INTRODUCTION

Substations serves as source of energy supply for the local area of distributions in which these are located.Their main function is to receive the energy transmitted at high voltage from generating station, reduce the voltage to a value appropriate for the local distribution. Some substations are simply switching substations where different connection between various transmission line are made and other are converting substations which either convert ac into dc or vice versa or convert frequency from higher to lower or vice versa. Substation has some additional functions. They provide points where safety devices may be installed to disconnect equipment or circuit in the event of fault. Voltage on the outgoing distribution feeder can be regulated at the substation. A substation is convenient place for installing synchronous condenser at the end of the transmission line for the purpose of improving the power factor and make the measurement to check the operation of the various parts of the power system. Street lightning equipment as well as switching control for the street lights can be installed in the substation.

CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTATIONS
The substations can be classified in numerous ways such as on the basis of Nature of duties Services rendered Operating voltage

Classification of substations On the basis of Nature of duties :

Step-Up or Primary Substations : Such substations are usually associated with generating stations. The generated voltage which is usually low (11 kV or 33 kV), is stepped up to primary

transmission voltage so that a huge block of power can be transmitted over a long distance to the load center economically. Primary grid Substations :

Such substations are located at suitable load centre along the primary transmission line. In these substations, primary substation voltage is stepped down to different suitable secondary voltage. The secondary substations lines are carried over to the secondary substations situated at the load center where the voltage is further stepped down to primary distribution voltage. Step-Down or Distribution Substations :

Such substations are located at load centers, where the sub transmission/primary distribution voltage is stepped down to secondary distribution voltage (400/230).These are the substation which feed the consumers through distribution network and service lines.

Classification of substations On the basis of services rendered :

Transformer Substations : Transformer are installed at on such substations to transfer the power from one voltage level to another level Switching Substations :

A switching substation is a substation which does not contain transformers and operates only at a single voltage level. Switching substations are sometimes used as collector and distribution stations. Sometimes they are used for switching the current to back-up lines or for parallelizing circuits in case of failure. Example herefore are the switching stations at HVDC Inga-Shaba.Such substations are meant for switching operations of power line without transforming the voltage. At such substation different connections are made between various transmission lines. Converting Substations :

Such substations are meant for either converting AC to DC or vice versa or converting frequency.

Classification of substations On the basis of operating voltage :

High voltage substation(HV substation) : Involve voltage between 11 KV and 66 KV

Extra high voltage substations :

Involve voltage between 132 KV and 400 KV. Ultra high voltage substation :

Operating above 400 KV.

Classification of substations On the basis of Importance.

Grid substation :

These are the substation from where bulk power is transmitted from one point to another point in the grid. These are important because any disturbance in the town and any failure may cause failure of grid.

Town Substation :

These substation step down the voltage at 33/11 KV for further distribution in the town and much failure in such substation result in the failure of supply for whole of the town.

Equipment for installations :

1. Main Bus-Bars :

the

substations

and

switchgears

Bus Bar term are used for the or conductor caring an electric current through which many connections have been made. Bus Bars are merely convenient means of connecting switch and other equipment into the various arrangement

the usual arrangement of connection in most of the substation permits working on almost any piece of equipment without interrupting to incoming or outgoing feeder. In the some arrangement two busses are provided to which the incoming or outgoing feeder are the principal equipment may be connected .One bus is usually called as main bus and another one called as transferred bus .The main bus may have more elaborated system of measuring instruments,relay etc.associated with it. The switch used for connecting the feeders or equipment to one bus or the other are called selector or transfer switch. Bus Bar may be of copper, steel, or alluminium. Copper has comperativly low reisitivity than others and also advantageous as it has high mechanical strength made it economical to use as BUS BAR.Now a days in india alluminium is more often used for various switchgear installations due to its numerous advantages over copper such as high conductivity,on weight basis,lower cost for equal current carrying capacity,excellent corrosion resistance and ease of formability.

