TEXTILE WET PROCESSING

Textile wet processing are divided into three categories namely; pretreatment, colouration
(textile dyeing and printing) and textile finishing processes as discussed below.
TEXTILE PRETREATMENT PROCESSES
Textile materials possess a variety of impurities in grey state or immediately after
manufacturing. Natural fibres (cotton, flax, wool, silk, etc.) have inherited natural impurities.
In addition, oils, sizes and other foreign matter are added for improved spinnability (in yarn
manufacture) or weavability (in fabric manufacture). Textile materials are also occasionally
contaminated accidentally by impurities acquired during production. All such impurities or
foreign matter are to be removed from textile materials for better coloration (dyeing or
printing) or to make them marketable in white form. Such steps, called preparatory processes,
depend mainly on two factors namely:
1. The type, nature and location of the impurities present in the fibre to be processed.
2. The fibre properties such as alkali-acid sensitivities, resistance to various chemicals, etc.
Preparatory processes may be broadly classified into two groups, namely:
1. Cleaning processes, where bulk of the foreign matter or impurities are removed by
physical or chemical means.
2. Whitening processes, in which trace colouring matter is destroyed chemically or the
whiteness of the materials is improved optically.
Impurities in textile fibres
The type and nature of impurities present in textile fibres depend on the source of origin.
Natural fibres contain large quantities of various impurities. Man-made fibres are
comparatively cleaner and contain insignificant quantities of impurities.
Impurities in vegetable/natural fibres
Hemicellulose; Hemicellulose; is a substance with the general properties of carbohydrates
and is a mixture of a variety of compounds, the proportions of which vary according to the
source of origin. It is soluble in 18% caustic soda solution.
Pectic acid and pectin; Pectic acid occurs in vegetables as calcium, magnesium salt or as
pectin (i.e. methyl pectate). Pectic acid is a long chain polymer similar to polysaccharide
having one carboxyl group (instead of CH2OH) for every sixth carbon atom. It is insoluble in
water, but soluble in alkaline solutions.
Lignin; This substance is absent in cotton, but occurs in considerable amounts in bast fibres
and is responsible for their yellowing. It is associated with woody tissues in plants as
cementing material. It is soluble in sodium hypochlorite or sodium chlorite solution.
Fats and waxes; The fats and waxes are present in the fibres in much lower quantities. The
oils can be made water-soluble by saponification, but the waxes are not saponifiable. They
can be emulsified and removed with soap at high temperature. The melting points of cotton
waxes vary between 68 and 80°C.
Nitrogenous compounds these are degradation products of protoplasm contained in the
living cells of plants. These protein and polypeptides substances are present in cotton in small
amounts. They may produce undesirable effects in finished materials. They are readily soluble
in boiling alkali.
Minerals the quantity and composition of water-soluble mineral matter vary according to
the nature of the soil on which cotton is cultivated. Silicon is always present. The metallic salts
commonly present are of iron, aluminium, calcium and magnesium. The salts are converted
into respective carbonates when burnt.
Natural colouring matters the yellow or brown colour of cotton still remains even after
scouring. These natural colouring matters can be effectively destroyed or made colourless by
oxidising bleaching agents. They are present in traces and are probably related to the flavone
pigments of cotton flowers.
Impurities in protein fibres
The keratin in natural wool is heavily contaminated with impurities to the extent of 30–70%.
The average compositions of Australian Merino and cross-bred fleeces are shown in T able 2.
The compositions vary with the fineness of wool fibre.
Table 1; Chemical constituents of vegetable fibres

Table 2;Average composition (%)of raw wool fibres

Adventitious dirt is inherently adhered with wool fibre. This is held by the adhesive action of
the grease and falls away when the latter is removed during scouring. Fragments of vegetable
substance are also picked up by sheep from various sources. These may be particles of straw,
seed, burr or bast fibre. Burrs or VMs are removed by a carbonisation.
Suint is a complex mixture derived from the sweat of the animal. It contains potassium salts
of fatty acids, such as oleic and stearic acids. Dirt, water-soluble suint or dried perspiration
and wool wax are removed by scouring wool with soap and alkali before dyeing and printing
Wool wax is derived from fatty acids and complex monohydric alcohols. It is a yellowish wax-
like substance which melts at 37–38ºC and is soluble in many organic solvents. It retains its
creamy consistency even when mixed with an approximately equal quantity of water.
Aims of preparatory processes
The aims of preparatory wet processing are as follows:

• Uniform power of absorption for dyes and chemicals in subsequent processes.

• An even water imbibition value.
• Removal of all types of impurities including broken seeds, etc.
• Minimum damage of the material.
• Absence of creases and wrinkles.
• High whiteness value.
Pre-treatment, however, is non-added-value stage of the colouration process and the pre-
treatment stage is often not optimised. Therefore, the pre-treatment process must balance
the requirements of the dyeing and finishing stages and the intended end-use of the textile
material.
PREPARATION OF COTTON MATERIALS
Cotton is mostly processed in fabric form and rarely in fibre form. Some quantities of cotton
material are prepared and dyed in yarn form, mainly for sewing and embroidery threads and
for coloured yarn in woven and knitted designs. The different stages for preparatory
processing of cotton fabrics are shown in the chart below. For preparation in yarn form,
obviously inspection and desizing steps do not arise.

Inspection and mending Grey

Fabrics are first inspected for conformity with the standard. They are sorted into lots. Each
lot should be of the same width and similar weight per unit length so that they can be
processed together. All the pieces of the lot are sewn end to end with loops, which can be
easily removed after finishing. In some textile units, gluing or bonding of fabric is used instead
of sewing in order to reduce the amount of rags. The fabric after sewing or bonding is passed
slowly over an inspection table with an inclined frosted glass top illuminated with a
fluorescent lamp fitted below. The illuminated fabric is visually inspected for various weaving
faults, damage, etc., which are suitably marked with coloured pencils. The marked fabric is
then repaired for missing end (warp) or pick (weft) by mending, or very damaged portion is
cut off and the pieces are re-stitched. Stains are removed by stain removers.
Shearing and cropping
After inspection and mending, small projected yarns may remain on the surface of the fabric,
which obstruct adsorption of dyes on the fabric surface during dyeing and printing processes.
They may also be entangled with machine parts causing damage of the materials. These
projected yarns are removed by a process called shearing and cropping, during which the
projected fibres or yarns are cut from the fabric surface. Shearing has proved to provide great
improvement in fabric quality. In the case of polyester blended fabrics, shearing reduces the
incidence of micro beads for dyed fabrics.
Singeing
When yarn is made from short-staple fibres, the two ends of the fibre may not be embedded
inside the yarn and are projected due to the twist imparted during spinning. For multi-fi
lament yarns, some filaments may break or cut in places and are projected from the surface.
Singeing or gassing is a very effective method for removal of these projected fibres. Though
singeing is not essential for all types of fabrics, it is important for several reasons namely:
(a) The surface of yarn or fabric appears fuzzy or hairy due to the presence of projected fibres
or yarns and gets soiled easily. The smooth lustrous appearance of yarn (e.g. sewing and
embroidery threads) and fabric is achieved by singeing.
(b) The protruding fibres obstruct subsequent dyeing and printing processes in an uncertain
manner.
(c) The goods to be mercerised are singed to develop maximum lustre in the fabric.
(d) For polyester/cellulosic blended fabrics, singeing is the best method for controlling pilling.
Sometimes double singeing is done to minimise pilling.
The objective of singeing is to burn off projecting hairs without scorching or otherwise
damaging the body of the fabric. Singeing of vegetable fibres is done in grey state as singeing
causes slight yellowing which is rectified by subsequent bleaching. Synthetic fibres and their
blends are to be singed after dyeing, otherwise molten amorphous beads take up more dyes
making dark spots. Polyester melts at higher temperature and requires a powerful flame. The
types of singeing machines commonly employed are as follows; Plate singeing machine,
Rotary cylinder or roller singeing machine and Gas singeing machine. Plate and roller singeing
are obsolete nowadays.
Gas singeing

• In a gas singeing machine, the fabric in open width is first passed (with the help of a
guide roller) through a pair of hot metallic drying cylinders for drying as well as for
warming up.
• The fabric is then passed through a number of weft straighteners or curved rollers to
remove weft wise creases from the fabric.
• It is then subjected to cleaning by means of brushes, rotating in a direction opposite
to the fabric motion. The brushes are placed inside a chamber and an exhaust fan
removes the fluff and dust collected by the brushes.
• Then the fabric passes over gas burners with ceramic nozzles where singeing is carried
out. Two or more gas burners are used and the passage of the fabric is so arranged
with the help of a large number of guide rollers so that both sides of the fabric can be
singed in a single passage.
• The same set or two different sets of burners may be used for singeing both sides of
the fabric by threading the fabric suitably. It is also possible to adjust the flame height
and consequently the heat intensity, by altering the pressure of the gas or air–gas
mixture.
• After singeing, the fabric drawn by the roller of a mangle through a trough of water
called a quench box, in which all sparks are extinguished. To avoid wetting of the
fabric, quenching by passage through steam is also possible.
The important singeing parameters are as follows:
• Singeing position
• Flame intensity
• Fabric speed
•Distance between the fabric and the burner
• Moisture in the fabric.
If any one or more of the above parameters are not optimal, the result may be faulty singeing.
The common faults in singeing are as follows:

• Incomplete singeing
• Uneven singeing (widthways)
• Uneven singeing (lengthways)
• Thermal damage or reduction in tear strength.
Singeing positions

Tangential singeing: The flame impinges on the fabric at an angle. Consequently, only
protruding fibres are burnt and the fabric surface is not directly affected. This is ideally suited
for lightweight, sensitive fabrics and synthetic filament fabrics which just require to remove
tiny broken filament-ends only.
Water-cooled roller singeing : The flame impinges directly on the fabric and it is reflected
back to the surface by the water-cooled roller situated at the back of the fabric. An elastic
steam-air cushion, formed inside the fabric, resists deeper penetration of the flame and
singeing occurs only at the surface. The fabric also remains cooler and heat-sensitive fabrics
are protected from the singeing heat. It is suitable for synthetic, blended and open-structured
fabrics.
Singeing onto fabric: The flame passes through the fabric and both sides of it are accessible
to the flame. The flame enters the interstices of the fabric and, therefore, imparts good
singeing. This method is very suitable for fabrics made from natural and man-made cellulosic
fibres, and for heavy industrial and technical fabrics.
Desizing process
‘Size’ is imparted to the warp yarn before weaving to prevent breakage or damage of warp
yarns during weaving due to abrasion. The presence of size on the fabric makes it stiff and
renders its treatment with different liquors used in dyeing and finishing difficult. Therefore,
one of the initial steps in wet processing is the elimination of size and water-soluble
admixtures, the operation being called desizing. The typical sizing materials are as follows:
(a) Natural starches from potatoes, maize, rice or tapioca.
(b) Chemically modified starches (ethers or esters).
(c) Organic polymers, e.g. polyacrylates, carboxymethylcellulose, methylcelluose,
polyesters or polyvinylalcohol (PVA).
(d) Solvent-soluble materials, e.g. copolymers of methyl methacrylate.
Starch is difficult to remove, as it is not soluble in water or in normal scouring liquorUnder
favourable conditions, starch can be progressively hydrolysed to the following products with
varying solubility in water:
Starch (insoluble)→ Dextrin (insoluble) → Dextrin (soluble) → Maltose (soluble) → α-glucose
(soluble).
In desizing, the hydrolysis reaction is carried out up to the stage of soluble dextrin only and
not up to the stage of α-glucose to avoid degradation of cellulose. The classical low-cost
desizing process for starch sizes is pad-batch desizing. Impregnation and padding is done in
the trough attached to the singeing machine followed by long time batching. The difficulties
are;

• insufficient liquor pick-up if the bath is too small

• size accumulation in the impregnation bath
• messy batching station (especially with PVA)
• fabric transfer problem after batching, stickiness of the fabric
• high rinsing water requirement (8–10 L/kg)
• high effluent volume of low concentration (1.2–1.5%)
• longer processing time and logistics problems.
Water-soluble synthetic sizes may be removed on full-width washing machines, preferably
with roller vats.
Starch desizing methods
Hydrolytic methods
Hydrolytic methods consist of degradation of starch into different intermediate compounds
and finally into its monomer glucose. Generally hydrolysis processes are slow and require
significant time; hence those are mostly batch processes. However, they are comparatively
safer than oxidation processes. The methods include; Rot steeping, Acid steeping, Enzyme
steeping.
Rot steeping : In this oldest and cheapest hydrolytic method, the fabric is first passed through
a padding mangle, in which warm water at 40°C is kept and the fabric is squeezed to about
100% expression. The fabric is then allowed to stand for about 24 h at 35–40°C or overnight
at 60°C in open space or in an open box. The micro-organisms, naturally present in water,
multiply and secrete starch liquefying (hydrolysing) enzymes, which solubilise the starch. The
fabric is finally washed with water, when most of the starch and water-soluble matters
present in the fabric are removed. However, it is a slow process and it requires an enormous
floor space for storing the water-impregnated fabric. There is also always a chance of mildew
formation during storage of the fabric.
Acid steeping : The fabric is impregnated with 2.5 g/L sulphuric or hydrochloric acid solution
at room temperature (30°C) followed by storage for about 6–8 h. By the acid steeping
method, almost all the starch present in the fabric may be liquefied. Hydrolysis of starch by
mineral acid is an exothermic process and the temperature may even rise up to 50°C. A
subsequent wash removes the solubilised starch. The acid-treated fabric should never be
allowed to dry before wash, otherwise mineral acid at high temperature reacts with cellulose
forming hydrocellulose hence subsequent damage of the fabric. The main disadvantages are;

• there is always a chance of tendering of the fabric by acid hydrolysis unless proper
care is taken.
• The loss in weight after acid desizing is always more than that after rot steeping,
because the former process dissolves nearly all the mineral impurities.
Enzyme steeping: Desizing by enzymes is the safest method. In general, enzymatic desizing
agents may be divided into two main types: dextrinogenic or saccharogenic. Both hydrolyse
glucosidic linkages in the starch molecules, but the points, at which the reaction occurs, are
different. Starch-degrading enzymes, which may also be classified according to their source
of occurrence, are as follows:
1. Enzymes from animal sources such as slaughterhouse waste – clotted blood, pancreas,
liver, etc.
2. Enzymes from vegetable sources; Malt extract (from germinated barley) and Bacterial.
Time required for enzyme desizing depends on;

• the method of application

• kind of fabric (tightness of weaving, weight, etc.)
• the temperature and concentration of the enzyme.
Oxidative methods
Oxidising agents attack the glucose ring or the ether linkage forming carboxyl or aldehyde
groups. Both reactions ultimately result in depolymerisation of starch into water-soluble
products. However, cellulose being of similar structure to that of starch is not spared and
some degradation of cellulose into oxycellulose is inevitable. The oxidative desizing processes
are, therefore, to be carried out carefully to minimise such degradation. Oxidising agents used
for desizing also cause partial bleaching occuring desizing. The methods include; Chlorine
desizing, Chlorite desizing,Bromite desizing, Peroxy compounds. Chlorine gas, sodium chlorite
and sodium bromite are not eco-friendly and are no longer used for desizing. Desizing may
be carried out in any of the following methods;

