebe
zones and causing shrinkage holes. Through the analysis of casting bare parts, it can be
seen
seen that
thatthere
thereareareobvious
obviousshrinkage
shrinkagezones
zonesininthethe
middle
middle and andthethe
thinnest
thinnestyellow
yellowparts on
parts
seen that there are obvious shrinkage zones in the middle and the thinnest yellow parts
the right
on the of the
right of casting,
the casting,as shown in Figure
as shown 1. Therefore,
in Figure 1. Therefore,the pouring system
the pouring and die
system andinlet
die
on the
were
right oftothe
planned be
casting,close
placed
as shown
to this
in FigureIt 1.
region. can
Therefore,
be seen
the pouring
from the
system
analysis
andthat,
results
die
inlet were planned to be placed close to this region. It can be seen from the analysis results
inlet
after were planned to be placed close to this region. It can be seen from the analysis results
that, aafter
design with awith
a design suitable pouring
a suitable systemsystem
pouring was created, the defects
was created, shiftedshifted
the defects from inside
from
that,
the after
casting a design
body tobody with a
the yellow suitable pouring system was created, the defects shifted from
inside the casting to the parts
yellow ofparts
the outer
of thepouring system. system.
outer pouring The isolated molten zone
The isolated mol-
inside
also the castingin
disappeared body to the yellow
a thin-walled parts
region of to
due thethe
outer pouringsolidification
directional system. The isolated mol-
of the metal
ten zone also disappeared in a thin-walled region due to the directional solidification of
ten zone
liquid, as also
shown disappeared
in Figure in
2. a
Thethin-walled
black flow region
line was due to
also the
smoothdirectional
without solidification
turbulence, of
as
the metal liquid, as shown in Figure 2. The black flow line was also smooth without tur-
the metal
expected, liquid,
asexpected,as
shown in asshown
Figure in Figure 2. The
3. in Figure 3. black flow line was also smooth without tur-
bulence, as shown
bulence, as expected, as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 1.
1. The defects
defects appear in
in the middle
middle and in
in the thinnest
thinnest yellowparts
parts ofthe
the castingbody.
body.
Figure 1. The
Figure The defectsappear
appear inthe
the middleand
and inthe
the thinnestyellow
yellow partsof
of thecasting
casting body.
Figure 2. The defects shift from the inside of the casting body to the yellow parts of the outer yel-
Figure2.2. The
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Figure Thedefects
defectsshift
shiftfrom
fromthe
theinside
insideofofthe
thecasting
castingbody
bodytotothe
theyellow
yellowparts
partsofofthe
theouter
outeryellow
7 yel-
of 15
low pouring system.
low pouring
pouring system.
system.
Figure3.3. The
Figure The black
blackflow
flowline
lineisissmooth
smoothwithout
withoutturbulence,
turbulence,as
asexpected.
expected.
The appearance of the actual cast product showed no shrinkage or cracks, as shown
in Figure 4. There were also no obvious defects in the casting at the closest point to the
gate and the farthest point from the riser, and there were no holes exceeding 1 mm, as
Sustainability 2023, 15, 12683 7 of 15
(G)
Figure 5. There
Figure areare
5. There no obvious defects
no obvious in the
defects in casting at the
the casting at closest pointpoint
the closest to thetogate
the and
gateno
andholes
no holes
exceeding 1 mm. From (A–F) represent the metallographic observations of each localized
exceeding 1 mm. From (A–F) represent the metallographic observations of each localized positionposition
shown
shownin in
(G).
(G).
(G)
Sustainability 2023, 15, 12683 Figure 5. There are no obvious defects in the casting at the closest point to the gate 8and no holes
of 15
exceeding 1 mm. From (A–F) represent the metallographic observations of each localized position
shown in (G).
(G)
Figure
Figure 6. There
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6.no
are There are no
obvious obvious
defects defects
in the in the
casting casting
at the at the
farthest farthest
point from point from
the riser 9the
and noriser
of and no
15holes
exceeding holes
1 mm.exceeding 1 mm.
From (A–F) From (A–F)
represent represent the metallographic
the metallographic observations of observations ofposition
each localized each localized
position shown in (G).
shown in (G).
(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 7.
Figure 7. (a):
(a) The
Theneedle-like
needle-likeSiSican be be
can seen from
seen the SEM
from image;
the SEM (b,c): the
image; (b,c)composition analysisanalysis
the composition
confirms that the test piece is Al-Si alloy.
confirms that the test piece is Al-Si alloy.