2. Station insulators :
These are used forin generating station and substation to fix and insulate the bus bar systems.They may be subdivided into post and bushing.A post insulator consist of porceline body,cast iron cap and flanged iron base.where as the bushing insulator consist of porceline shell body,upper and lower locating washers used for fixing the the position of bus bar or rod in shell,and mounting flaged with holes drilled for fixing bolt.For current rating of more than 2000 A,the bushing are designed to allow the main bus bar to be passed directly through them.

3. Switchgear :
The apparatus used for switching controlling and protecting the electrical circuit and equipment is known as switchgear.The switchgear equipment usually concern with switching andintrupting currenteither under normal or abnormaloperating condition.There are two main type of the switchgears. (a)Switch and (b)Circuit breaker.the later is used mainly for intrupting current when it exceed the normal capacity of the system.Circuit breaker may also be used for making and breaking aircuit under normal conditions.Switches on the other hand are used for breaking the circuit where current is within the normal capacity or for breaking a circuit carring no current.Two types of switches are generally used now a days.(1)Air switches and (2)oil break switches.Air break switches are those whose whose contects are opened in air,while oil are those

whose contects are opened under the oil.Air switches are further classified as Air-break switches and Isolators .The air break switches have both the blade and the contect equipped with arcing horn.Arcing horns are pieces of metals between which the arc resulting from opening a circuit carring current is lower to form.As switch opens these horns are spread farther and farther apart and the arc is lenghtened untill it finally break.While in case of Oil switches has both the blade and contect mounted in a oil filled tank.The switches is usually operated from a handel on outside of the case.As the switch opens,the arc formesd between the blade and contect mounted in the oil filled tank is quinched by the the oil.Oil switches may be remote controlled as well as manually operated.These are used for capacitor switch,street lighting control and autometically disconnected in case of failure.Apart from above switches isolators are mostly used as practical purpose now a days.these are employed only for isolating circuit when the current has already been intrupted,they are simply piece of equipment.They ensure that the current is not switched into the circuit until everything is in order.Isolators operates under no load condition.They are not equipped with arc quincheing devices They do not have arc quinching devices.They do not have specified current breaking capacity or currentmaking capacity.The isolators in some cases are used for breaking charging current of transmission line.Isolators are employed in addition to circuit breaker and are provided on each side of every circuit breaker to provide isolation.While opening a circuit,the circuit breaker is opened first,then isolators.If the isolators is opened carelessly,when carring a heavy current,the resulting arc could be easily cause a flash-over to ground.This may shatter the supporting insulator amd may even cause a fatel accident to the operator.While closing the circuit,isolators is closed first,then circuit breaker.Isolators are necessary on the supply side of the circuit breaker in order to ensure the isolation of the the circuit breaker of the circuit breaker from the live part for the purpose of maintanance .Isolators are employed in power system are usually 3-pole isolators,each having three identical fixed and moving conducting rods swing apart and isolation is obtain.The simultaneous operation of three poles is obtain by mechanical interlocking of three poles. Isolators are provided with some interlocking to prevent the circuit from mal-operation.These are (a)Interlocking between three poles for simultaneous operation.

(b)Interlocking with the circuit breaker-Isolators can not be opened unless the circuit breaker is opened and circuit breaker cannot be closed unless the isolators is closed. (c)Load intrupt switches-In addition to isolators and circuit breaker,there is one more devices called load intrupting switches,which combine the function of isolators and switch.They are designed only for breaking and making the load currents. These switches are designed and used to close and open high voltage circuit under normal working condition .Load The arc exingusing devices of the load intrupter is made in the form of split with organic glass inserts.The stationary arcing contect is located in the lower part. Load intrupter switch are intended only for handeling the low energy arc resulting from the intruption of load current and altogether unsuitable for extinction of high energy fault current arcs. When the switch is opened, the working contects between which the arc is drawn saparate. Acted upon by the the high temprature arc ,the wall of the organic material insert generated gas which create a longitudenal blast serving to extingushes the arc.Lever arm manually operate mechanism are employed for closing and openeing the load intrrupter switches.The installation of the load intrupting switches imvolve,includes the high voltage fuse,is not only cheaper,but also usually require less space than the installation of the high voltage circuit breaker. (d)Earthing switch :-Earthing switch is connected between the earth and line conductor Normally it is open and it is closed to discharge the voltage trapped on the isolated or disconnected line.When the line is disconnected from the supply end,there is some voltage on line to line to which the capacitance between the line and the earth is charged.This voltage is significant in hv systembefore the comencement of the maintanance work it is necessary that these voltage are discharge to earth by closing the earth switch.Normally the earth switch are mounted on the frame of isolators.