• Continuous method
• Cold pad-batch method
• Pad-steam desizing method
• Two-bath process
The demerits of oxidative desizing are as follows:
1. Similar to other desizing processes, size recovery is not possible by this method.
2. There is the need for good control of the desizing system and good equipment for
application.
3. Adverse effects of metal contamination. Many quench boxes of singeing machines
contain brass components, which are damaged by oxidants.
SCOURING
Scouring of cotton and other cellulosic fibres
Scouring is the most important wet process applied to textile materials before dyeing or
printing. It is mostly a cleaning process in which foreign matter or impurities are removed.
More specifically, scouring is conducted in order to remove unwanted oils, fats, waxes,
soluble impurities and any particulate or solid dirt adhering to the fibres, which would
otherwise hamper dyeing, printing and finishing processes. Good scouring is the foundation
of successful finishing. The performance of a scouring process is judged by the improvement
in wettability of the scoured material.
Chemicals used in scouring
The process essentially consists of treatment with soap or detergent with or without alkali.
Depending on the fibre type, alkali may be weak (e.g. soda ash) or strong (caustic soda).
Sequestering/chellating agents; the metal ion (Fe3+ and Ca2+) present in hard water and pectin
of cotton can form insoluble soap (scum). The chelating or sequestering agent, e.g., Ethylene
diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA), Nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA), may be used to prevent scum and
film formation.
A high-quality synthetic detergent; these provide a good balance with wetting, cleaning,
emulsifying, dispersing and foaming properties, thus providing good cleaning ability.
Wetting agents; for accelerating the scouring process, wetting agents in conjunction with high
boiling solvents (cyclohexanol, methylcyclohexanol, etc.) are sometimes used, but the process
may not be eco-friendly. The function of solvents is mostly to dissolve insoluble fats and
waxes.
Builders; are added to the kier-boiling bath to increase the activity of soap or detergents.
These are generally salts such as borates, silicates, phosphates, sodium chloride or sodium
sulphate.
Sodium metasilicate (Na2SiO 3,5H 2O); this can additionally act as a detergent and buffer. The
function of the buffer is to drive soap from the water phase to the fabric/water interface and
consequently increase the concentration of soap on the fabric.
Reducing agents; During boiling of cotton with caustic soda, entrapped air may cause
oxidation of cellulose. This may be prevented by the addition of a mild reducing agent such
as sodium bisulphite or even hydrosulphite in the scouring liquor.
Scouring of different cellulosic materials
Scouring processes for different textile materials may vary widely. Among natural fibres, raw
cotton is available in the most pure form. The total amount of impurities to be removed is
less than 10% of the total weight. Bast fibres like jute and flax cannot be severally scoured
owing to the chances of removal of several non- fibrous components with consequent
damage of the material. These are generally scoured using soap or detergent along with soda
ash. Regenerated cellulosic fibres like viscose are more sensitive to alkali and are cleaner,
scouring with non-ionic or anionic detergents is sufficient.
Scouring of cotton
Since natural impurities such as cotton wax, pectic substances and protein are associated
mainly within the primary wall, the scouring process aims to remove this wall. The changes in
the cotton materials caused by the treatment with boiling alkali are as follows.

• Hemicelluloses as well as cellulose fractions with a low DP are dissolved.

• Saponifiable oils and fats are converted into soap.
• Unsaponifiable oils and waxes are melted and emulsified by the soap.
• Pectins and pectoses are converted into soluble salts of pectic acid and metapectic
acid.
• Proteins are hydrolysed with the formation of soluble sodium salts of amino acids
or ammonia.
• Water-soluble mineral substances are dissolved.
• Insoluble dirt is removed and retained in suspension.
• Sizing and other added impurities, if present, are broken into soluble products.
The required severity of the scouring and bleaching processes will depend on many factors,
e.g.

• the type, colour and cleanliness of the cotton material

• the twist and count of the yarn
• the construction of the fabric, etc.
Scouring may be carried out on loose fibres, slivers, yarn or fabric, but for ease of handling,
fabric form is preferred. Surgical cotton is scoured and bleached in fibre form, whereas the
yarns to be dyed are scoured in hank or in package (cones or cheeses) form. Cotton piece
goods of light or medium weight are mostly scoured in rope form as it is cheaper to operate.
While, heavy-weight fabrics are best scoured in open width. Scouring may be carried out in
two forms:
 1. Batchwise in kier, jigger, winch, overflow machines, etc.
2. Continuously in J-box, high-pressure reaction chambers, conveyor and roller steamers,
etc.
Batchwise/kier scouring
Kiers are cylindrical type vessels of robust construction with a semi-circular bottom. The
simplified diagram of a kier boiler in the diagram shown below

The materials are uniformly loaded on a perforated false bottom through the manhole of the
semi-circular top cover of the machine. An addition tank, a pump and a heat exchanger are
fitted externally to the vessel. The vessel is first loaded with scouring liquor from the bottom
to evacuate air trapped inside the textile material. Then the circulation is made clockwise –
liquor falls through the sprayer at the top, percolates through the material, collects at the
bottom and is sent through a heat exchanger. At the end of the boil, a scum may accumulate
on the top layers of the fabric, which may be blown off by overflowing a small volume of liquor
through a pipe from the top of the kier into the drain. Caustic alkalinity at the time of draining
should not be less than 10% of the starting concentration in order to maintain the impurities
in the suspended form. kier-boiling assistants are used to improve the scouring performance
especially achieving good penetration of the fabric by alkali.
Continuous scouring
Continuous scouring, either in open-width or in rope form, can be carried out with the aid of
various machines.
J-box scouring; J-boxes were once very popular continuous scouring machines. Very large
quantities of fabric are necessary to ensure the economic value of such processes, and it is
preferable to have pieces of fabric of about the same width and weight stitched together. The
large accumulation of fabric in rope form in the J-box implies that this technique can be used
only for fabrics that are not very sensitive to creasing and brushing e.g knitted goods. The
treatment with alkali in this machine is not under pressure; hence, a higher concentration of
alkali will be required. Scouring in J-box suffers from two disadvantages, namely:
 1. High-pressure scouring is not possible in a J-box.
2. taking out fabric from the J-box may damage the material.
open-width roller steamer The above shortcomings of J-box can be overcome by open-width
roller steamer. In open-width roller steamer, the fabric is first padded through the scouring
solution to at least 100% pick-up at 60ºC with a running speed of 60 m/min, and then passed
through a steamer at 100–110ºC for about 30 s to 5 min. The fabric is then washed in an open
soap at 70–80ºC with a counter-flow arrangement The process is preferred for heavier,
higher-twist fabrics such as poplin, duck, twills. The advantages of rope processing over open-
width are as follows:
1. Lower chemical costs
2. Higher production speed
3. Suitability for a wide range of fabric widths without stopping the plant
4. Efficiency and simplicity of the required equipment.
0n the other hand, the advantages of open-width processing over rope processing are as
follows:
1. Suitability for fabrics sensitive to creasing
2. Better uniformity of treatment
3. Better warp tension control
4. Lower weft distortion and surface abrasion.
Roller and conveyor combination system/ a combi-pressure steamer

The impregnated fabric in open width is guided over roller assembly for a time sufficient for
swelling. After passing over this tight-strand roller section, the fabric is plaited down onto a
roller-bed or conveyor belt with the fabric pile continuously moving so that the folds in the
fabric are never long enough in one position for a permanent crease to form. A dwell time of
about 6–20 min at 100ºC is required for scouring of cotton fabric impregnated with 3–6%
caustic soda. The production speed is around 100 m/min. This machine can be best utilised
for combined scouring and bleaching.
Scouring of knitted goods
The processing of knitted goods can be carried out in two forms: tubular or open-width (slit)
form. Tubular fabric is first subjected to the process of reversing. The purpose of reversing is
to avoid soiling of the face side of the fabric during processing and/or handling of the fabric.
Knitted goods have certain advantages over woven goods.

• These are not sized, hence easier to prepare. As carded or combed yarns are used,
knit goods contain fewer seeds.
• The knitted fabrics allow better penetration of the liquor because of the low twist of
the yarn and open structure of the fabric.
• In contrast to woven fabrics, knit-goods have a risk of distortion and the machine
should put low tension on the fabric.
long-liquor batch process; For long-liquor batch process, after reversing the fabric is taken
into a winch or overflow machine to carry out the processes of scouring, bleaching, dyeing
and finishing. Unlike woven fabric, all the above processes for knitted materials are carried
out in the same machine. It is preferred by small processors, as the initial cost of investment
is low compared to modern overflow dyeing machines suitable for knitted fabrics
Disadvantages of alkaline scouring

• Caustic soda not only removes wax also leads to destruction of other primary wall
components and even to some damage to the cellulose, it causes high loss in weight
and tensile strength loss of cotton.
• Environmental loads (BOD and COD) of effluent water are also higher.
• High amounts of salts are produced during neutralisation of alkali with acid.
• The alkalinity and salts are to be removed before dyeing by rinsing, demanding a large
volume of water. Consequently, the Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in the effluent
increases significantly.
Bioscouring
For enzyme scouring, pectinases and cellulases are very effective compared to the proteases
and lipases. The change in water absorbency of cotton is rapidly catalysed by pectinases,
cellulases or their mixtures. Pectinases break the linkage from the cuticle side by digesting
the inner layer of pectins in the cuticle of cotton. Cellulases break the linkage from the
cellulose side by digesting the primary wall cellulose immediately under the cuticle of cotton.
The result of the synergism is more effective scouring in both the speed and the evenness of
the treatment. Simultaneous desizing and scouring may be done by a combined enzyme
system containing amylase, lipase and pectinase enzymes without the use of harsh chemicals.
The bioscouring process results in textiles being softer than those scoured in the conventional
caustic soda process. However, the degree of whiteness is often less and seed coat fragments
are not adequately removed.
Efficiency of scouring
The main changes which occur in cotton goods during scouring process are as follows:
a. Loss in weight (about 5–10%).
b. Loss in length due to shrinkage during the boiling treatment.
c. Alteration in yarn count affected by both losses.
d. Changes in tensile strength (generally increase).
While scouring is beneficial for wettability, when carried out in severe conditions it induces
fibre deterioration, e.g. the creation of cavities in fibres or dissolution of the cuticle and
primary wall. The scouring efficiency may be tested in several ways namely:
1. Practical tests of absorbency using the ‘sinking time test’ (AATCC Test Method 17-1994).
2. Measurements of;
a) Weight loss
b) Protein content
c) Residual wax content
d) Methylene blue absorption (removal of pectic substances)
e) Degradation of cellulose by various tests.
During scouring, cotton material is liable to undergo oxidative degradation, leading to the
production of oxycellulose. The degradation may be assessed by determining any of the
following:
1. Copper number, a measure of the reducing groups present in cellulose.
2. Carboxyl group content.
3. Cuprammonium fluidity, which is a measure of molecular chain length of cellulose.
4. Tensile strength of the cotton material before and after scouring.
MERCERISATION
Mercerisation refers to the treatment of cotton yarns or fabrics with caustic soda solution.
Cotton fabrics are mercerised in grey or bleached condition or after boiling off in alkali to save
an additional drying cost. The objective of mercerising is to swell the cotton fibre, increasing
its lustre, tensile strength (also retaining tensile strength after easy-care finish), dimensional
stability and dyeability (in terms of uniformity and colour yield). When the aim is to improve
dyeability only without much appreciable change in lustre, a less severe process called semi-
mercerisation or causticisation is carried out.
Yarns are mostly mercerised in warp form in a truly continuous manner or batchwise in hank
form. Continuous mercerisation of fabric, consist of a sequence of machines for impregnation,
penetration or stabilisation by passing over rollers, washing under tension, removal of alkali,
neutralising, washing, squeezing and plaiting of fabric. Such ranges can be classified into three
types as follows:
1. Stenter type or chain mercerising machine
2. Chainless mercerising machine with expander rollers for weft stretching
3. Chainless and padless mercerising machine where both impregnation and washing are
done under tension.
Effects of mercerisation
Increase in tenacity Mercerisation tends to increase the tenacity of cotton fibres. The
changes in spiral angle and orientation are held responsible for that fact. The increase is also
attributed to a strengthening of weak points along the fibre. With decrease in temperature,
the increase in tenacity is more pronounced.
Increase in lustre by applying tension during or immediately after caustic treatment, the
fibres acquire a silky lustre – a valuable property of mercerised cotton. Due to the change
from elliptical to uniform cylindrical cross-section and untwisting of the fibres, mercerised
cotton becomes lustrous, closely resembling cylindrical man-made fibres. The lustre depends
on the quality of raw material. Long-staple fibre acquires a greater lustre than shortstaple.
Twisted double yarn becomes more lustrous than non-twisted loose yarn.
Other effects of mercerisation

• Considerable lengthways shrinkage occurs when fibres, yarns and fabrics are
mercerised without tension.
• The fibre as well as yarn diameter, increases with decrease in metric count.
• The convolutions or natural twists of cotton disappear and the morphological
structure changes from twisted ribbon like structure to tubular.
• The characteristic hollow channel inside the cotton fibre or lumen almost completely
disappears.
• Swelling with caustic soda reduces the degree of crystallinity from 70% to 50% when
cotton is thoroughly mercerised..
• Mercerised fibres is more resistant to light and weather effects than unmercerised
fibres.
• Mercerised material requires less dye to obtain the same colour strength than and
better brilliance and fastness than unmercerised material. The dye consumption is
reduced by about 10–15% in light shades and about 25–30% in deep shades.
• When mercerisation is carried out without tension, the value of elongation at break is
three times the value of the unmercerised material, thus conferring elastic properties
to cotton fibres. This elasticity is the basis of the preparation of stretch materials.
 Crossection of cellulose before and after mercerisation
Hot mercerisation
In hot mercerisation, cotton piece goods are saturated in caustic lye for 5 s at 97°C under
relaxed fabric conditions. The goods are subjected to controlled hot stretch after caustic
saturation. The fabric is then cooled under proper control below 25°C followed by successive
tension-controlled washing called stabilisation and washing under normal conditions. The
process leads to a uniform high swelling of cotton fibres with a softer feel.
In cold maceration a cold solution of sodium hydroxide is used, although better penetration
and more even treatment is obtained with the more recent hot mercerising technique.
Liquid ammonia mercerisation
Like mercerisation with caustic soda, ammonia produces changes in the structure of cellulose
– reorganisation of the crystalline network giving a better accessible network to reagents.
The differences between ammonia and caustic soda types of mercerisation are as follows:
1. Penetration of ammonia into the fibre and its elimination are nearly instantaneous
(between 15 and 25 s). Therefore, the treatment is very fast.
2. Ammonia is recoverable and reusable after a purifying distillation. Caustic solution
after mercerisation, especially is soiled and it creates pollution problems.
3. Water consumption is reduced to less than half in ammonia mercerisation.
4. Ammonia is a natural substance and the process may be considered as ideally eco-
friendly.
5. It gives reagent-free textile goods.
The differences in fibre properties are as follows:
1 The properties provided by traditional mercerising (increased dye affinity and the
change in appearance) are more or less preserved with ammonia. Improvements in
lustre and dye uptake are, however, less than those of caustic mercerisation.
3. Ammonia, a weak alkali, does not damage the fibre in contrast to the very aggressive
caustic soda. Mechanical properties are improved.
4. Less swelling by ammonia causes the fibre to become more plastic and malleable.
The article life is increased and the new appearance is retained for a longer time.
The prograde process of ammonia mercerisation
Yarn mercerisation: In the Prograde process, the yarn is passed through a liquor ammonia
bath at 33°C followed by a hot water bath, where it is stretched 10–30% as measured against
ammonia-swollen length. The yarn is wound on a spool and dried continuously with hot air.
The method, is claimed to be one thousand times faster than traditional yarn mercerising
processes.
Fabric mercerisation: The ammonia treatment on fabric is conducted continuously with
lengthways tension. It consists of impregnation of goods with liquid ammonia at atmospheric
pressure, followed by the elimination of the reagent by evaporation (Sanfor-Set process), or
by rinsing with water (Veramtex process).
Barium Activity Number for measuring degree of mercerisation
The degree of mercerization can be measured by this test. The ability of mercerized cotton
fiber to absorb more iodine, dyes, moisture and alkalis, and to undergo oxidation or hydrolysis
at increased rates compared to unmercerized cotton, has been used to develop various
methods of determining the degree of mercerization. The most successful method consists of
measuring preferential absorption of barium hydroxide from its dilute solution by mercerized
cotton. The extent of this absorption is more than that by unmercerized cotton under the
same conditions. Thus ratio multiplied by 100, is known as barium activity number, barium
number or baryta number. Barium activity number is measured by AATCC test method 89-
1998 and is calculated using the following equation.