3.2. Model Simplification and Comparison
To demonstrate the feasibility of model simplification, the thin-shell casting investi-
gated in Section 3.1 was simplified in shape as a combination of three thin-shell rectangles,
as shown in Figure 8a,b. The analysis of the bare part found that the simplified castings
(b) (c)
Sustainability 2023, 15, 12683 Figure 7. (a): The needle-like Si can be seen from the SEM image; (b,c): the composition analysis
9 of 15
confirms that the test piece is Al-Si alloy.
(a) (b)
Figure 8. (a) The original 3D model of a thin-shell
Sustainability 2023,Figure (a) The
8.PEER
15, x FOR original
REVIEW thin-shell casting;
casting; (b)
(b) the
the model
model is
is simplified
simplifiedininshape
shapeas aa of 15
as10
combination of
combination of three
three thin-shell
thin-shell rectangles.
rectangles. Blocks
Blocks 11 to
to 33 are
are simplifications
simplifications ofof individual
individual shapes.
shapes.
Side
Side Side Casting
SideSide
Casting
CastingSide Casting
Casting
Casting Bottom
Bottom Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Casting
Casting
Bottom Casting
Casting
Casting
Casting
From the above analysis, it can be seen that side casting can be combined with two
kinds of geometries. The first is parts that are relatively large in volume and in height. If
bottom casting is used in these parts, defects would appear due to a large drop in flow. The
second kind is the geometry of thin-shell rectangles or round tubes. This type of casting can
easily solidify prematurely because of the thin wall thickness, and it is crucial to consider
the location and height of the pouring gates related to the casting. On the other hand,
bottom casting is more suitable for these plates. In addition to the differences in pressure
and temperature, the position and amount of subsequent machining must be taken into
account when selecting the casting method.
database system constructed in this study can be used for developing intelligent processes
and as a basis for life cycle management.
Table 7. The total 150 castings can be summarized into five categories and 37 methods.
Figure 10. The relationships between layer number, surface area, height, mass, and casting method
can be used as characteristics and imported into machine learning for learning and training.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 12683 12 of 15
4. Conclusions
Based on the classification of the casting geometry and the pouring system, a mold
flow analysis using SOLIDCast was conducted to obtain the feeding efficiency, while
casting simplification could indeed achieve the purpose of effective classification and data
reduction. The following four conclusions can be drawn from the study:
1. Similar geometries can be applied to the same pouring system, but with the same
range of volumes.
2. Part simplification does result in data compression, as 150 castings ended up using
only 37 methods, resulting in an average compression rate of 75% and preserving
data integrity after compression.
3. From a geometric analysis, it was found that the qualities of thin-shell rectangles,
round tubes, and solid cylindrical castings were better when using side casting, and
those of plate rectangles and pie models were better when using bottom casting. The
quality of any shape of castings with a height from 55 mm to 200 mm was poor when
using top casting.
4. All of the model classification data in the database, including material and geometrical
characteristics, can be directly used in machine learning for a predicted casting method
with 88.8% accuracy. The data and the database constructed in this study are in line
with digital product lifecycle management and successfully save costs for further
development.
This study demonstrates the foundation of process intelligence, and future develop-
ment should focus on expanding the number of original 3D model samples. At the same
time, it is necessary to establish a single or conversion standard between upstream and
downstream factories in order to achieve a sound digital 3D modeling system. Based on a
sufficient amount of product characteristic data and information, the foundry industry can
establish a mature intelligent process and prediction system through data science analysis
to achieve the ultimate goal of corporate sustainability.
Author Contributions: T.-M.C. directed this study. T.-M.C. and J.-Q.W. designed the architecture
and experiments of the research, and then all of the authors carried out the data analysis. T.-M.C.
wrote the manuscript with the help of J.-Q.W. and J.-T.L. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data used in this research are enclosed within the manuscript. No
external data sources were used in this research.
Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge the help from Geober precision casting Co., Ltd. and
Chyn Wang Light Metal Tech Co., Ltd. for supplying models and manufacturing parameters.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appendix A
Abbreviations and symbols:
A: Cylinder; A1: Solid Cylinder; A2: Hollow Cylinder
B: Rectangle; B1: Solid Rectangle; B2: Shell Rectangle
D: No Geometry
X0 , Y0 , Z0 : Coordinate Datum
→
i : Distance in the X Direction from the Coordinate Datum
→
j : Distance in the Y Direction from the Coordinate Datum
→
k : Distance in the Z Direction from the Coordinate Datum
Sustainability 2023, 15, 12683 13 of 15
Appendix B
The random forest classification code.