Sequence of operation during Opening or Closing of a circuit :

(1)While Opening : Open circuit breaker,open isolator and then close earthing switch, (2)While Closing :Open earth switch,close insulators and then close circuit breaker.

4.Power transformer :Power transformers are used for stepping-up the

voltage for transmission at generating stations and for stepping-down voltagefor further distribution at main stepdown transformer substations. Usually naturally cooled, oil immersed,known as ON type,two winding,three-phase transformers, are used upto the rating of 10 MVA. The transformers of rating higher than 10 MVA are usually air blast cooled. For regulating the voltage the transformers used are provided with on load tap changer. They are put in operation during load hours and disconnected during light load hours i.e. they are usually operated at approximately full load. This is possible because they are arranged in banks and can be thrown in parallel with other units or disconnected at will. So power transformers are disigned to have maximum efficiency at or near full load (i.e. with iron loss to full-load copper loss ratio of 1: 1)Power transformers aredesigned to have considerable leakage rectance than is permissible in distribution transformers because in power transformers inherent voltage regulation is not as much important as current limiting effect of the higherleakatge reactance. Power transformers usually make use of flux density o9f 1.5 to 1.77, have percentage impenance ranging from 6-18% and regulation 6-10%.

The transformer specifications cover the following: (1)KVA rating ; (2)Rated voltage ; (3)Number of phases (single or three phase); (4)Rated frequency ; (5)Connections ( or Y in case of 3- phase transformer); (6)Tappings if any ; (7)Type of core (core or shell); (8)Type ( power or distribution) ; (9) Ambient temperature ( generally average 40C) ; (10) Type of cooling :- (a) cooling medium - air,oil or water ,(b) circulation type-natural or forced (c) simple or mixed cooling ; (11)Temperature rise above ambient in C depending upon the class of winding insulation ; (12) Voltage regulation [(a)

Percent or pu at full load at 75C unity pf or 0.8 pf lag (b) Impedance-percent or pu , (c) Reactance-percent or pu] ; (13) No-load current in amperes or percent of rated current at rated voltage and rated frequency ; (14) Efficiency in percent or pu at full load, load, load at unity power factor and 0.8 pf.

5. Instrument transformer(CT) :
CT are connected in ac circuit to feed the current coil of indicating and metering instrument(ammeter,voltmeter,watt-hourmeter)and protective relay.Thus the CTs broden the limit of measurement and maintain the watch over the current flowing in the circuit and over the power load.In the high voltage installation CTs in addition to above, also isolate the indicating and metering instrument and protective relay from high voltage. The current transformer basically consist of an iron core on which are wound a primary and one or two secondary windings. The primary winding of the CT is connected in series with the load and carries the actual power system current (normal or fault) while the secondary is connected to the measuring circuit or the relay. The primary winding is usually single turn winding and the number of turns on the secondary winding depend upon the current to be carried by the power circuit. The larger the current to be carried by the power circuit, more the number of turns on the secondary. The ratio of primary current to the secondary current is known as transformation ratio of the CT. The current ratio of a CT is usually high. The secondary current ratings are of the order of 5 A,1A and 0.1 A the latter being used for static relays. Primary current ratings vary from 10A to 3,000 A or more. The current transformer in operation slightly differs from the power transformer. In case of a current transformer as the load impendance or burden on the secondary is very small, so the curreent transformer operates on short-circuit conditions. Also the current in the secondary winding is not governed by the load impedance on the secondary but depends upon the current flowing in the primary winding (i.e., power circuit current). The amount of power which the CT handles is small. The product of voltage and current on the secondary side when the CYT is supplying the instrument or relay with its maximum rated value of current, is known as roated burden and is measured in volt-amperes(V A). The volt-ampere rating of CTs is low(5-150 V A) as compared with that of power transformers(a few kVA to several MVA)