Barium activity number = {(b-s)/(b-u)} × 100

b, s and u being the titration readings of the blank, mercerized and unmercerized samples,
respectively, The barium activity number of good mercerized cotton maybe around150-160.

PREPARATION OF PROTEINEOUS MATERIALS

Animal or protein fibres contain a significant amount of non-fibrous impurities – about 50%
in the case of wool and about 15–30% in the case of silk. These fibres are very sensitive to
alkali and are damaged quickly on alkaline wet treatment at high temperature (especially
wool). Hence, these fibres are scoured with large amounts of soap or detergent, with little or
without alkali at low temperature. The time of treatment is also much shorter compared to
that in the case of cotton. Quality control objectives for the scouring wool product are:
• To produce clean wool of consistently good colour, without causing excessive
entanglement
• Achieving a specified moisture regain by efficient drying
• Achieving an acceptably low residual grease and dirt content
• To achieve a correct wool pH level (appropriate for subsequent dyeing).
Carbonisation and scouring of wool
Raw wool contains about 40–50% impurities. These include about 15–30% greases and suint,
5–20% sand and dirt, 1–10% VM – the relative quantities may vary widely. VM is removed by
carbonising, while grease and suint are removed by scouring. Complete removal of wool wax
is not desirable. The fibre should retain a small portion (between 0.4 and 0.6%) of the wool
to avoid brittleness causing fibre breakage during subsequent spinning process. The efficiency
of scouring is judged by measuring residual fatty matters in scoured wool. The carbonising
process consists essentially of the following stages ;
1. Impregnation of wool fibre with 5% sulphuric acid (96%) at 10–30°C
2. Drying at 100–105°C, followed by baking at 125–150°C for 1 min
3. Crushing through rollers to remove the charred debris
4. Neutralisation of the residual acid and rinsing.
Methods of purification of wool
From a chemical point of view, there are various methods of purifying loose wool and these
are determined to some extent by the type of material to be cleaned, and the nature and
amount of the impurities.
Emulsion scouring (wool washing): Wool wax is difficult to saponify under conditions that do
not damage the wool fibres. However, it may be readily emulsified, at a temperature slightly
higher than its melting point (40–45°C). Wool washing, is done with 2–4% soap and 2% sodium
carbonate. The melting point of the soap used for scouring wool should not exceed 27–30°C.
At present, wool scouring is most economically done with non-ionic detergents. A small
amount of alkali may be beneficial for scouring, but no free alkali should be left on wool at
the end of scouring.
Suint scouring: The old fashioned method of scouring wool is to steep it in water and use the
liquor as detergent, often reactivated with lant or stale urine and pig-dung. The process
generally operates in five stages: De-suinting, Grease removal with suint, Rinsing, Soaping
and finally Rinsing.
Solvent scouring: Wool wax may be removed from wool by benzene, solvent naphtha or
white spirit. Solvent and wax may be separated by distillation and the solvent reused. Organic
solvents are used to extract wool wax commercially but the process may not be eco-friendly
and is costlier than aqueous scouring, the advantages are less felting and reduced
entanglement of wool.
Freezing: When raw greasy wool is cooled to a temperature of −30 to −45°C, the fats freeze
and become hard and brittle, but the wool fibre itself is not affected. After cooling for a
sufficient time, it is subjected to vigorous agitation so that the frozen grease breaks up into
fine powder and falls away with a considerable quantity of vegetable and mineral matter. A
mild scouring is necessary after this treatment.
Shrink-resist treatment for wool
While washing of woollen garments in aqueous media dimensional changes may occur
because of relaxation shrinkage and felting of the fibres. Relaxation shrinkage is reversible
and can occur in garments made from any fibre. Felting shrinkage is not reversible and is
inherent to the wool fibre, largely associated with different frictional resistance in two
directions along the wool–fibre axis due to the scale structure of the fibres. Most commercial
shrink-resist processes control felting shrinkage by either of the two ways;

• modifying the scale edges to eliminate the DFE

• by bonding the fibres together so that relative movement is not possible.
Machine-washable wool garments shrink resistant wool may be prepared by the Hercosett®
shrink-proof process using Hercosett 125 (Hercules). The process involves pre-treatment of
dry-combed or pre-scoured wool tops with a water-soluble, cationic Hercosett resin
(Hercules).
Degumming/scouring of silk
Silk is obtained in the form of a cocoon, an elliptical mass spun by silkworms. Perfect cocoons
(uncut by the insect) are cooked in baths containing soap-soda, enzyme or water for mulberry
silk and caustic soda or enzyme for tussah and muga silk. Raw silk does not possess the lustre
and softness. The gummy substance called ‘sericin’ covers the fibrous material called ‘fibroin’.
The former imparts a harsh handle and must be removed in order to bring out the supple and
lustrous qualities. The process for removal of sericin is known as degumming, boiling off and
less commonly scouring.
Degumming of silk involves the cleavage of peptide bonds of sericin, either by hydrolytic or
enzymatic methods and the subsequent removal of sericin from the silk fibroin. Silk is best
degummed in yarn form followed by application of easily removable sizes, which are removed
after weaving by desizing. Four different degumming processes are used in practice:
1. Traditional method with soap
2. Degumming with synthetic detergents
3. Enzyme degumming
4. Acid degumming. (tartaric and citric acid gives a product with superior tensile
strength to that obtained by soap degumming but method is not been popularised).
Traditional degumming with soap
The traditional method with soap is still the one mostly used, especially in China and India.
However, slowly soaps are being replaced with synthetic detergents or enzymes. Exceptional
soft handle is produced by soap degumming. The best soaps for degumming silk are made
from olive oil commercially sold as ‘Marseilles soap’ though expensive.
The temperature of the degumming bath generally lies between 90 and 95°C; higher
temperatures up to boil bring about some yellowing of the silk and inferior handle. Addition
of mild alkali (with upto 0.18% free alkali) to soap solution increases the rate of degumming
and makes the process economical since the quantity of soap and time required are reduced
and also tends to maintain pH at the effective point without weakening the fibre.
Degumming with detergent
A variety of synthetic detergents is widely available and will be comparatively economical, as
lesser amounts of synthetic detergent will be required. Moreover, the time of treatment is
considerably shorter enabling continuous processing of piece goods. The synthetic detergent
should be carefully selected since the same soft feel as that achieved with Marseilles soap is
not always obtained. The processing may be discontinuous or continuous.
Enzyme degumming
The treatment time is somewhat longer than with synthetic detergent, but shorter than soap.
It is considered to have a mild action on the fibres and is claimed to produce uniformly
degummed material with soft handle and reduced lousiness. Enzymatic degumming is not a
single-step process. The gum must be swollen before the enzyme treatment. The enzymes
hydrolyse peptide bonds formed by the carboxyl groups of lysine and arginine. An additional
treatment with mild alkali is necessary to remove natural wax, soil and lubricant oils.
Enzymes used in the degumming of silk

• Trypsin (animal origin), a proteolytic enzyme secreted by the pancreas, is most active
at pH range 7.0–9.0.
• Papain and pepsin (vegetable origin); papain obtained from a vegetable source,
papyrus latex, is most active at 70–90°C and pH 5.0 -7.5.
• Alkalase is a bacterial enzyme, very effective in hydrolysing sericin at 60°C and pH 9.
Degumming of wild silk
Wild silk, i.e. tussah (tassar) or eri silk, is obtained from wild surroundings (from forests
without any sort of breeding or cultivation) and is naturally coloured pale brown to dark
brown. The gum is not present in the same regular form as with mulberry silk. It is often
embedded in the strongly fibrillated fibre and is therefore difficult to remove completely.
Tussah silk is often degummed with Marseilles soap and may be further bleached with sodium
hydrosulphite.
Degumming faults

• One of the difficulties encountered in degumming is that the reagents not only remove
the sericin and free parallel filaments of fibroin, but they also penetrate into the fi
laments.
• Due to an uneven structure, there is a danger of separating the fibrils. Further
processing may break them, causing lousiness of yarn.
• Improper treatments during processing may cause mechanical damage to silk. The silk
threads may be very easily chafed (skin detachment) at the surface causing lighter
shade after dyeing.
Weighting of silk
Since silk is an elegant and expensive material, the substantial weight loss during degumming
is compensated wholly or partially by a process called ‘weighting’. The degree of weighting is
normally expressed by a term par. 10% below par means 10% lighter than original silk, while
above par means greater than original weight. Silk may be weighted up to 300% of its original
weight. Different materials are used for weighting of silk yarns and fabrics, which can be
broadly classified into three types, namely;
a) Vegetable; Vegetable materials, namely tannins or special plant extracts
(Persian berries), are hardly used today.
b) Minerals; Mineral weighting with tin (IV) salt is still the classic method.
c) Polymers; Recently various polymer treatments have been developed by a
number of research institutes. These weighting processes are mostly done by
polymer grafting. The polymer treatment also modifies dyeing properties.
PREPARATION OF SYNTHETIC MATERIALS
The various processing stages of polyester, nylon and acrylic fibres are described below.
Heat-setting of synthetic fibres
Unlike natural and regenerated fibres, the yarns and fabrics manufactured from synthetic
fibres require a special preparatory operation called ‘heat-setting’. Or else, these materials
will shrink when treated with hot aqueous solution in loose condition, and as a result the
linear dimensions and the shape of ready-articles will change. Unset fabrics also tend to form
creases, which are difficult to remove during subsequent processing. The setting process
releases the strains imposed during drawing, knitting or weaving processes, minimises
creasing during wet processing and imparts a high degree of dimensional stability. The fabric
may be subjected to setting after scouring, after dyeing or during finishing. If heat-setting is
done at grey state, impurities present in the fabric will be firmly embedded and difficult to
remove during scouring.
During the heat setting operation, the material is subjected to thermal treatment under
tension in hot air, steam or hot water medium. Heat setting can be done using techniques
such as dry heat setting, steam heat setting and hydro heat setting. The process consists of
two stages:
1. Heating of the material to a specific temperature depending on the fibre type,
ensuring breakage of intermolecular bonds and equalising internal stresses in
chains.
2. Cooling of the material resulting in the restoration of intermolecular bonds, the
fibre being in new state, free from internal stresses. The quicker the cooling and
the lower the temperature, the better is the stabilisation effect.
Nylon; steam and hot water can serve as excellent media for the setting of nylon as the setting
can be achieved at significantly lower temperatures and consequently less fibre
discolouration or stiffening occurs.
Polyester; yarns are normally set by relaxation in saturated steam. Short staple polyester
yarns are commonly twist-set by steaming them whilst they are still on the spinner’s ring
tubes and the temperature should be restricted to 110°C to avoid distortion of the tubes.
However, yarns with high potential shrinkage, must be heat-set before winding.
Acrylic and modacrylic fibres; cannot be heat-set in the conventional sense since the fibres
are readily stretched or deformed at temperatures above approximately 75°C.
Scouring of synthetic fibres
The scouring procedures for synthetic fibres are relatively simple since the fibres contain
fewer impurities, most of which have at least some degree of water solubility, the most
important being sizes and lubricants. Anionic synthetic detergents such as polyoxyethylene
sulphates are preferred for scouring of all synthetic fibres that are to be subsequently dyed
with disperse dyes, since non-ionic detergents have low cloud point (the point at which the
surfactant starts to phase separated and the solution becomes cloudy) may hamper stability
of disperse dyes at high temperature. Addition of a sequestering agent is useful for hard
water.
BLEACHING
The main objective of bleaching is the removal and/or destruction of natural and adventitious
colouring matters with the production of pure white materials. The natural colouring matters
present in various textile materials are different. The same bleaching agent may be used for
a number of textile fibres, though the conditions and the extent of bleaching required may be
different in different cases. For example, Egyptian cotton is darker in colour and more diffi
cult to bleach as compared to American varieties.
Reductive bleaching agents
Many colouring matters can be reduced to colourless compound by reducing agents.
However, on exposure to air and sunlight, the reduced colourless components may be
oxidised and the yellowish tint reappears. Sodium dithionite is a reducing agent and is
available in solid form, it is more convenient to transport, store and handle compared to
gaseous sulphur dioxide. Sodium dithionite is reasonably stable, provided it is kept in dry and
cool surroundings. When acting as a reducing agent in aqueous solution it is converted into
sodium bisulphate.

However, excess caustic soda may convert it into sodium sulphide and sulphite.