import time
from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split
from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestClassifier
from sklearn import metrics
from sklearn.feature_selection import SelectKBest
import pandas as pd
from imblearn.over_sampling import SMOTE
from collections import Counter
cast = pd.read_csv(r0 ./feature.csv0 , encoding = “big5”)
cast = pd.get_dummies(cast)
cast = pd.DataFrame(cast)
5 = cast.drop(labels = [‘pouring method_bottom pouring’,‘pouring method_side
pouring’], axis = 1)y5 = cast[‘pouring method_side pouring’]
smote = SMOTE()
x_smote, y_smote = smote.fit_resample(x5, y5)
x = x_smote
y = y_smote
a=0
b=0
c=0
score = 0
while score < 0.85:
for z in range(9,10):
for d in range(5,13):
selector = SelectKBest(k = z)
phn = selector.fit_transform(x, y)
mask = selector.get_support()
new_features = x.columns[mask]
print(new_features)
mas = mask.copy()
mas = (mas-1)∗(−1)
mas = 1 <= mas
new_features = x.columns[mas]
x2 = phn
x_train,x_test,y_train,y_test = train_test_split(x2, y, test_size = 0.25,
random_state = 0)
if score < 0.85:
rfc = RandomForestClassifier(d)
start = time.clock()
rfc.fit(x_train, y_train)
train_score = rfc.score(x_train, y_train)
cv_score = rfc.score(x_test, y_test)
print(0 elaspe: {0:.6f}; train_score: {1:0.6f}; cv_score: {2:.6f}0 .format
(time.clock()-start, train_score, cv_score) + 0 k = 0 + str(z))
if cv_score > a:
a = cv_score
b=z
Sustainability 2023, 15, 12683 14 of 15
c=d
score = cv_score
print(‘score = ‘+str(a)+’ k = ‘+str(b)+’ degree = ’+ str(c))
References
1. Terzi, S.; Bouras, A.; Dutta, D.; Garetti, M.; Kiritsis, D. Product Lifecycle Management—From Its History to Its New Role. J. Prod.
Lifecycle Manag. 2010, 4, 360–389. [CrossRef]
2. Wijayasekera, S.C.; Hewage, K.; Hettiaratchi, P.; Siddiqui, Q.; Razi, F.; Pokhrel, D.; Sadiq, R. Sustainability of Waste-to-hydrogen
Conversion Pathways: A Life Cycle Thinking-based Assessment. Energy Convers. Manag. 2022, 270, 116218. [CrossRef]
3. Chen, Y.; Xu, Z.; Wang, J.; Lund, P.D.; Han, Y.; Cheng, T. Multi-objective Optimization of An Integrated Energy System Against
Energy, Supply-demand Matching and Exergo-environmental Cost Over the Whole Life-cycle. Energy Convers. Manag. 2022, 254,
115203. [CrossRef]
4. Sohns, T.M.; Aysolmaz, B.; Figge, L.; Joshi, A. Green Business Process Management for Business Sustainability: A Case Study of
Manufacturing Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) from Germany. J. Clean. Prod. 2023, 401, 136667. [CrossRef]
5. Ferreira, J.J.; Lopes, J.M.; Gomes, S.; Rammal, H.G. Industry 4.0 Implementation: Environmental and Social Sustainability in
Manufacturing Multinational Enterprises. J. Clean. Prod. 2023, 404, 136841. [CrossRef]
6. Mory-Alvarado, A.; Juiz, C.; Bermejo, B.; Campoverde-Molina, M. Green IT in Small and Medium-sized Enterprises: A Systematic
Literature Review. Sustain. Comput. Inform. Syst. 2023, 39, 100891. [CrossRef]
7. Favi, C.; Campi, F.; Germani, M.; Mandolini, M. Engineering Knowledge Formalization and Proposition for Informatics
Development Towards a CAD-integrated DfX System for Product Design. Adv. Eng. Inform. 2022, 51, 101537. [CrossRef]
8. Hong, T.; Lee, K.; Kim, S. Similarity Comparison of Mechanical Parts to Reuse Existing Designs. Comput. Aided Des. 2006, 38,
973–984. [CrossRef]
9. Dou, K.; Lordan, E.; Zhang, Y.J.; Jacot, A.; Fan, Z.Y. A Complete Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) Modelling and Optimization
of High Pressure Die Casting (HPDC) Process. J. Manuf. Process. 2020, 60, 435–446. [CrossRef]
10. Xu, Q.; Zhong, M.; Li, X. How does Digitalization Affect Energy? International Evidence. Energy Econ. 2022, 107, 105879.