All types of CTs are employed for protective relaying purposes. The bushing CT is most common for hv circuits as it is less expensive than the other types. However, it is not employed for circuits below 5,000 V or in metal clad equipment. The bushing type CT consists only of an angular shaped core with a secondary winding. Such CT is built into equipment such as circuit breakers, power transformers, generators or switchgear, the core being arranged to encircle an insulating bushing through which a power conductor passes. There is only primary turn and the internal diameter of the bushing CT core is large. Hence the mean length of turn of the magnetic path is greater than those in other CTs. The cross-section of the core is made larger. The saturation in the core is less and a bushing CT is more accurate than other CTs at high multiples of the primary current rating. At low current, a bushing CT is usually less accurate due to its large exciting current.

6.Potential Transformers (PTs) :

The potential transformers are employed for voltages above 380 V to feed the potential coils of indicating and metering instruments(voltmeters, watt meters, watt-hour meters) and relays. These transformers make the ordinary low voltage instruments suitable for measurement of high voltage and isolate them for high voltage. The primary winding of the potential transformer is connected directly to the power circuits either between two phases or between a phase and ground depending on the rating of the transformer and its application. To the secondary windings, various indicating and metering instruments and relays are connected. The primary winding has a large number of turns and the secondary winding, which has a much smaller number of turns is coupled magnetically through the magnetic circuit to the primary winding. The primaries of PT are rated from 400 V to several thousand volts and secondaries always for 110V (sometimes for 110 V). The ratio of the rated primary voltage to the rated secondary voltage isknown as turn or transformation ratio. The ends of the windings of potential transformers are marked according to the same rules as used for power transformers to ensure correct connection of the windings to each other, to the high-voltage power circuit and to various indicating and metering instruments and relays they serve to supply.

The theory of operation of a potential transformer(PT) is essentially the same as that of the power transformer. The main difference between a PT and a power transformer is due to the fact that the load current of the former is of the order of its exciting current and secondary impedance of the PT is mostly resistive being made up of the potential circuit of the instrument. The PT is rated in terms of the maximum burden(volt-ampere output) it delivers without exceeding specified limits of error, whereas the power transformer is rated by the secondary output it delivers without exceeding a specified temperature rise. The output of PTs is usually limited to a few hundred volt-amperes while the output of a power transformer may be of the order of several MVA.

7. Protective Relays:
Protective relays are the major component used for the protection of substation by any means of high current. There are so many types of relays used for this purpose such as earthfault Relay,overcurrent relay,differential relay etc. The main function of relay is to sense the any disturbance in the current or voltage(according to relay type) and send the signal to circuit breaker to trip and cut the supply and hence protect the circuit from damage

8. Lightning Arresters :
Lightning arresters are basically used to protect the circuit from lightning.

9.Indicating and Metering Instruments :

Ammeters, voltmeters, wattmeters, kWh meters kVARh meters, power factor meters, reactive-volt-ampere meters are installed in substations to control and maintain a watch over the currents flowing through the circuits and over the power loads. Detailed description of each and individual instrument is beyond the scope of the book and for it some book on instrumentation may be consulted.

10.

Batteries :

In electric power stations and large-capacity substations, the operating and automatic control circuits, the protective relay systems, as well as emergency lighting circuits, are supplied by station batteries. The latter constitute independent sources of operative dc power and guarantee operation of the above mentioned circuits irrespective of any fault which has occurred in the station or

substation, even in the event of complete disappearance of the ac supply in the installation. Station batteries are assembled of a certain number of accumulator cells depending on the operating voltage of the respective dc circuits. Storage batteries are of two types viz. lead acid and alkaline batteries. Lead-acid batteries are most commonly used in power stations and substations because of their higher cell voltage and low cost. Detailed description of the storage batteries is beyond the scope of book and for it A course in Electrical Technology Volume 1 of the same author may be referred.

11.

Carrier-Current Equipment:

Such equipment is installed in the substations for communication, relaying, telemetering or for supervisory control. The equipment is suitably mounted in a room known as carrier room and connected to the high voltage power circuit .