Oxidative bleaching agents

Oxidative bleaching agents are much more effective than reductive bleaching agents. The
most important oxidative bleaching processes are as follows:
a) Hypochlorite bleaching
b) Hydrogen peroxide bleaching
c) Sodium chlorite bleaching.
Hypochlorite bleaching of cotton
Hypochlorite bleaching is a low-cost process using simple chemicals but is now being phased
out because of the following disadvantages:
a) It is not eco-friendly since it releases effluent of high AOX value (Adsorbable
Organic Halides- a measure of the organic halogen load in waste water.
Fluorine exclusive). It is therefore banned in many countries.
b) There is a risk of fabric damage if the pH is low.
c) The process is slow and is to be carried at low temperature. Hence, it is
difficult to carry out as a rapid continuous operation.
d) There is a chance of yellowing of bleached fabric on storage.
e) It releases relatively high concentrations of salt in the effluent process
water, which is objectionable from an ecological point of view.
Peroxide bleaching of cotton
Cotton bleaching today usually means hydrogen peroxide treatment. Hydrogen peroxide,
although costlier, has several advantages such as:
1) It can bleach most of the textile fibres without damaging the materials.
2) As the decomposition products of hydrogen peroxide are oxygen and water, bleaching
can be safely carried out in an open vessel and no AOX is generated.
3) It does not react with proteins. Hence, a permanent whiteness can be achieved
without preliminary alkali treatment.
4) Since peroxide bleaching is conducted under alkaline conditions at or near boil, it is
the only bleaching agent that can be used for the combined scouring and bleaching.
5) It allows versatile processing such as batch or continuous, hot or cold, rapid or long
dwell.
6) As peroxide bleaching is carried out at or near boil, the broken seed or other VMs are
removed during the treatment and consequently the cloth appearance after bleaching
is much better and fuller than hypochlorite bleached material.
7) In hydrogen peroxide bleaching there is little risk of tendering due to over-bleaching.
8) Vat-dyed coloured goods can be safely bleached with hydrogen peroxide.
9) No souring or any other after-treatment is necessary.
10) It is compatible with most dyes and fluorescent brightening agents (FBAs).
The difficulties of peroxide bleaching are as follows:
a) Instability: Hydrogen peroxide solution is unstable at high alkalinity and in the
presence of metallic impurities.
b) Stabiliser: Hydrogen peroxide ensures whitening in conditions where it is rather
unstable. Hence, a stabilising agent must be used which regulates the release of
oxygen which has no bleaching power and which may cause fibre damage. Process
control: The use of multiple chemicals needs careful control.
c) Cost: The process is comparatively expensive.
Factors that affect performance of hydrogen peroxide as bleaching agent.
Hydrogen peroxide is decomposed catalytically by traces of many metals such as copper, iron,
manganese, chromium, etc., and their oxides. This is accompanied by increased degradation
of cellulose. In the presence of catalysts, the alternate reaction takes place evolving oxygen.
The liberated oxygen has no bleaching power.
2H 2 O 2 → 2H 2 O + O 2
Temperature: With increase in temperature, the stability of hydrogen peroxide decreases.
For natural and man-made fibres, the time of bleaching will be too long unless the
temperature is higher than 80°C.
Catalyst: The catalytic effect of metal ions is not limited to the decomposition of hydrogen
peroxide. Simultaneously the fibres are attacked, DP and the tensile strength decrease
considerably.
Stabilisers: Stabilisers are necessary to slow down the decomposition of both hydrogen
peroxide and the active bleaching agent. The most common stabilising agents have been the
colloidal sodium silicates. The stabilisers work as buffer and sequestering agent for transition-
metal ions, e.g. iron (III) and copper (II), which would otherwise catalytically degrade the
hydrogen peroxide.
Impurities: Water-soluble impurities in raw cotton can have a considerable stabilising effect
on hydrogen peroxide solution.
Alkalinity: Hydrogen peroxide is an active bleaching agent for cellulosic fibres under alkaline
conditions. However, excessive alkalinity will cause instability and decomposition of hydrogen
peroxide with liberation of oxygen.
A trace amount of residual hydrogen peroxide (several ppm) can cause dyeing problems. This
can be avoided by using an enzyme catalase. The enzyme attacks only hydrogen peroxide and
nothing else.
Combined scouring and bleaching of cotton
The advantages of combined processes are increased production with reduction in labour cost
and reduced treatment time and lower consumption of water, steam and electricity. The loss
in weight and strength of material is also less. . In the presence of hydrogen peroxide, the
scouring process is accelerated and less time is generally required to achieve good absorbency
of the material. The disadvantage is increased chemical cost as a higher dose of hydrogen
peroxide is required.
Chlorite bleaching of cotton
Sodium chlorite has several advantages as a bleaching agent such as:
1. Bleaching without scouring: As the bleaching is conducted under acidic condition, white
cellulosic goods can be bleached without scouring to retain natural oils and fats and thereby,
natural softness. The weight loss is also low.
2. High whiteness, low degradation: Under recommended conditions, high whiteness is
achieved without degradation of cellulose.
3. It can be applied not only on cotton but also on many other fibres and their mixtures such
as on rayons requiring milder bleaching and for synthetic fi bres like polyamide and polyester
4. No problem with iron stain: Traces of irons do not catalyse bleaching reactions and do not
bring about degradation of cellulose.
5. Mild rinsing: Rinsing after bleaching is simpler since no fibre-substantive alkali is used as in
case of hypochlorite and peroxide bleaching.
Chlorite bleaching is to be carried out in a closed vessel with tight sealing of the equipment
and good ventilation is to be maintained in the bleaching room since noxious chlorine dioxide
evolves during bleaching.
Peracetic acid bleaching of cotton
In recent years, peracetic acid, i.e. acetyl derivative of hydrogen peroxide, has come into use
for bleaching, particularly of synthetic fibres. Peracetic acid is available as a clear, colourless,
fairly stable solution of 36–40% strength. The stability of peracetic acid is not quite as high as
that of stabilised hydrogen peroxide. To avoid damage to the cloth in the presence of ions
such as copper and iron, a sequestering agent (e.g. diethylenetriamine-penta-acetic acid) may
be added.
Enzymatic bleaching
Oxidoreductases, enzymes that catalyse oxidation or reduction reactions, may find use in
enzymatic bleaching process. Although some degree of colour removal is possible through
the use of selected enzymes, seed coatings remain a severe problem.
Bleaching of jute
jute materials are generally bleached without prior scouring due to their alkali sensitivity. Jute
is effectively bleached by hydrogen peroxide however most of the lignin remains leading to
photo-yellowing when exposed to sunlight. After bleaching with hydrogen peroxide the fabric
should be thoroughly rinsed with hot and cold water, followed by a treatment with 2–3 g/L
acetic acid. Sodium chlorite is suitable for bleaching and delignification of jute. Generally jute
is bleached in a two-step beginning with sodium chlorite followed by peroxide bleaching. Jute
fabrics can also be bleached effectively with peracetic acid in the presence of tetrasodium
pyrophosphate.
Bleaching of flax
The preparation of linen is a compromise between the whiteness level desired (often defined
in quarter steps up to full white) and the loss in mass tolerated. Reductive scouring of linen
with alkaline dithionite has been advocated before oxidative bleaching such as sodium
chlorite. Unlike cotton, flax contains a small amount (about 2%) of lignin. This component may
be bleached with sodium chlorite or with hypochlorite under acidic conditions, after which
the lignin may be dissolved in dilute alkali.
Bleaching of wool
Hypochlorites have poor bleaching action and give rise to yellow colouration and seriously
tender wool in alkaline solution. Sodium chlorite gives a pinkish white shade, which requires
after-treatment with sodium bisulphite. Hydrogen peroxide is virtually the only oxidative
bleaching agent for protein fibres like wool and silk. Control of alkalinity is important to avoid
fibre damage thus the recommended pH is 8.0–8.5, which is much lower than that maintained
during cotton bleaching.
Bleaching of silk
Bleaching of silk with hydrogen peroxide can be carried out in more severe conditions than
wool, since silk is not easily degraded. The material is to be carefully checked for metal spots,
which may cause catalytic degradation of hydrogen peroxide. Most varieties of silk are
bleached by steeping, but winch machines may be used for fabrics. The hydrogen peroxide
solution can be made alkaline with sodium silicate and ammonia to give a pH of 10.0, or with
addition of tetrasodium pyrophosphate and EDTA at 60–75°C for 2–4 h. Over-bleaching
should be avoided as yellowing may occur.
Bleaching of synthetic fibres
Generally synthetic fibre are usually sufficiently white and require no bleaching, unless very
bright pastel colours are to be dyed or a ‘super-white’ material is required. Most of the fibres
are bleached sodium chlorite It gives better whiteness than hydrogen peroxide or peracetic
acid but this should be followed by an antichlor.
Improvement of whiteness
Natural fibres like cotton and wool absorb more light in the blue region of the visible spectrum
than in the others owing to the presence of impurities, i.e. natural colouring matters.
Consequently, they take on a yellowish or brownish cast. Whiteness of such substances can
be improved in three ways:
1. Increasing blue reflectance of the substrate by destroying the colouring matter with
strong reducing or oxidising agents in the process called bleaching. The function of
bleaching is to remove blue-absorbing yellow contaminants.
2. Even the most thorough bleach cannot remove all traces of yellowish cast. Therefore,
an additional whitening stage is essential. The age-old practice was to treat the
bleached material with a very small amount of a blue or violet dye – an operation
known as ‘bluing’ – to boost the visual impression of whiteness
3. The third method is to use fluorescent brightening agents (FBAs), fluorescent
whitening agents or optical whitening agents. FBAs are virtually colourless compounds
which, when present on a material, have the ability to absorb mainly invisible
ultraviolet light in the 300–400 nm range and emit violet to blue fluorescent light. The
emitted fluorescent light is added to the light reflected by the treated material, by that
producing an apparent increase of reflectance in the blue region. ‘Dazzling’ whiteness
is perceived especially on a well-bleached material.
 ENZYMATIC PROCESSING
In the textile industry the use of amylase enzymes for starch splitting began around 1857
when malt was used to remove gum from fabrics before printing. The enzymes are now
largely used for various pre-treatment processes of textile materials, namely desizing,
scouring and bleaching of cellulosic materials, degumming of silk, carbonising, bleaching and
shrink-resist treatments of wool. Enzymes are biological catalysts. They are naturally
occurring proteins capable of catalysing specific chemical reactions, and, being catalysts,
facilitate the reaction without being consumed. The advantages of enzymatic processing are:
1. Enzyme-catalysed reactions are several orders of magnitude faster than chemically
catalysed reactions.
2. Enzymes are highly specific in chemical reactions and they rarely form by-products.
3. Enzymes catalyse reactions under comparatively milder conditions of temperature
(below 100ºC), pressure (atmospheric) and pH (around neutral).
4. Consequently, enzymatic treatments offer savings in chemicals and energy and have
less or no impact on the environment. The enzymes are fully biodegradable.
However, enzymes may be deactivated in the following ways;

• Deactivation of enzymes may occur by competitive or non-competitive chemicals

called ‘bogies’ in the processing bath.
• All enzymatic systems function best within a narrow range of pH and temperature ,
too far outside the range, the enzyme becomes deactivated by changes in three-
dimensional structure. Most enzymes are inactivated or destroyed at temperatures
over 75°C.. Currently thermo-stable enzymes (α- Bacillus subtilis, α- Bacillus
licheniformis, etc.) are available which can withstand temperatures up to 90°C.
• Certain chemicals such as alkalis, antiseptics and acid-liberating agents tend to inhibit
the enzyme activity. Once destroyed, they cannot be revived or reactivated
Enzymes used in textile processing
Enzymes are principally classified and are named according to the chemical reaction they
catalyse. In other words, they are named by the substrate on which they act. An enzyme name
is assigned to a group of proteins with the same catalytic property, even if they are obtained
from different sources. Some common types of enzymes and their specific activities are as
follows:
• Lipases: Split fats into glycerol and fatty acids.
• Amylases: Split starch (amylase) into dextrin and sugars.
• Proteases: Split proteins into soluble polypeptides and amino acids.
• Pectinolytic or pectinases: Degrade pectin.
• Zymases: Convert glucose into alcohol and carbon dioxide.
• Cellulases: Degrade cellulose to soluble products.
• Catalases: Convert hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.
• Saccharidases: Convert polysaccharides to glucose.
The application of enzymes in various stages of textile processing may be summarised as
follows:
• Desizing: Amylase, lipase.
• Scouring: Pectinase, cellulase.
• Bleaching: Oxidoreductase, xylanase.
• Dyeing: Oxidoreductase.
• Finishing: Cellulase, oxidoreductase, lipase.
• Composting (biodegradation of textile wastes): Cellulase, protease, nylonase, polyesterase.
Using bioengineering principles, new sources of enzymes are being discovered, isolated and
cultured for commercial use. Major companies involved in the preparation and marketing of
enzymes useful for textile industry are Novoenzymes (formerly Novo Nordisk), Dystar,
Clariant, Genencor, etc.
DYEING OF TEXTILES
Dyeing is the aqueous application of colour in form of dyes or pigments on textile materials
(such as fibers, yarns, and fabrics) at elevated temperatures and pressure with the goal of
achieving color with desired color fastness. Several dyes and pigments are used in the
colouration process depending on the type of fibre to be dyed.
DYES AND PIGMENTS
There are two main types of colorants: pigments and dyes. Dyes are either soluble in the
dyeing medium (e. g. water) or can dissolve into the textile substrate. Pigments are neither
soluble in the dyeing medium nor can dissolve into the substrate. Both pigments and dyes can
be natural or synthetic. From the application point of view, dyes have been classified into
different groups, each group being suitable for certain types of textile substrates. Some
commonly used dyes and their suitability for different fibers is given in the table.
Importance of auxilliaries in dyeing
To attain high-quality dyeing, proper dyeing auxiliaries should be precisely used. The potential
functions of dyeing auxiliary products – e.g. surfactant, electrolytes, oxidants, reductants,
buffers, deformers, sequestering and solubilising agents, levelling agents, retarding agents
and anti-precipitant – include the following:

• Improving the efficiency of the pre-treatment processes for subsequent dyeing.

• Enhancing the extent of dye uptake and fixation.
• Ensuring the stability of the dyeing bath as well as compatibility of its ingredients.
• Modifying the textile substrate and/or avoiding its damage.
• Upgrading the fastness properties of the obtained dyeings.
• Minimising the environmental impacts of textile wet processing, especially dyeing.
The dyeing process of textile substrates comprises four stages:

• Transport of the dye molecules from solution to the substrate surface.

• Dye adsorption on the substrate surface.
• Diffusion or penetration of the dye from the substrate surface to the interior of the fi
bre through its amorphous regions.
• Fixation of the dye onto and/or within the substrate via covalent bonds, hydrogen
bonds, ion-exchange or van der Waals forces, or through insolubilisation of the pre-
dissolved dye inside the fibre.
The extent of the dye fixation as well as the fastness properties of the obtained dyeing are
determined by the mode of interaction between the dye molecules and the textile fibres by
one or more of the following mechanisms:

• Ionic bonding, e.g. acid and basic dyes/protein fibres.

 • Covalent bonding, e.g. reactive dyes/cellulosic fibres.
• Hydrogen bonding, e.g. direct dyes/cellulosic fibres.
• In solubilisation of pre-dissolved dye following their entry into fibres, e.g. vat and
sulphur dyes/cellulosic fibres.
• Adsorption of the dye-vapour, e.g. volatile disperse dyes/polyester
Dyeing can be done using the following methods:

• Discontinuous methods methods such as ; batchwise in rope form (winch, jet) or in

open width (jigger).
• Semi-continuous systems: Pad → cold batch → wash Pad → preheating → hot batch
→ wash Pad → dry → jigger development
• Continuous systems for high production: Pad → dry → pad → steam fixation → wash
DYEING OF SYNTHETIC FIBRES
Disperse dyes
The Society of Dyers and Colourists (UK) defines disperse dye as ‘a substantially water-
insoluble dye having substantivity for one or more hydrophobic fibres, e.g. cellulose acetate
or polyester and usually applied from fi ne aqueous dispersion’. Due to their non-ionic nature,
disperse dyes are volatile and the dye vapour is strongly adsorbed by hydrophobic fibres. This
is the basis for thermosol dyeing (heat-fixation) and heat-transfer printing processes. Stages
involved in dyeing synthetic fibres with disperse dyes:

• A part of the dye dissolves in the water of the dyebath.

• Molecules of dye are transferred from solution to the surface of the fibre.
• The solution in the dyebath is replenished by the dissolution of more solid dye from
the dispersion.
• The adsorbed dye diffuses monomolecularly into the fibre.
Function of dispersing and levelling agents

• To assist the reduction of particle size of disperse dyes during finishing.