[CrossRef]
11. Pradhan, A.R.; Pattnaik, S.; Sutar, M.K. Improving the Filling System for a Defect Free Casting: A Review. Mater. Today Proc. 2019,
18, 2887–2892. [CrossRef]
12. Dong, Y.W.; Li, X.L.; Zhao, Q.; Yang, J.; Dao, M. Modeling of Shrinkage During Investment Casting of Thin-walled Hollow
Turbine Blades. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2017, 244, 190–203. [CrossRef]
13. Patnaik, L.; Saravanan, I.; Kumar, S. Die Casting Parameters and Simulations for Crankcase of Automobile Using MAGMAsoft.
Mater. Today Proc. 2020, 22, 563–571. [CrossRef]
14. Lee, H.; Lee, J.; Kwon, S.; Ramani, K.; Chi, H.; Mun, D. Simplification of 3D CAD Model in Voxel Form for Mechanical Parts
Using Generative Adversarial Networks. Comput. Aided Des. 2023, 163, 103577. [CrossRef]
15. Kwon, S.; Mun, D.; Kim, B.C.; Han, S.; Suh, H.W. B-rep Model Simplification Using Selective and Iterative Volume Decomposition
to Obtain Finer Multi-resolution Models. Comput. Aided Des. 2019, 112, 23–34. [CrossRef]
16. Bahoo, Y.; Durocher, S.; Keil, J.M.; Mondal, D.; Mehrabi, S.; Mehrpour, S. Polygon Simplification by Minimizing Convex Corners.
Theor. Comput. Sci. 2019, 791, 76–86. [CrossRef]
17. Da, D.; Xia, L.; Li, G.; Huang, X. Evolutionary Topology Optimization of Continuum Structures with Smooth Boundary
Representation. Struct. Multidisc. Optim. 2018, 57, 2143–2159. [CrossRef]
18. Zhang, H.; Zhang, S.; Zhang, Y.; Liang, J.; Wang, Z. Machining Feature Recognition Based on a Novel Multi-task Deep Learning
Network. Robot. Comput.-Integr. Manuf. 2022, 77, 102369. [CrossRef]
19. Li, C.; Wei, P.; Luo, X.; Jiang, Z.; Wang, D. An unified CAD/CAE/VR Tool for Ship Structure Design and Evaluation Based on
Multi-domain Feature Mapping. Ocean Eng. 2023, 280, 114888. [CrossRef]
20. Klees, M.; Evirgen, S. Building a Smart Database for Predictive Maintenance in Already Implemented Manufacturing Systems.
Procedia Comput. Sci. 2022, 204, 14–21. [CrossRef]
21. Bickel, S.; Sauer, C.; Schleich, B.; Wartzack, S. Comparing CAD Part Models for Geometrical Similarity: A Concept Using Machine
Learning Algorithms. Procedia CIRP 2021, 96, 133–138. [CrossRef]
22. Besharati-Foumani, H.; Lohtander, M.; Varis, J. Fundamentals and New Achievements in Feature-based Modeling, A Review.
Procedia Manuf. 2020, 51, 998–1004. [CrossRef]
23. Ji, B.; Zhang, J.; Li, Y.; Pang, J. Free-form CAD Model Retrieval Approach for Engineering Reuse Based on Local Feature
Segmentation. Comput. Graph. 2023, 111, 111–121. [CrossRef]
24. Bickel, S.; Schleich, B.; Wartzack, S. A Novel Shape Retrieval Method for 3D Mechanical Components Based on Object Projection,
Pre-trained Deep Learning Models and Autoencoder. Comput. Aided Des. 2023, 154, 103417. [CrossRef]
25. Yang, Y.; Hinduja, S.; Owodunni, O.O.; Heinemann, R. Recognition of Features in Sheet Metal Parts Manufactured Using
Progressive Dies. Comput. Aided Des. 2021, 134, 102991. [CrossRef]
26. Yepez, P.; Alsayyed, B.; Ahmad, R. Automated Maintenance Plan Generation Based on CAD Model Feature Recognition. Procedia
CIRP 2018, 70, 35–40. [CrossRef]
Sustainability 2023, 15, 12683 15 of 15
27. Favi, C.; Mandolini, M.; Campi, F.; Germani, M. A CAD-based Design for Manufacturing Method for Casted Components.
Procedia CIRP. 2021, 100, 235–240. [CrossRef]
28. Ren, S.; Zhang, Y.; Liu, Y.; Sakao, T.; Huisingh, D.; Almeida, C.M.V.B. A Comprehensive Review of Big Data Analytics Throughout
Product Lifecycle to Support Sustainable Smart Manufacturing: A Framework, Challenges and Future Research Directions. J.
Clean. Prod. 2019, 210, 1343–1365. [CrossRef]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.