12.

Control Cables :

The control cables and conduit system are required for affecting automatic controls. The control system generally operates at 110 V or 220 V and the cables employed for this purpose are multi-core cables having 10 or 37 or 61 conductors according to requirement. For laying these cables generally ducts are run from control room basement to centrally located junction box from where the conduits are run to the required points.

13.

Earthing :

Earthing are provided in the morden substation to protect the circuit from overcurrent.As the phenomeno of earthing are such that ,if the extra current(over current)flows in the circuit capable of damaging the circuit then earthing comes under work.by earthing overcurrent flows through it before it flows through circuit and save the circuit from damage.Earthing system has buried horizontal mesh of steel rod and vertical electrodes welded to the mesh.Further the vertical riser and the galvanized steel grounding strips or copper bars etc. are connected between the grounding mesh and the point to be grounded.the main purpose of providing earthing is (1) Safty of Operation and Maintanance Staff.

(2) Discharging of Eletrical Charge To Ground. (3) Grounding of Overhead shielding Wires. (4) Electro-Magnetic Interference.

There are 2 types of the earthing used in substations these are (a) Pipe Earthing : In this method ,a galvanized steel and perforated pipe of approved length and diameter is palced up right in the permanently wet soil.the size of the pipe depends upon the current to be carried and type of the soil.Usually the pipe used for this purpose is of diameter 40mm and 2.5 meter in length for ordinary soil or of greater length for rocky soil.The depth at which the pipe must be buried depends upon the moister of the ground.The pipe is placed at the depth of 3.75 meter(minimum).The pipe is provided with the tapered casting at the lower ending order to facilitate the driving.The pipe at the bottom is surrounded by a broken piece of coke or charcoal for a distance of about 15 cm around the pipe to increase the effective area of earth and decrease the earth resistance. (b) Plate Earthing : In plate earthing, an earthing plate either of copper of dimension 60cm 60cm 3mm or of galvanized iron of dimension 60 cm 60 cm 6 mm is buried into the ground with its face vertically at a depth of not less than 3 meter from ground level. The earth late is embedded in alternate layer of coke and salt for a minimum thickness of 15 cm. The earth wire is securely bolted to an earth plate. A small masonry brick wall enclosure with a cast iron covers on top or an RCC pipe round the earth plate is provided to facilitate its identification and for carry out periodically inspection and test.

SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM OF THE SUBSTATION

A Single Line Diagram (SLD) of an Electrical System is the Line Diagram of the concerned Electrical System which includes all the required ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT connection sequence wise from the point of entrance of Power upto the end of the scope of the mentioned Work.

As in the case of 132KV Substation, the SLD shall show Lightning Arrestor, State Electricity Board's C.T/P.T Unit, Isolators, Protection and Metering P.T & C.T. Circuit Breakers, again Isolators and circuit Breakers, Main Power Transformer, all protective devices/relays and other special equipment like NGR, CVT, GUARD RINGS, SDR etc. as per design criteria.

Brief descriptions of the instruments in the line diagram are Lightening arrestors Lightening arrestors are the instrument that are used in the incoming feeders so that to prevent the high voltage entering the main station.This high voltage is very dangerous to the instruments used in the substation. Even the instruments are very costly, so to prevent any damage lightening arrestors are used.The lightening arrestors do not let the lightening to fall on the station. If some lightening occurs the arrestors pull the lightening and ground it to the earth. In any substation the main important is of protection which is firstly done by these lightening arrestors. The lightening arrestors are grounded to the earth so that it can pull the lightening to the ground. The lightening arrestor works with an angle of 30 to 45 making a cone. CVT A capacitor voltage transformer (CVT) is a transformer used in power systems to step-down extra high voltage signals and provide low voltage signals either for measurement or to operate a protective relay. In its most basic form the device consists of three parts: two capacitors across which the voltage signal is split, an inductive element used to tune the device to the supply frequency and a transformer used to isolate and further stepdown the voltage for the instrumentation or protective relay. The device has at least four terminals, a high-voltage terminal for connection to the high voltage signal, a ground terminal and at least one set of secondary terminals for connection to the instrumentation or protective relay. CVTs are typically single-phase devices used for measuring voltages in excess of one hundred kilovolts where the use of voltage transformers would be uneconomical. In practice the first capacitor, C1, is often replaced by a stack of capacitors connected in series.This results in a large voltage drop across the stack of capacitors that replaced the first capacitor and a