• To facilitate reverse change from powder to dispersion when the dyebath is prepared
• To maintain dispersion during dyeing.
Basic Dyes
The basic or cationic dyes are most commonly used for dyeing polyacryonitrile or acrylic
materials. During dye application, the negatively charged acrylic fiber attracts the positively
charged dye cations for ionic bonding. Due to high attraction between the oppositely charged
fiber and dye molecules, there is risk of unlevel dyeing because of high rate of dyeing. This
may be reduced by careful control of dyeing temperature and use of suitable retarding agents.
The basic dyes are well known for their intense hues and brilliant shades and excellent light
fastness. Wash fastness is also quite good.
Acid Dyeing
The acid dyes are anionic in nature usually applied under acidic conditions. They are
commonly used for dyeing protein fibers (e. g. wool and silk) and nylon fibers. Their negatively
charged anions are attracted by positively charged amino groups in wool or nylon under acidic
conditions resulting in ionic bond under acidic conditions. In addition to ionic bonds, hydrogen
bonds as well as Van der Waal’s forces may also be formed between the fiber polymer system
and the acid dye molecules. Because of the high dye-fiber affinity due to opposite charges,
there is high possibility of un level dyeing. To avoid this, some retardation in the dyeing rate
is obtained by making use of sodium sulphate. The acid dyes are further classified into three
main groups: – Levelling dyes – Milling dyes – Super-milling dyes
Mass colouration
The difficulties of dyeing synthetic fibres forced colourists to search for alternate methods
Such as mass coloration, mass pigmentation or dope dyeing sometimes also known as
solution-dyed or spun-dyed. The method is applicable for all man-made fibres – regenerated
(e.g. viscose) and synthetic. In this process, insoluble pigments (including vat pigments) and
selected dyes are incorporated in the solution or melt of polymer before it is spun into
filament. Mass coloration is most popular for polypropylene (PP) – the fibre is almost
completely (100%) coloured by this process.
The advantages of mass coloration are:

• Economical when a manageable (limited) range of shades is coloured in larger

quantities. Absolute shade uniformity, even over very long runs.
• Excellent all-round colour fastness.
• During dyeing for a prolonged period, especially at high temperature, undesirable
changes may occur in delicate man-made fibres which is nott possible in mass
colouration.
• Cost of coloration is low as no additional dyeing machine is required.
• In normal dyeing, a significant quantity of colorant is wasted as unexhausted and
unfixed colorant whereas in mass coloration, the wastage of colorant is negligible.
• Considerable economic in production time, water, energy and chemicals – their supply
and disposal.
The disadvantages of mass coloration are:

• There can be no speedy adaptation to quick-changing fashion trends, especially when

demands are varied and spread over small lots.
• The flexibility in fibre production is minimised.
• Continuous man-made fibre production sequences are frequently interrupted for
change of colour and for cleaning of the equipment from residual colour.
Various methods of mass coloration are:

• Single-bath system
• Master-batch system
• Direct injection system
DYEING CELLULOSIC FIBRES
Direct dyeing
Direct dyes are so named because they have natural affinity for cellulose and can be applied
without using auxiliary chemicals. In practice, the dyeing rate and colour yield can be greatly
improved by adding inorganic salts such as sodium chloride or sodium sulphate to the
dyebath. They are available in a full range of hues but are not noted for their colour brilliance.
Their major drawback is their poor to moderate fastness to washing. The light-fastness on
cellulosic fibres varies from poor to fairly good, although some copper complex direct dyes
have very good light-fastness. Wash-fastness is improved by resin treatment of dyed fabrics
or by various after-treatments though in some cases, these decrease the light-fastness. After-
treatment aims to improve the wash-fastness by increasing the dye’s molecular weight. This
makes it less soluble and of slower diffusion. After-treatment methods include diazotisation
and development, coupling with diazonium salts, after-treatment with formaldehyde, metal
complex formation, cationic fixatives, and resin and cross-linking agent.
Sulphur dyeing
Sulphur dyes are complex organic compounds synthesised by heating simple amines or
phenolic compounds in the presence of sulphur. Sulphur dyes exist in pigment form and are
converted to the sodium salts of the leuco-dyes having affinity for cellulose by treatment with
a reducing agent under alkaline conditions. After the leuco-dye anions have been adsorbed
onto the cellulose and have diffused into it, they must be oxidised back to their insoluble
pigment form. The chief advantages of sulphur dyes are their cheapness and their general
good fastness to washing. The biggest limitation of sulphur dyes is that they are not bright
enough in colour for many uses. Their application consists essentially of the following steps.

• Reduction to the soluble leuco form.

• Impregnation of the fibres with the leuco compound.
• Oxidation in the fibres to the insoluble form.
Azoic dyeing
Azoic dyes are pigments that are synthesised inside the fibre by two components, neither of
which is a dye itself. The two components are an aromatic diazonium salt and an aromatic
hydroxyl compound (a naphthol). Azoic dyes are formed directly on the fibre by the reaction
(coupling) of two usually colourless components of limited water solubility. The azo
compound formed inside the fibre by this reaction is a pigment which is fast to washing
because it is extremely insoluble in water. The greatest advantage of azoic dyeing is that it
provides an economical way to obtain certain shades, especially of red. The main
disadvantages are the limitations of hue selection, complicated and time-consuming
application procedures, and poor fastness to crocking. The batch dyeing of cellulosic fibres
using an azoic combination involves four steps:

• Absorption of the naptholate ion by the cellulose.

• Removal of the excess naphthol solution from the fibre surfaces.
 • Treatment with the diazonium ion solution to bring about coupling.
• Soaping the fabric at the boil to remove superficial pigment, followed by rinsing and
drying.
Vat dyeing
Vat dyes and sulphur dyes are similar in that they are both pigments which must be reduced
and oxidised during application. The vast majority of vat dyes are based on the
anthraquinonoid or the indigo chromophores. Vat dyes can therefore be reduced to leuco
forms, whose molecules possess hydroxyl groups. Although the leuco form is insoluble in
water, it can be rendered soluble in alkali and the dissolved material oxidised back to the
original vat dye. Vat dyes have outstanding wash-fastness and light-fastness as a class except
indigo with very poor wash-fastness. The biggest disadvantage of vat dyes is their relatively
high cost. Application of vat dyes requires the following steps and the order depends on the
dyeing method employed (pigment or reduced method)

• Preparation of the sodium derivative of the reduced (leuco) compound (vatting).

(With solubilised vat dyes, this step is omitted)
• Impregnation of the fibres with the leuco compound.
• Oxidation in the fibres to the insoluble vat dye.
• Rinsing and soaping.
Reactive dyeing
Reactive dyes chemically react with the fibre forming covalent bonds. They are easy to apply,
and obtain previously unobtainable shades with very high levels of fastness. Reactive dyeing
differs from all other applications of water-soluble dyes in so far as the final goal is to achieve
a dye–fibre covalent bond. The dyes are usually applied with the addition of electrolyte to
increases the rate of strike of the dye. Cellulose carries a negative charge in pure water, as
the dye is also anion, there is electrostatic repulsion between dye and cellulose. Therefore,
by adding inert electrolyte such as common salt or Glauber’s salt to the dyebath, this
electrostatic barrier, known as the Donnan potential, can be largely suppressed. This
facilitates dye–fibre contact and allows better interaction of the Yoshida and van der Waals
forces and hence improving substantivity.
Dyeing of blends
Factors affecting the choice of proper dyestuffs as well as dyeing conditions for obtaining
high-quality blend dyeing include:

• behaviour of blend components and their proportions towards different dyes and
dyeing conditions
• compatibility of dyebath ingredients
• availability of proper dyeing equipment
• the increased demand for novel effects achieved by blending
• subsequent finishing treatments
• Economic realities and ecological concerns.
OTHER TYPES OF DYES AND PIGMENTS
Metallic pigments: Are obtained from copper alloys and aluminum, and can be made in a
variety of colors and particle shapes. The metallic effect originates from the reflection of light
at the surface of the pigment particles. The lustre effect is decreased when the part of the
light scattered at edges and corners of the particles increases. Higher brilliance is caused by
the larger particles as they are the better reflectors.
Fluorescent pigments and dyes: These absorb ultraviolet as well as visible rays and emit light
at longer wavelengths which is added to the reflected visible light, resulting in a far brighter
color that appears to glow. Fluorescent colorants constitute dyes and pigments.
Phosphorescent (‘glow-in the-dark’) pigments: While conventional pigments emit light as
quickly as they absorb it, phosphorescent pigments interact differently with light sources,
leading to the phenomenon of delayed fluorescence.
Thermochromic colourants: these provide a striking color change in response to a change in
temperature. Their formulations consist of a dye, an activator, and a solvent. The heat
stability and other thermal properties of the solvent determine the temperature at which the
color change takes place, while the inherent nature of the dye determines the color.
Photochromic colorants: Are those dyes that are capable of changing their molecular
geometry when exposed to a light source, which is usually sunlight. Specially formulated
photochromic coatings are used for making lenses for sunglasses which turn dark in the sun.
DYEING METHODS
Dyeing methods can be classified into two main types: exhaust dyeing and pad dyeing.
Selection of a particular dyeing method depends on; Type of textile material (fiber, yarn,
knitted or woven fabric), available equipment and batch size of the textile material.
Exhaust Dyeing
In exhaust dyeing, a finite amount of textile materials (in the form of fibers, yarn or fabric) is
placed in the dye liquor and remains in its contact throughout the dyeing time, during which
the dye molecules gradually move (or exhaust) from the liquor toward the fabric, for
absorption and fixation in the textile material. Phases in exhaust dyeing include the following:

• Disaggregation of dye particles in aqueous solution or dispersion

• Exhaustion or movement of the dye molecules from the solution / dispersion towards
the textile substrate
• Adsorption of the dye molecules on the surface of the textile substrate
• Absorption, penetration or diffusion of the dye molecules into the fibers of the textile
substrate
• Fixation of the diffused dye in the fibers through chemical bonding or by some other
mechanism.
The rate of dye exhaustion, absorption and fixation are controlled with the help of dyeing
temperature, liquor agitation, pH or auxiliaries such as electrolytes, alkalis, leveling agents or
retarding agents, as well as the liquor to material ratio (L:R). Total dyeing time required
depends on: depth of shade, type of dyestuff, nature of textile material and type of dyeing
machine. Machines used in exhaust dyeing include;

• Package dyeing machine: mainly used for dyeing yarn in package form
• Winch or beck dyeing machine: for dyeing knitted fabrics (in rope form) at
atmospheric pressure but may also be used for woven fabrics
• Jet dyeing machine: for dyeing knitted fabrics (in rope form) at atmospheric or higher
pressure but may also be used for woven fabrics
• Jigger; used for dyeing woven fabrics (in open-width form)
Pad Dyeing
In pad dyeing method, a continuous batch of fabric in open width, passes through an
impregnator (or padding trough) containing dye liquor, followed by a passage between a pair
of squeeze rollers. The pressure of the squeeze rollers can be adjusted to obtain a desired
wet pick-up. The final depth of colour obtained on the fabric depends on concentration of the
dye and the wet pick up. After passing through the squeeze rollers, the fixation of the dye on
the fabric may be accomplished by variety of means including:

• making a batch of fabric and keep rolling the batch for a specific period (pad-batch
dyeing method);
• passing the fabric through a drying and fixation unit (pad-dry-fix dyeing method)
• passing the fabric through a drying and steaming unit (pad-dry-steam dyeing method)
• passing the fabric through a steaming unit (pad-steam dyeing method).
Pad dyeing Machinery include:

• Pad-batch dyeing machine: for dyeing fabrics in open-width form in semi-continuous

manner
• Pad-steam dyeing range: for dyeing cotton fabrics in open-width form in full-
continuous manner
After both the exhaust and pad dyeing methods, the dyed fabric is usually subjected to a
washing / rinsing step to remove any unfixed dye from the fabric.
NB. Assignment On different types of dyeing machines.
NATURAL DYES
Natural dyes are dyes or colorants derived from plants, invertebrates, or minerals. The
majority of natural dyes are vegetable dyes from plant sources such as
roots, berries, bark, leaves, and wood as well as other biological sources such
as fungi and lichens. The vegetable dyes extraction is broadly divided into extraction method
and extraction technology.
Extraction methods
The extraction method of vegetable dyes basically depends on the method in which the dye
is extracted. There are mainly four methods used in extraction of natural dyes.

• Aqueous method: Boil the dyestuff in soft water at 100°C. Filter the dye solution and
record the optical density.
• Alkaline method: Prepare 1% alkaline solution with addition of sodium carbonate or
sodium hydroxide in water. Enter the dye material in it and boil the same at 100°C.
Filter the dye solution and record the optical density.
• Acidic method: Prepare 1% of acidic solution by adding HCl in soft water. Enter the
dye material and boil it at 100°C. Filter the dye solution and record the optical density.
• Alcoholic method: Alcoholic solution is made by adding equal amount of alcohol and
water. Enter the dye material and boil it at 100°C. Filter the dye solution
Extraction technologies
Solvent extraction or Soxhlet extraction; is one of the most common extraction techniques
used today for solid metrices and now it has been commercialized in recent years. It has been
improved to reduce waste generation and eco-effectiveness of extraction methodology.
Microwave-assisted extraction technology: This is a high-speed method used for selectively
targeted compounds from various raw materials. The technology uses a microwave applicator
as the energy source during solvent extraction.
Continuous steam distillation process: As the name suggests, is a separation process using
steam as a media; but instead of batch type, this process is continuous. The process consists
of a totally insulated pneumatic conveying system using super heated steam as a carrier gas.
Enzymatic fermentation extraction: This method results in extraction with higher stability
than other methods of carotenoid extraction. Because most carotenoids exhibit bright colors,
these pigments have much potential use as a coloring agent. The process includes the steps
of combining shredded plant material with an enzyme which breaks down the plant cellular
walls releasing the carotenoids contained within the plant cells. The enzymes added to the
plant material can be pectinase, cellulase, hemicellulase, or mixture thereof.
Supper critical fluid extraction (SFE): Super critical fluid extraction is a further advancement,
making significant steps over the use of conventional solvent extraction technology. It uses
CO2 as extraction media. It is non-hazardous and subject to minimum waste generation.
A. Raw materials may be in form of roots, barks, leaves, fruits, etc of a plant. These are
collected, cleaned and well dried under shed.
B. Size reduction; the raw materials are required to be ground to powder (50 and 100
mesh size) form so as to facilitate the extraction.
C. Batch extraction; The batch extraction of the coloring component must be carried out
in noncorrosive stainless steel (SS) vessel and water used for extraction should be free
from metallic impurities. Time, temperature, and pH of the water are also paramount.
D. Phase separation: After extraction, the solids and the liquor are separated either by
continuous decanting, continuous centrifugation, etc.
E. Fine filtration: For removing the fine particle, >5 microns, a sparker filter with a now-
woven filter cloth is used. One also uses the reverse osmosis system for eliminating
the fine suspended particles.
F. Precipitation/concentration/drying: The precipitation of the dye from the extract is
brought about with change in pH from alkaline to acidic pH. The precipitated dye is
filtered through the filter press or separated from the liquor by centrifugation and
dried under vacuum at low temperature. The dye powder thus obtained is ground to
200 mesh particle size and formulated to get the standardized natural dyes.
G. Characterization; the dye is characterized in terms of water soluble matter, ash
content, moisture, pH, spectra intensity and strength of the dye (by the dyeing trial).
MORDANTS AND THEIR APPLICATION
Natural dyes are either substantive, which need no mordant, or adjective which require one
mordant. The majority of natural dyes need a chemical in the form of a metal salt to create
an affinity between the fiber and the pigment. These chemicals are known as “mordants.
Where the dyes are capable of being dyed directly, the mordant helps to produce faster
shades by forming an insoluble compound of mordant and dyestuff within the fiber itself.
There are three types of mordants namely:
Metallic mordants: Originally, only naturally occurring metal salts were used as mordants.
But nowadays, metal salts of aluminium, chromium, iron, copper, and tin are used as
mordants. Few of the common mordants are; alum, potassium dichromate, ferrous sulphate,
copper sulphate, stannous chloride, and stannic chloride.
Tannins and tannic acid: Vegetable tannins are bitter and astringent substances in plants,
often occurring as excretions in the bark and other parts (especially leaves, fruits, and galls).
A number of tannin containing substances are employed as mordants in the dyeing of textile
fibers. Few of these are used on account of their lower price as a substitute for tannic acid in
mordanting. Among the tannins, myrabolans and sumach are most important. Tannic acid
occurs in many tannin containing substances, especially in nut galls, and in sumach.
Oil mordants: Oil mordants are used mainly in the dyeing of turkey-red color from madder.
The main function of the oil-mordant is to form a complex with alum used as the main
mordant.
Mordants not only give the dye an affinity, but in many cases, they produce different colors
and improve the fastness of a dye. There are many plants which may yield a color that is
brilliant and pleasing but fades easily, unless fixed by using a mordant. The principal methods
of applying mordants are as follows:

• Applying the mordand before the dye

• Applying the mordant after the dye
• Applying both together
• Applying both before and after
Dyeing using natural dyes
There are five principal methods of dyeing with natural dyes. They are as follows:

• The material is boiled first with the mordant and then in the fresh bath dye.
• The material is first dyed in the dye bath and treated in a separate bath containing
mordants.
• The material is dyed in the same bath with dye and mordant together.
• The material is mordanted and then dyed in a separate bath and again treated in a
third bath.
• After treatment such as copper sulphate solution may be given to improve wash and
light fastness, dyed materials. Soaping is also a very important treatment. On soaping,
the colored material loses the superficial colors and gets the proper development of
its true shade it may also improves the brightening effect of the color.
PRINTING TECHNOLOGY

Printing can be defined as the localised application of dyes or pigments in a thickened form
to a substrate in order to generate a pattern or design. The printing paste contains colourants
or dyes, thickening agents, and other additives in limited amount of water. The thickening
agents such as gums or alginates are used to improve the adhesion between the ink and the
substrate as well as prevent the ink from spreading away from the target position. Textile
materials can be printed in different forms such slubbings, vigorous printing of yarns, warp
printing, piece goods, and garments.

Dyeing v/s Printing

• The fibre, yarn or fabric is impregnated with the dye stuff while in printing the pattern
is generally imprinted on the fabric surface.
• Dyeing gives solid shades all over the fibre while Printing is application of colour on
the surface of the cloth on selected areas only.
• During dyeing aqueous solution or dye- bath is used while during printing process a
thick paste of the dye with thickeners is used
• With dyed fabrics the outline of the design is the same on both sides the fabric while
for printed fabrics the outline of the design is sharply defined on the right side.

Printing styles or techniques

Direct printing: This is the commonest method of printing and can be done on an already
dyed fabric or a white fabric. During printing each colour has a specific place on the fabric
such that there is no overlapping of colours.

Over printing: This is a techniques where one or more colours are printed wet-on-wet on top
of another colour that has just been printed to create a fall-on effect. The colourist must be
aware of the effect of the colour beneath on the over printed shade.

Discharge printing: Here, the fabric is dyed and dried prior to printing. It is then printed with
print paste containing a chemical which will destroy or discharge the colour of the dyed
ground shade within the printed area.

Resist printing: Bleached goods are first printed with a resist paste which is normally a
resinous substance such as wax or starch that cannot be penetrated when the fabric is
subsequently immersed in a dye solution. The dye affects only the parts that are not covered
by the resist paste. The paste is then removed by washing or ironing with a hot flat iron.

PRINTING METHODS

BLOCK PRINTING

It is the oldest method of printing that uses blocks where the design to be printed is curved
in the block as shown in the figure below. It is a slow, laborious process and is not suitable
for high volume commercial use.

The design to be printed is curved on the face of a wooden or metallic block. If there are more
than one colour in the design, colour separation is done and each colour is traced out
individually on a separate block. The table on which printing is to be done is protected with
polyethylene paper and then covered with newspapers or printing pads. The fabric to be
printed is spread carefully on top of the table ironed, and held in position with thumb nails or
a clump. Measurements of the printing block are taken and used to demarcate repeat
registration. The print paste is applied to the design surface on the block and the block
pressed against the fabric. when complete the fabric is left to dry.

STENCILPRINTING

Most of the stencils are normally cut out of the hardened papers,. If more than one colour is
required, colour separation is necessary and a stencil for each colour is prepared. A pattern is
transferred by brushing, spraying, or squeeging ink or paint through the open areas of a sten
cil cut out from thin plywood, plastic, metal or cardboard. This printing method is restricted
for small jobs such as writing of banners. Commercially it is of little value because it is labour
intensive and time wasting, and accuracy is not guaranteed.

The procedure for stencil printing is similar to that of block printing except that here, the
design is cut out in the stencil. The stencil is placed firmly on the fabric and paste is applied
using a squeegee or sponge or brush.

ROLLER PRINTING

In roller printing, the colour is transferred continuously onto the fabric by engraved rollers.
The repeat of the design is governed by the roller circumference. Each roller applies only one
colour on the design while the thickened dye paste is held in the engraved roller area.

The rollers are mounted against the large main cylinder, around which the fabric travels
together with a resilient blanket to prevent sideways movement and a protective back grey
cloth. The printing paste is located in a trough. A transfer roller or furnishing roller runs partly
immersed in the paste and in contact with the engraved roller. It picks colour from the trough
and transfers it to the printing roller. A colour doctor blade, scraps away all of the paste except
for that contained in the engraving. A cleaning lint doctor blade on the other side scraps away
any lint picked up from the fabric.

In its passage around the cylinder, the pressure of the engraved roller against the fabric
causes the design to be transferred. Each roller applies its colour and part of the design. Any
excess paste which is squeezed through the fabric is taken up by the back grey. This protects
the blanket and prevents the design from being smeared on the blanket. After leaving the
cylinder, the cloth is dried often by passage through a hot air drier and then over steam
heated cylinders to help in setting of the dye.
Advantages and disadvantages

• Roller printing is especially suited for printing large batches. Speeds can amount to
approximately 100 meters per minute.
• Another advantage is the crush effect. Applying several colours in one drawing is
achieved by using several printing rollers. Each printing roller applies one colour.
• However, Deep colours are hard to obtain, which benefits screen printing. There may
be a reduction in colour strength of up to 50%.
• Engraving the printing rollers is an expensive operation which raises the price of the
roller printing technique considerably.
• The cloth width to be handles is limited by the length of the printing roller.
• There are delays when changing patterns or colour wheels and reduced colour yields
due to printing pressure employed.
SCREEN PRINTING

Hand screen printing

Screen printing is basically a form of stencil print. It consists of a synthetic fabric or metal
gauze stretched taut over the frame. Part of the gauze has holes blocked off (non-printing
area) and the printing paste is forced through the open printing areas by a rubber or metal
squeegee onto the fabric. Each screen is required for each colour. The fabric is placed on a
firm table covered with printing pad and newspapers. Screens are moved along the print
surface with the paste. A squeegee is employed in driving across the screen unidirectional
and the number of strokes may vary according to the individual preference.After printing the
fabric is left to dry.

The method has low production costs and suitable for short runs particularly order oriented.
It is labour intensive but cheap printing method. Since printing is done by hand, there are
pressure variations such that the repeat registrations are never perfect and it is not easy to
obtain sharp images.

Screen preparation
Design selection: The design and fabric quality must be demand driven so as to command a
market share. The designs should suit end use for example small motifs are made for shirts
while larger motiffs are made for furnishings.

Repeat sketches: The individual design units must fit together perfectly in order to eliminate
the introduction of discontinuities. The croquis (the artist’s original design) is redrawn too
give a modified version known as a repeat sketch. During the preparation of a repeat sketch,
the boundary of the repeat is usually disguised as much as possible.

Colour separation: This is done by reproducing the design areas of each colour separately on
a clear transluscent dimensionally stable film. The colour separations (dipositives) usually
consist of positives painted by hand using opaque ink or paint. Automated colour separations
has so far been successful from most designs.

The photo chemical process

• A screen is coated with a light sensitive polymer, by standing it against a wall and
applying the layer of the viscous polymer solution. The polymer solution is applied
using a smooth, straight aged trough. The trough is tilted and moved from bottom to
top of the screen applying the polymer.
• The coated screen is dried in a dark cardboard ideally on horizontal shelves with a
drought of cool dust free air to shorten the drying time
• Once the coated screen is dry, it is sensitive to light so photographic dark room
conditions with safe light are required during exposure and developing stages.
• A dipositve is placed on top of the coated screen upside down and held in place with
a 1mm thick glass. For flat screens, the inside of the screen is supported with blocks
which can fit properly. The glass is covered using an opaque material and proceed to
the area of light or under direct sunlight.
• The time of exposure depends on the distance from the light source. After exposure
the screen and dipositvie is taken back to the dark room.
• Everything is removed from the screen and it is then immersed fully in water to allow
development of the design. Now the design is apparently seen on the screen, the
design lines are open using highly pressurised jets of water.
• After opening, pinholes that are not opened are checked for on the screen before it is
left to dry in the dark room or dried immediately using hot air.

Rotary Screen Printing

Rotary screen printing uses CAD and roller squeegees. One roller is used for each colour. This
is a very fast process used in the continuous printing of furnishing and clothing fabrics.
The machine uses seamless cylindrical screens which are composed of a nickel mesh with end
rings stack at one end to tension the cylinder and prevent collapse. Each rotary screen is
positioned across the fabric and is independently driven at one end. As the screen rotates, it
is fed internally with print paste which is forced through the open mesh area by a stationery
squeegee at the base of the screen and onto the fabric being carried by a continuous moving
conveyor. The fabric is then dried by passing through a hot air drier.

The advantages of rotary-screen printing machines include;

• faster production rates, greater ease of setting up and a lower dependence on

experience for successful operation.
• Computer aided design techniques for printing screens are now increasingly widely
used.
• Rotary screen machines are more compact than flat screen machines for the same
number of colours in the pattern. Therefore, they use less plant floor space

The principle disadvantage of rotary screen printing is the high fixed cost of the equipment.
The machines are generally not profitable for short yardages of widely varying patterns.

Flat Bed Screen Printing

In flat bed screen printing, this process is an automated version of the older hand operated
silk screen printing. For each colour in the print design, a separate screen must be constructed
or engraved.

If the design has four colours, then four separate screens must be engraved. The in-feed
device allows for precise straight feeding of the textile fabric onto the rubber blanket. As the
cloth is fed to the machine, it is lightly glued to the blanket to prevent any shifting of fabric or
distortion during the printing process. The blanket carries the fabric under the screens, which
are in the raised position. Once under the screens, the fabric stops, the screens are lowered,
and an automatic squeegee trough moves across each screen, pushing print paste through
the design or open areas of the screens. The screens are raised, the blanket precisely moves
the fabric to the next colour, and the process is repeated. Once each colour has been applied,
the fabric is removed from the blanket and then processed through the required fixation
process. The rubber blanket is continuously washed, dried, and rotated back to the fabric in-
feed area. The flat-bed screen process is a semi-continuous, start-stop operation. Flat screen
machines are used today mostly in printing terry towels.
Many factors such as composition, size and form of the screen, angle, pressure, and speed of
the blade (squeegee) determine the quality of the impression made by the squeegee.

Control of paste in screen printing

The amount of paste passing through the screens in both hand and flatbed screen printing
can be controlled in the following ways

• The mesh (thread/cm of the screen); generally a coarse mesh allows a predetermined
amount of paste to pass through compared to an open mesh. The fraction of the open
area in the fabric depends not only on the mesh but on the yarn diameter.
• The hardness and cross section of the squeegee blade; A harder rubber squeegee with
a sharp cross section is suitable for outlines where a soft rounded blade applies more
paste and is suitable for big blotches or motifs.
• Print paste Viscosity; the viscosity can be varied where thinner pastes passing through
the screens pours more readily than thicker paste
• The number of squeegee strokes; 2 to 4 strokes are applied for a better amount of
paste to be applied.
• The squeegee angle and pressure; the recommended angle is 65º to avoid slapping.
The pressure must be appropriate because too much pressure implies too much paste
on the fabric.

Advantages and disadvantages of the method

• From a productivity standpoint, the process is slow with production speeds in the
range of 15-25 yards per minute.
• The design repeat size is limited to the width and length dimensions of the flat screen.
Also, no continuous patterns such as linear stripes are possible with this method.
• However, this method offers a number of advantages. Very wide machines can be
constructed to accommodate fabrics such as sheets, blankets, bedspreads, carpets, or
upholstery.
• The technique allows for multiple passes or strokes of the squeegee so that large
amounts of print paste can be applied to penetrate pile fabrics such as blankets or
towels.

Screen printing faults

Most printing faults are registration faults i.e. misfitting of colours in the design may be
associated with screen frames falling n wet areas of the printed fabric.

Registration faults; inaccurate movement of the blanket on screen repeat distance each time
it is advanced. Inadequate adhesion of the fabric to the blanket will cause local misfitting.
Screen distribution due to excessive drag by the squeegee especially rubber squeegees may
lead to poor paste application and poor registration
Frame marks; when printing consecutive screen prints, the screen frame inevitably falls on
part of the area most recently printed and may leave an impression. It is also common in hand
screen printing when moving the screen back to fill in a gap left in the previously printed
motiff.

The technique used to counteract this problem is contact printing where the screen frame is
lowered to a print above the blanket, such that the gap is small. During passage of the
squeegee, the screen is stretched and makes contact with the fabric.

Splashing; this is the falling back of the print paste beneath the screen back into the cloth on
lifting the screen. It is reduced by lifting the screen first on one side and then the other.

TRANSFER PRINTING

Transfer printing is the term used to describe textile and related printing processes in which
the design is first printed on to a flexible non textile substrate and later transferred by a
separate process to a textile. It may be asked why this devious route should be chosen instead
of directly printing the fabric. The reasons are largely commercial but, on occasion, technical
as well and are based on the following considerations.

1. Designs may be printed and stored on a relatively cheap and non-bulky substrate such as
paper, and printed on to the more expensive textile with rapid response to sales demand.

2. The production of short-run repeat orders is much easier by transfer processes than it is by
direct printing.

3. The design may be applied to the textile with relatively low skill input and low reject rates.
4. Stock volume and storage costs are lower when designs are held on paper rather than on
printed textiles.

5. Certain designs and effects can be produced only by the use of transfers (particularly on
garments or garment panels).

6. Many complex designs can be produced more easily and accurately on paper than on
textiles.
7. Most transfer-printing processes enable textile printing to be carried out using simple,
relatively inexpensive equipment with modest space requirements, without effluent
production or any need for washing-off.

Against these advantages, may be set the relative lack of flexibility inherent in transfer
printing. No single transfer-printing method is universally applicable to a wide range of textile
fibres.