comparatively small voltage drop across the second capacitor, C2, and hence the secondary terminals. Wave trap Wave trap is an instrument using for tripping of the wave. The function of this trap is that it traps the unwanted waves. Its function is of trapping wave. Its shape is like a drum. It is connected to the main incoming feeder so that it can trap the waves which may be dangerous to the instruments here in the substation.

Functions Performed by Substations

A transmission substation connects two or more transmission lines. The simplest case is where all transmission lines have the same voltage. In such cases, the substation contains high-voltage switches that allow lines to be connected or isolated for fault clearance or maintenance. A transmission station may have transformer to convert between two transmission voltages, voltage control / power factor correction devices such as capacitors, reactors or static VAr compensators and equipment such as phase shifting transformers to control power flow between two adjacent power systems. Transmission substations can range from simple to complex. A small "switching station" may be little more than a bus plus some circuit breakers. The largest transmission substations can cover a large area (several acres/hectares) with multiple voltage levels, many circuit breakers and a large amount of protection and control equipment (voltage and current transformers , relays and SCADA systems). Modern substations may be implemented using International Standards such as IEC6185 Distribution substation An important function performed by a substation is switching, which is the connecting and disconnecting of transmission lines or other components to and from the system. Switching events may be "planned" or "unplanned". A transmission line or other component may need to be deenergized for maintenance or for new construction, for example, adding or removing a transmission line or a transformer. To maintain reliability of supply, no company ever brings down its whole system for maintenance. All work to be performed, from routine testing to

adding entirely new substations, must be done while keeping the whole system running. Perhaps more important, a fault may develop in a transmission line or any other component. Some examples of this: a line is hit by lightning and develops an arc, or a tower is blown down by high wind. The function of the substation is to isolate the faulted portion of the system in the shortest possible time. There are two main reasons: a fault tends to cause equipment damage; and it tends to destabilize the whole system. For example, a transmission line left in a faulted condition will eventually burn down; similarly, a transformer left in a faulted condition will eventually blow up. While these are happening, the power drain makes the system more unstable. Disconnecting the faulted component, quickly, tends to minimize both of these problems.

Layout
The first step in planning a substation layout is the preparation of a one-line diagram which shows in simplified form the switching and protection arrangement required, as well as the incoming supply lines and outgoing feeders or transmission lines. It is a usual practice by many electrical utilities to prepare one-line diagrams with principal elements (lines, switches, circuit breakers, transformers) arranged on the page similarly to the way the apparatus would be laid out in the actual station. In a common design, incoming lines have a disconnect switch and a circuit breaker. In some cases, the lines will not have both; with either a switch or a circuit breaker being all that is considered necessary. A disconnect switch is used to provide isolation, since it cannot interrupt load current. A circuit breaker is used as a protection device to interrupt fault currents automatically, and may be used to switch loads on and off. When a large fault current flows through the circuit breaker, this is detected through the use of current transformers. The magnitude of the current transformer outputs may be used to 'trip' the circuit breaker resulting in a disconnection of the load supplied by the circuit break from the feeding point. This seeks to isolate the fault point from the rest of the system, and allow the rest of the system to continue operating with minimal impact. Both switches and circuit breakers may be operated locally (within the substation) or remotely from a supervisory control center. Once past the switching components, the lines of a given voltage connect to one or more buses. These are sets of bus bars, usually in multiples of three, since three-phase electrical power distribution is largely universal around the world.

The arrangement of switches, circuit breakers and buses used affects the cost and reliability of the substation. For important substations a ring bus, double bus, or so-called "breaker and a half" setup can be used, so that the failure of any one circuit breaker does not interrupt power to other circuits, and so that parts of the substation may be de-energized for maintenance and repairs. Substations feeding only a single industrial load may have minimal switching provisions, especially for small installations. Once having established buses for the various voltage levels, transformers may be connected between the voltage levels. These will again have a circuit breaker, much like transmission lines, in case a transformer has a fault (commonly called a 'short circuit'). Along with this, a substation always has control circuitry needed to command the various breakers to open in case of the failure of some component.

Automation
Early electrical substations required manual switching or adjustment of equipment, and manual collection of data for load, energy consumption, and abnormal events. As the complexity of distribution networks grew, it became economically necessary to automate supervision and control of substations from a centrally-attended point, to allow overall coordination in case of emegencies and to reduce operating costs. Early efforts to remote control substations used dedicated communication wires, often run along side power circuits. Power-line carrier, microwave radio, fiber optic cables as well as dedicated wired remote control circuits have all been applied to Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) for substations. The development of the microprocessor made for an exponential increase in the number of points that could be economically controlled and monitored.Distributed automatic control at substations is one element of the so-called smart grid.

MAJOR TRANSFORMER UNIT

A transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. If a load is connected to the

secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load.

Detailed Operation:
The simplified description above neglects several practical factors, in particular the primary current required to establish a magnetic field in the core, and the contribution to the field due to current in the secondary circuit. Models of an ideal transformer typically assume a core of negligible reluctance with two windings of zero resistance. When a voltage is applied to the primary winding, a small current flows, driving flux around the magnetic circuit of the core.The current required to create the flux is termed the magnetizing current; since the ideal core has been assumed to have near-zero reluctance, the magnetizing current is negligible, although still required to create the magnetic field. The changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) across each winding.Since the ideal windings have no impedance, they have no associated voltage drop, and so the voltages VP and VS measured at the terminals of the transformer, are equal to the corresponding EMFs. The primary EMF, acting as it does in opposition to the primary voltage, is sometimes termed the "back EMF".This is due to Lenz's law which states that the induction of EMF would always be such that it will oppose development of any such change in magnetic field.

Practical considerations
The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all the turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings.Such flux is termed leakage flux, and results in leakage inductance in series with the mutually coupled transformer windings.Leakage results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply. It is not directly a power loss (see "Stray losses" below), but results in inferior voltage regulation, causing the secondary voltage to fail to be directly proportional to the primary, particularly under heavy load.Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage inductance.However,in some applications, leakage can be a desirable property, and long magnetic paths, air gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts may be deliberately introduced to a transformer's design to limit the short-circuit current it will supply.Leaky

transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit negative resistance, such as electric arcs, mercury vapor lamps, and neon signs; or for safely handling loads that become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders.Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audiofrequency transformers in circuits that have a direct current flowing through the windings.Leakage inductance is also helpful when transformers are operated in parallel. It can be shown that if the "per-unit" inductance of two transformers is the same (a typical value is 5%), they will automatically split power "correctly" (e.g. 500 kVA unit in parallel with 1,000 kVA unit, the larger one will carry twice the current).

Transformer oil
Transformer oil or insulating oil is usually a highly-refined mineral oil that is stable at high temperatures and has excellent electrical insulating properties. It is used in oil-filled transformers, some types of high voltage capacitors, fluorescent lamp ballasts, and some types of high voltage switches and circuit breakers. Its functions are to insulate, suppress corona and arcing, and to serve as a coolant. Contents

Explanation Oil transformer Transformer Oil Testing Explanation

The oil helps cool the transformer. Because it also provides part of the electrical insulation between internal live parts, transformer oil must remain stable at high temperatures for an extended period. To improve cooling of large power transformers, the oil-filled tank may have external radiators through which the oil circulates by natural convection. Very large or high-power transformers (with capacities of thousands of KVA) may also have cooling fans, oil pumps, and even oil-to-water heat exchangers. Large, high voltage transformers undergo prolonged drying processes, using electrical self-heating, the application of a vacuum, or both to ensure that the transformer is completely free of water vapor before the cooling oil is introduced. This helps prevent corona formation and subsequent electrical breakdown under load.