Vacuum Vapour Transfer

This method depends on the use of a volatile dye in the printed design. The transfer printing
is accompanied by passing a transfer paper and fabric between hot oil heated cylinders
reaching a temperature of about 180°C. As the paper and fabric pass the cylinder, a partial
vacuum is created by sucking air through perforations. The heated dye sublimes or vaporises
in partial vacuum and diffuses into the fabric. This method is restricted to synthetic fibres and
highly volatile dyes which has limited its use.

Wet Transfer Printing Process:

In this method, water soluble dyes printed on paper migrate to fabric having fixing chemicals.
The principle behind wet transfer processes is the use of water as the medium through which
dye diffuses in passing from the paper to the fabric. There are two methods involved. The
fastran process and the dew print transfer process. A wet transfer printing process for fabrics
is known which comprises the following three stages.

1. Printing the required design on a selected grade of paper, using specially chosen dyes
dispersed in a suitable paper printing medium.
2. Impregnating the fabric (nylon, wool, acrylic or the like) with an aqueous solution
which may, for example, contain a dye fixation catalyst and a thickener, the latter to
act as a dye migration controller and film-stabiliser.
3. Bringing the printed paper and the impregnated fabric into close conformity, by
applying pressure, and maintaining this conformity under pressure for a period which
may vary from a few seconds to several minutes, while maintaining the paper and
fabric in a moist condition at a temperature of at least 100. Dyes on the printed paper
are almost completely transferred to the fabric and, provided sufficient contact time
is allowed, are fixed in the same operation.

Fastran method: This involves padding wool garments with an aqueous bath containing
fastran powder, the powder contains a low cast gum derivative that holds a moisture film
over the material during the transfer as well as a surface derivative that facilitates high dye
absorption. The pre-wet garment is brought into contact with a transfer paper and is placed
over a silicon rubber sheet. The composite is then heated in a press for several minutes during
which time the dye migrates to the fabric and becomes attached in the usual manner. This
may be followed by an after wash. The method is quite suited for the printing of high-value
articles such as knitted woollen garments and cottons. The dyes mostly used are acid and
reactive dyes.
Dew print method: The DewPrint machine is well suited for nylon, spandex, and acrylics. The
material is padded with a preparatory emulsion which aids dye transfer from paper to fabric.
It is passed along the printed transfer paper over a cylinder heated at lower temperatures.
The fabric is the washed to remove the emulsion assistant. The major drawback of this
solution to the problems was the capital cost involved, which seriously affected the adoption
of the approach.

Melt Transfer printing

This method has been used since the 19th century to transfer embroidery designs to fabric.
The design is printed on paper using a waxy ink, and a hot iron applied to its reverse face,
presses the paper against the fabric. The ink melts on to the fabric in contact with it.

Dry heat transfer

This is a popular method for synthetics especially polyesters using disperse dyes. However the
method had some limitations of penetration and fastness on other synthetic fibres. It is
divided into two techniques;

Conventional heat transfer printing: This utilises electrically heated cylinders that press
against transfer printed paper on a fabric held against heat resistant blanket held under
tension. The dry heat causes the dye to sublime in pattern form directly from paper to fabric.

Infra-red heat vacuum transfer printing: This method operates at lower temperatures and
pressure. The transfer paper and fabric are passed between infrared heaters and a perforated
cylinder which are protected from excessive heat by a shield. It is best suited for certain fibres
which are heat sensitive such as acrylics and spandex. The system is also quite effective for
dye penetration of pile fabric e.g coduroys and velours.

Film Release transfer printing

This method is similar to melt transfer with the difference that the design is held in an ink
layer which is transferred completely to the textile from a release paper using heat and
pressure. Adhesion forces are developed between the film and the textile which are stronger
than those between the film and the paper.

DUPLEX PRINTING

Duplex printing simulates a woven pattern by printing the fabric on both sides. The fabric may
be passed through the roller printing machine in two separate operations or through a duplex
printing machine in a single operation. Duplex printing produces an equally clear outline on
both sides of the fabric. The difference can be detected only by raveling out the yarns out of
the fabric.

BOLTCH PRINTING
This is a continuous technique for randomly dropping or sprinkling dye liquor on a fabric to
produce multi-coloured patterns. Streams of dye run from a trough into individual channels.
The doctor blade oscillates, breaking up the streams of dye into droplets and scattering them
over the fabric. The fabric is continuously moving in open width by means of a conveyor, the
fabric is then padded to force the dye into it. It is later taken for drying. The process is not
only versatile but can also be used in place of some more expensive techniques at a minimal
costs.

ELECTROSTATIC PRINTING

The dye resin mixture that has dielectric properties is spread on a screen bearing the design.
The fabric is passed through an electrostatic field which is held about 12mm above the cloth.
The resin mixture is pulled by the electrostatic field through the pattern by the electrostatic
material. The dye is then initially fixed by infrared heat then, fixation is subsequently
reinforced with whatever process most suitable with the kind of dye used.

PHOTO PRINTING

The fabric is coated with the chemical that is sensitive to light. Then any photo may be printed
on a fabric under dark room, conditions.

DIGITAL/INKJET PRINTING

Digital or inkjet printing is a non-contact printing technology. The key characteristics of digital
printing technologies include:

• Variable data. The input data is not constrained by size, nor does it need to repeat.
Because the data is drawn from a computer file that is, in principle, unrestricted in
size.
• Non-contact with substrate. The ink is dropped onto the substrate, making it possible
to print on flat or curved, smooth or rough, delicate or hard substrates.
• Versatile. In most cases, inks can be developed that are compatible with any chosen
surface.
• Multicolour, Based on the cyan-magenta-yellow-black colour gamut, thousands of
colours can be printed without the requirement for a colour kitchen.
• High speed. The printing rates are of course, dependent on resolution, the type of
printing required, the head technologies, etc.
• No moving parts. Printer motions are limited to oscillators within heads and a system
to move the heads in relation to the substrate. It is the ink that moves during printing,
not a mechanical device. Consequently, ink jet printers are inherently reliable.
Inkjet mechanisms

Dot on Demand (DOD) or Impulse Print Heads: This broad category of technologies provides
mechanisms for delivering a drop of ink when there is a demand. The demand is generated
by the printing software: for each pixel, the instruction is either to fire a drop or not to fire.
The drop of ink then falls to the substrate under the influence of gravity and appears as a dot
on the surface. Drop sizes are measured in picolitres (the prefix pico means a trillionth, so one
picolitre is 10–12 of a litre. Example of heads that use this technique are thermal inkjet heads,
electrostatic inkjet heads and piezo inkjet heads.

Continuous Ink Jet (CIJ) Heads: The continuous ink jet concept is that, a jet of any fluid is
unstable and tends to break up into small droplets. This means that a continuous jet of ink
emerging from a nozzle becomes a stream of droplets in a very short time. the drops are given
an electrostatic charge and are steered, using an electric field, either to the substrate or to a
recirculation system.

Pulsed Ink Jet Heads : This concept is a hybrid between DOD and continuous jetting. The head
produces a jet that quickly becomes a stream of drops. However, instead of the jet being
continuous, it is pulsed, depending on the design of the print. There is therefore no need to
put a charge on the drops, nor to steer them electrostatically. With this delivery system, the
option of using CMYB, colour is not available, so each head has its own solid or spot colour
ink. As with the screen printing process, colour separation of graphic images is needed and
inks are prepared accordingly.

Inks for printing textiles

Inks are comprised of a colourant, a carrier base and various additives. The carrier base (or
vehicle) may be water, solvent, oil, phase change fluid (hot melt), or UV curable fluid.
Colorants for textile substrates have to be fast for washing, light and rubbing, these include
Reactive dyes Disperse dyes, Acid dyes, Pigments. These materials have been developed for
more traditional dyeing and printing routes, and adapted for use in digital printing. .

UV-curable Inks
UV-curable inks are made up of liquids (monomers, oligomers and photoinitiators) that are
converted 100% to solid under the influence of UV light, plus colourants (normally pigments)
and additives (surfactants to promote wetting and inhibitors to reduce low light cure).
Selected advantages are summarised below:

• Instant drying by curing

• No drying of ink in the jets (greatly reduced clogging)
• Reduced problems of the inks ageing in storage
• Minimal level of VOC (volatile organic compounds–solvents) and pollution
• Good quality gloss, satin and matt finishes
• Offer many options for adhesion chemistry with different substrates
• Produces durable prints that are resistant to many chemicals
• Compact curing equipment

Drawbacks include:

• Higher cost than water-based inks

• Higher machinery costs
• Requires controlled handling procedures
• Ink film is thicker than produced by aqueous inks
• Shrinkage occurs that can adversely affect adhesion
• With fabrics, the polymer film will affect handle
• Health & Safety issues relate to the materials causing skin irritation

General requirements for inks used in textile digital printing:

• Purity (to avoid blockages of nozzles, so they are filtered to less than 0.2 microns)
• Particle size (for disperse and pigment inks)
• Viscosity
• Surface tension
• Conductivity (for continuous flow application)
• Stability
• pH value
• foaming properties

TEXTILE FINISHING

Finishing is the general term for a multitude of processes and treatments which a fabric may
undergo after it has been made (woven or knitted) and coloured (dyed or printed). It is the
final processing of the cloth and its purpose is to make the fabric suitable for its intended end
use..

CLASSIFICATION OF FINISHES
Textile finishes and finishing are classified in several ways. They are usually categorized
as aesthetic finishes and functional finishes. The former modify the appearance and/or hand
(feel) of fabrics, while the latter improve the performance of a fabric under specific end use
conditions.
Persons concerned with textile processing (chemists and finishers) categorize finishes
into chemical finishes and mechanical finishes. These are also called wet finishing and dry
finishing, respectively.

Finishes are also categorized by their degree of permanence. These can be either
permanent, durable, semi-durable and temporary.

AESTHETIC FINISHES

CALENDERING

Calendering is a mechanical process that finishes fabrics by passing them between a series of
rollers. By varying the rollers, adding any additional chemical treatment and/or temperature,
a variety of calendered finished effects result, some of these include: glazed, ciré, embossed,
Schreiner and moiré fabrics.

Objectives of calendaring

• To give soft and smooth surface to the fabric

• To give lustre or glaze to the fabric
• To give silk like appearance
• To decrease the air permeability
• To flatten the slubs
• Surface patterning by embossing
 • Consolidation of nonwoven fabrics

TYPES OF CALENDER FINISHES

Glazing or chintz: Glazed fabrics such as polished cottons or chintz fabrics are created by
saturating the fabric in a starch, wax or resin solution and the fabrics are allowed to dry before
calendering. If starch or waxes are used, the finish is temporary and if resins are used, the
glaze is durable. A highly polished surface is achieved by heating the top bowl on a three bowl
calender. The speed of the metal rollers is greater than the speed of the fabric.

Swissing or normal gloss: A 10 bowl calender is used for swissing, when the production is
very large and high gloss is required on both sides of the fabric. If the finish is done in the cold,
a flat fabric is produced. If the calender is heated, a smooth lustrous fabric is produced.

Ciré finish: Ciré fabrics with their glossy or wet look are produced in a manner similar to
glazing. Ciré fabrics are coated with a wax or resin before being calendered with heated
rollers. When thermoplastic fibres are used, the fiber surface that comes in contact with the
metal roll melts and flattens slightly producing a highly polished fabric. Examples of Cire
fabrics are taffeta, satin or tricot, silk or silk blends.

Moiré finish
Moiré fabrics have a distinctive water marked look created in the calendering process. Moiré
is developed using either a moiré embossing roller or a high compression calendering of two
layers of ribbed- base fabric in a single pass. One popular method of preparing moiré fabric
involves using rollers that have been engraved with a design. The material is run between the
engraved rollers with some sections of the fabric crushed to reveal the finished design that
has a fluid or watery look. This type of application is often used to create material styles ideal
for evening gowns, formal capes, clutch handbags, and other types of formal apparel etc

Schreiner finish: Schreiner finishes on fabrics produce soft lustre and hand by flattening the
yarns and surface of a fabric through calendering. The schreiner calender has a metal roller
engraved with 200-300 fine diagonal lines per inch at an angle of 30 degrees. They are visible
only under a magnifying glass. The finish is made permanent by use of thermoplastic fabrics.
With cottons, the fabric require pre-impregnation with a resin prior to calendaring.

Embossing: Embossed fabrics have a pattern imprinted or embossed into the fabric. The
embossed pattern is created by passing the fabric between a heated embossing roller and a
shaped paper roll. Damask effect can be produced but the effect is temporary. It lasts longer
on mercerised fabric and pre-resin treated fabrics. 2-bowl embossed roller or 3-bowl
embossed roller arrangement can be used.

Chasing finish: The fabric is threaded through the calender in such a way as to press the fabric
against itself several times. This is carried out on a five or seven bowl calender with a fabric
passing through each nip in two or three layers. There is a risk of shaded effect produced
when the weave pattern of one side of the fabric accidentally presses onto the face of another
fabric usually under heat and pressure during processing.

Palmer finish: A damp fabric is carried around a steam heated cylinder or palmer drier with
one side placed against a felt blanket and the other in contact with the cylinder. The face of
the fabric which runs on the surface of the heated cylinder is lightly polished by it while the
back of the fabric which is in contact with the felt blanket takes on a roughened surface. Most
common example are cotton drill fabrics.

RAISING
Raising is finishing process that raises the surface fibers of a fabric by means of passage over
rapidly revolving cylinders covered with metal points or teasel burrs. The process is also used
for certain knit goods, blankets, and other fabrics with a raised surface.

The raised surface is created by pulling the fibre ends out of the yarns by means of metal
needles provided with hooks shelled into the rollers that scrape the fabric surface. The ends
of the needles protruding from the rollers are 45°-hooks; their thickness and length can vary
and they are fitted in a special rubber belt spiral-wound on the raising rollers. These rollers
are generally alternated with a roller with hooks directed toward the fabric feed direction
(pile roller), and a roller with the hooks fitted in the opposite direction (counterpile roller). By
means of this process, a hairy surface can be given to both face and back of the cloth providing
several modifications of the fabric appearance, softer and fuller hand with bulk increase. This
enhances the resistance of the textile material to atmospheric agents, by improving thermal
insulation and warmth provided by the insulating air cells in the nap

Raising techniques

Gigging: This is a raising process normally given to wool fabrics. The fabric is first saturated
with water and when the fibres of the moist wool are raised they tend to curl and shrink. The
raised fibres of wet fabric are brushed in one direction which gives a smooth and lustrous
appearance to the fabric.

Tiggering: is given to a fabric already having naps. This improves the height of the raised naps
and removes the loose fibres. The tiger roll, with long fine wires, pulls up the fibres that are
not raised by the process of napping. This process is generally applied to such fabrics as velour,
plush and imitation fur.

Napping :It is done to get a deep hairy surface. The fabric is passed under a roller having fine
steel wires with small hooks on the ends. The hooks scrape the surface of the fabric pulling
up the fiber ends. It produces a soft fabric with air trapped in the cells lending warmth to the
fabric. Flannellete and wool flannel are the examples of napped fabrics.
Furtexing or electrifying: This is a hot polishing process which may be applied to the pile that
is required to be vertical or nearly verticle to the ground fabric. The pile fabric is passed under
cylinders with helical grooves arranged to rub the fabric at wide angles in rapidly alternating
succession.The action beats and whips the fibres back and forth removing their crimp and
entanglement. The temperature of the cylinder and amount of pressure it exerts on a fabric
can regulate the amount of lustre. The addition of a lubricant such as water, alcohol or silicon
solution may be used to facilitate the process.