Oil filled transformers with a conservator (an oil tank above the transformer) tend to be equipped with Buchholz relays. These are safety devices that detect the build up of gases (such as acetylene) inside the transformer (a side effect of corona or an electric arc in the windings) and switch off the transformer. Transformers without conservators are usually equipped with sudden pressure relays, which perform a similar function as the Buchholz relay. The flash point (min) and pour point (max) are 140 C and 6 C respectively. The dielectric strength of new untreated oil is 12 MV/m (RMS) and after treatment it should be >24 MV/m (RMS).

Oil transformer
Large transformers for indoor use must either be of the dry type, that is, containing no liquid, or use a less-flammable liquid. Well into the 1970s, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) s was often used as a dielectric fluid since they are not flammable. They are toxic, and under incomplete combustion, can form highly toxic products such as furan. Starting in the early 1970s, concerns about the toxicity of PCBs have led to their banning in many countries. Today, non-toxic, stable silicon-based or fluorinated hydrocarbons are used, where the added expense of a fire-resistant liquid offsets additional building cost for a transformer vault. Combustion-resistant vegetable oil-based dielectric coolants and synthetic pentaerythritol tetra fatty acid (C7, C8) esters are also becoming increasingly common as alternatives to naphthenic mineral oil. Esters are non-toxic to aquatic life, readily biodegradable, and have a lower volatility and a higher flash points than mineral oil.
Transformer Oil Testing

Transformer oils are subject to from electrical and mechanical stresses while a transformer is in operation. In addition there are contaminations caused due to chemical interactions with windings and other solid insulations, catalyzed by high operating temperature. As a result the original chemical properties of transformer oil changes gradually, rendering it ineffective for its intended purpose after many years. Hence this oil has to be periodically tested to ascertain its basic electrical properties, and make sure it is suitable for further use or necessary actions like filtration/regeneration has to be done. These tests can be divided into:
1. 2.

Dissolved gas analysis Furan analysis

3. PCB analysis 4. General electrical & physical tests: 5. Color & Appearance 6. Breakdown Voltage 7. Water Content 8. Acidity (Neutralization Value) 9. Dielectric Dissipation Factor 10. Resistivity 11. Sediments & Sludge 12. Interfacial Tension 13. Flash Point 14. Pour Point 15. Density 16. Kinematic Viscosity

The details of conducting these tests is available in standards released by IEC, ASTM, IS, BS, and testing can be done by either of the methods. The Furan and DGA tests are specifically not for determining the quality of transformer oil, but for determining any abnormalities in the internal windings of the transformer or the paper insulation of the transformer, which cannot be otherwise detected without a complete overhaul of the transformer. Suggested intervals for these tests are:

General and physical tests - bi-yearly Dissolved gas analysis - yearly Furan testing - once every 2 years, subject to the transformer being in operation for min 5 years.

Applications
A major application of transformers is to increase voltage before transmitting electrical energy over long distances through wires. Wires have resistance and so dissipate electrical energy at a rate proportional to the square of the current through the wire. By transforming electrical power to a high-voltage (and therefore low-current) form for transmission and back again afterward, transformers enable economical transmission of power over long distances. Consequently, transformers have shaped the electricity supply industry, permitting generation to be located remotely from points of demand.All but a tiny fraction of the world's electrical power has passed through a series of transformers by the time it reaches the consumer.

Transformers are also used extensively in electronic products to step down the supply voltage to a level suitable for the low voltage circuits they contain. The transformer also electrically isolates the end user from contact with the supply voltage. Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers and to match devices such as microphones and record players to the input of amplifiers. Audio transformers allowed telephone circuits to carry on a two-way conversation over a single pair of wires. A balun transformer converts a signal that is referenced to ground to a signal that has balanced voltages to ground, such as between external cables and internal circuits. The principle of open-circuit (unloaded) transformer is widely used for characterisation of soft magnetic materials, for example in the internationally standardised Epstein frame method.

Circuit breaker

TRANSFORMERS AT 400 KV SUBSTATIONS

TRANSFORMER REPAIRING SECTION

Special Terminations Enclosure