DRAPE FINISHES

Finishes used to change the lustre and texture of fabrics often have effects on the drapability
and hand of the fabric. Drape finishes change the way or fabric falls or hangs over a 3D shape.
Parchmentizing: Crispness or body is given to cottons in the process of parchmentizing.
Parchmentizing uses an acid wash (sulphuric acid) to make cotton almost transparent, and
yet permanently stiff such as in organdy (shown below). Split-second timing is necessary to
prevent weakening or tendering of the fabric. After the acid treatment, the cloth is
neutralized in a weak alkali, washed and calendered to improve surface gloss.

Burn out: Burned out effects are produced by printing a chemical solvent on a blend fabric
made of fibres from different groups such as rayon and polyester. One fibre is, usually less
expensive or more easily dissolved fibre, is dissolved, leaving sheer areas.in case of rayon and
polyester, rayon has been dissolved by acids. This finish is also known as etched or devore
because part of the fibres are removed by this subtractive finish.
Sizing or starching: In sizing or starching, the fabric is immersed in a mixture containing waxes,
oils, glycerines & softners to or control fabric body. Gelatin is used on rayons because it is a
clear substance that enhances the natural luster of fibers. Sizing adds stiffness, weight and
body to the fabric. Its permanance is related to the type of sizing, and method of application.
If the sizing is resin based and heat set, it will be permanent

FINISHES THAT IMPROVE TEXTURE

The feel, appearance or consistency of a surface or a substance is known as texture. Texture

finishes modify fabric texture or add components that completely change the fabrics original
texture. Fabrics can be made smoother or rougher, or given textured patterns.

Pleating: Pleating is a mechanical finish combined with a thermal or chemical process to make
the finish permanent. The size and shape of the pleats range from simple knife or box pleats
to novelty scalloped pleats to random pleated designs. Thermoplastic fibres can be heat set
to make permanent pleats. Acetate, a thermoplastic fibre cannot be heat set. Resin is used
for cotton and cotton blends.

Plisse finish: Plisse means to crease, to fold or to pleat. It refers to an intentionally wrinkled,
pleated, or puckered fabric. plisse fabric can be made by use of a caustic soda, such as sodium
hydroxide solution, or through tension weaving. Both processes tighten the fabric in the areas
where the puckering or creasing is desired. Phenol is mostly used to shrink nylon fabrics while
caustic soda is used for cottons. The alkali shrinks the fabric in the treated areas. As this
shrinkage occurs, the untreated stripes pucker.
FlockingTexture can also be developed by adding fibres in the finishing processes on the base
fabric. Flocked finishes add texture by adhering short fibres to the surface of a fabric. Flocking
can be used to create the appearance of a pile design or all over piles. Flock fibres attached
to a fabric surface are very short and straight and are attached by an adhesive to create an
inexpensive pile. The two basic methods of applying the flock fibers are mechanical and
electrostatic.

Fulling/ Felting: Fulling is performed on wool fibres to improve their appearance, hand,
thickness, softness, body and cover and the process is known as felting. Felt is made by a
process called wet felting where the natural wool fibers, stimulated by friction and lubricated
by moisture (usually soapy water), move at a 90 degree angle towards the friction source and
then away again. Fulled fabrics are denser and more compact in both warp and the filling
directions.

Tufted finishes or decorations: Are created by sewing additional yarns to the surface of a
fabric, creating a multi-dimensional appearance. Below is the example of tufted fabric with
its face and reverse side.

Denim finishing

Includes several dry and wet processing techniques that give garments a used, worn, vintage,
lived in or distressed look.

Wet processing techniques include rinsing (water washing), stone washing, and overdyeing.
Enzymes may be used to reduce the time required to achieve the desired look.
Dry processing techniques or abrasive techniques include hand laser burning, and laser
discharge. Dry processes are applied to specific areas rather than a whole garment. Robotic
machines are used for labour intensive finishing techniques such as hand sanding.

FUNCTIONAL FINISHES
Special finishes or functional finishes are those finishes that are applied to the fabric that
makes it suited for specific uses.

Soil release finishes

Soil release is a chemical finish that permits relatively easy removal of soils with ordinary
laundering. The soil releasability characteristics of a given textile depend on the kind of fibres.
Natural fibres such as cotton and wool exhibit little soil repellence, but when they do become
soiled they are readily cleaned, as they exhibit a high level of soil releasability. In contrast to
soil repellent finishes, a soil release finish does not prevent initial soiling but merely enables
deposited dirt to be removed in laundering. Other fabric properties that are enhanced by soil
release finishes include protection from soil redeposition during laundering and absorbency
or transport of liquid water. soil release agents are usually applied by padding in combination
with DMDHEU crosslinkers and provide soil release by a finish swelling mechanism.

Softeners

A softener is a ‘chemical or blend of chemicals which, when applied to textile materials, brings
about a change of handle that is more pleasing to the touch’. Softeners can be classified as
cationic, anionic or amphoteric softeners.

Cationic softeners: In addition to providing the most durable softness with, cationic softeners
render the fabric fluffy even at as low as 0.2% active content on the fibre, while improving its
tear strength, abrasion resistance and sew ability, and also the antistatic property, mainly in
the case of synthetic fibres. For most industrial and laundry applications, cationic softeners
are generally dominated by softeners like distearyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (DSDMAC),
distearyl amido imidazo linium chloride, and alkyl sulphate versions.

Anionic softeners: These softeners, being generally sulphated or sulphonated compounds,

are primarily used as lubricants for yarns or fibres, providing softness and pliability, stability
in alkaline conditions and good resistance to yellowing. They are also used as crease
preventing agents in processing, sanforizing and raising, and as sizing additives. Anionic
softeners include soaps, sulphosuccinates of fatty acids, sulphates of fatty acids, alcohol and
ether, sulphonates of alkylaryl, alkanes, olefins and fatty acids, etc.

Amphoteric softeners: As the name suggests, contain potentially anionic (carboxyl) and
cationic (amine) groups within the same molecule, just like amino acids and proteins, and
they have good compatibility with anti-wrinkle finishes, flame retardants, etc. Although only
an average level of softness is imparted, being proteinic and biodegradable they are
recommended for white goods where antistatic and hydrophilic properties are expected. The
softeners include substituted amino acids, amine oxide, betaine, amphoteric imidazoline etc.

Easy care finishes

Over the years a wide range of terms were put into use to indicate the easy care properties
of textiles: easy care, minimum care, easy to iron, no iron, wash and wear, crease resistant,
durable press, permanent press, shrink proof, wrinkle resistant, wrinkle free, etc. Easy care is
the property associated with an improved maintenance of cellulosic based textiles, especially
with respect to wrinkling and thus ironing. Durable press is a property that allows intentionally
introduced pleats in a fabric to be retained. The treatment to obtain easy care or durable
press properties is based on a crosslinking mechanism that avoids swelling of the fibres. The
discovery of the effect of formaldehyde reacting with cellulose was the basis for the
development of finishes for easy care properties. The following classes of formaldehyde
based products are discussed

Urea formaldehyde based; this was the first easy care finish developed starting from
formaldehyde and urea leading to N,N′-dimethylol urea (DMU). As a result of this the finished
textile contains a lot of free formaldehyde and a release of formaldehyde is observed.

Melamine formaldehyde based; the melamine products have more reactive groups
compared to the urea variants, resulting into a higher degree of crosslinking with cellulose
and thus higher wash resistance but higher stiffness in the textile. These easy care products
are also used for the enhancement of flame retardancy, as well as finish for the reduction of
wool shrinkage.

1,3-dimethylolethylene urea (DMEU); DMEU is produced by the reaction of ethylene urea (2-
imidazolidone) and formaldehyde. DMEU is a very efficient easy care agent with a better shelf
life and thus better fitted to use in a production environment. However, it has a negative
impact on the light fastness of direct and reactive dyes. Other disadvantages are the poor
chlorine resistance and the poor wash resistance.

1,3-dimethylol-4,5-dihydroxyethylene urea (DMDHEU); the success of DMDHEU, which is

widely used, is based on amongst others the development of the post-curing process.
DMDHEU has a lower reactivity than the products discussed above, resulting into higher
stability of the formulations, a better shelf life and also no reaction during storage of the
treated textiles. This allows the fabric to be treated and used for production of a garment that
is then subjected to a post-curing. Due to the lower reactivity DMDHEU needs more catalysts.
DMDHEU has good durability to laundering which also explains its widespread use. It lowers
the light fastness of reactive and direct dyes.

Lowering the release of formaldehyde in easy care finished products can be achieved in
various ways: by changing the formulation (adding scavengers) such as methanol or
diethylene glycol or the reactants (alkylation or glycolation) or by washing the treated fabrics
to remove the unreacted formaldehyde.

Super absorbent finishes

A superabsorbent polymer can absorb and retain extremely large amounts of a liquid relative
to its own mass and by doing so it can swell up to 1000 times. However, super absorbents can
be used for other types of fluids such as organic liquids and gases in specific technical
applications, such as oil recovery. There are three main functionalities for which
superabsorbent finishes are applied on textiles:
• high fluid absorption capacity
• high fluid retention
• high or regulated absorption rate.

Common examples of superabsorbent textiles include hygiene towels, wiping cloths,

separation filters, reservoir textiles for, e.g., agriculture, surgical dressings, special sportswear
and even food packaging. Manufacturing of such materials can be based on fibres that are
superabsorbent by nature, e.g. cellulosic (cotton, rayon, wood pulp) or polyacrylate ones, as
well as on application of superabsorbent finishes either on the individual fibres that will be
later used for fabricating textiles or directly on the final textile surface.
The main reasons for fashioning textiles with superabsorbent finishes involve:

• improvement of moisture management and breathability of garments leading to

increased wear comfort
• uniform liquid distribution and retention, especially important in, e.g., diapers and
hygiene articles in general
• the need for water reservoir systems suitable for regulated and on-demand water
supply, used, for example, in horticulture
• immediate liquid removal from specific working sites, whether for waterproofing and
sealing, as in the case of some types of geotextiles, or for accommodating the work in
progress, as in the case of dentistry or surgical sponges
• protection from environmental and professional hazards, such as in the case of
firefighter suits and military uniforms
• the increasing interest in and need for wearable biocompatible substance
entrapment/release systems for biomedical and pharmaceutical applications, such as
wound dressings and biochemical sensors.

Types of superabsorbent finishes

Hydrogels; are three-dimensional polymeric or colloidal networks that are insoluble in water
but can absorb large amounts of it in their structure, resulting in extensive swelling. In most
cases, hydrogels have stimuli responsive properties, i.e. they swell and shrink by absorbing
and expelling water, respectively, depending on ambient conditions of pH, temperature, light,
ionic strength, magnetic field, etc.

Superabsorbent composite materials; are mainly based on dispersions of clay particles in gel-
forming polymer matrices, although metal nanoparticles are used as well. Superabsorbent
composites are increasingly gaining interest because of the commercial, technical and
environmental benefits they offer, such as cost effective raw materials (e.g., inorganic fillers
and natural polymers as opposed to synthetic ones), enhanced mechanical properties and
faster biodegradability. Superabsorbent finishes can be applied on fibre and textile surfaces
using pre-textile (during their manufacturing in situ) or post-textile manufacturing.

Self-cleaning finishes

The self-cleaning property was for many years associated with superhydrophobic surfaces –
a phenomenon first observed in the lotus leaf and so named the lotus effect (shown in the
figure below).

Superhydrophobicity, or the lotus effect, is achieved by chemical and geometrical

modification of a surface. By creating micro and nano scale roughness accompanied by a
hydrophobic coating, dirt on the surface can be removed by water droplets as they bead up
and roll off the hydrophobic surface, thus keeping the surface clean.

Photocatalytic self-cleaning, is based on chemical breakdown of dirt through photo oxidation

and photo reduction reactions in the presence of light. Titanium dioxide or titania is the most
frequently used substance in this field. Photocatalytic activity can break down the organic
compounds present in cell walls of bacteria, as well as organic odour molecules present in the
atmosphere, thus inducing a self-cleaning function as well as conferring antimicrobial and
deodorization properties to treated surfaces. As TiO2 treated surfaces absorb light they
provide protection to surfaces against photo yellowing and photodegradation.

Cosmetic textiles or cosmetotextiles

In recent years the comfort of wearable textiles via finishing with cosmetic depot substances
has been of concern. Textiles can possess skincare properties through release of cosmetic
substances from the textile on the skin.
Cosmetotextiles can be classified according to their influence on the human body.
• For slimming: provide rehabilitation for the users and offer a slimming effect.
• For moisturising: provide a moisturising effect on human skin.
 • For energising: improve the energy level of humans.
• For perfuming: absorb foul odours and/or release pleasing perfumes.
• For refreshing and relaxing: provide a refreshing and relaxing effect.
• For vitalising: release revitalising aromas synthesised by plants and fruits based on
ingredients such as ginger, menthol, orange or rosemary at a slow release rate.
• For UV protection: provide effective protection against UV radiation.
• For improving the firmness and elasticity of the skin: improvement to human skin by
releasing certain natural products that soothe the skin.

Odour resistant textiles mainly used in carpets and automotive using, anti-odour finishes.
Insect repellent finishes for textiles
Insect repellence is known to play an important role in preventing the vector borne diseases
by reducing human–vector contact. In general, the action of mosquito repellents can be
broadly divided into two categories;
Action of the repellent on sense of smell is called transpiration repelling and this has the
effect of keeping insects away without allowing them to touch a surface processed with the
repellent agent. The insects usually use warm and humid convection rising from the human
body as a guide for approaching humans, sensing an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide
concentrations. The repellent molecules block the humidity sensory holes of the insects,
which make humans inaccessible to insects by inhibiting the function of sensing moisture.
Action of the repellent stimulating sense of touch is called direct contact repelling, and this
drives insects off the processed surface before bloodsucking, even after touching the surface.
It is believed that repellent substances work on the peripheral nervous systems of the insects.
When contact is made, it causes a collaterally expressed confusional state and inhibition
under sub lethal doses before knockdown and lethal (deadly) action The common types of
insect repellent finishes include;

• N, N-diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET)
• Picaridin
• Natural repellants such as; Citronella, Neem and Lemon eucalyptus
Moth silverfish etc. attacks fibre like cotton. Fluorine compounds, napthalene, DDT,
paradichloro benzene etc. are used for imparting moth proof finishes. They are available in
crystal cake and spray form. Cellulosic fibres are also treated with boric acid to prevent the
rapid growth of the mildew fungus etc.
Antimicrobial finishes
Fungi and bacteria are the most troublesome microorganisms. Problems such as
discoloration, staining and fibre damage can be caused by fungi. Although bacteria are not as
damaging to fibres as fungi, they can cause some fibre damage, unpleasant odour and a slick,
slimy feel. Most synthetic fibres are more resistant to the growth of microorganisms than
natural fibres, due to their high hydrophobicity. The major requirements for an antimicrobial
finish are:
 • It should be effective on a wide range of microorganisms.
• It should exhibit low toxicity to the human body, i.e. it should not cause allergic
reaction or irritation to the user.
• It should not kill the resident flora of non-pathogenic bacteria on the skin of the
wearer, which are important to the health of the skin .
• The finish must comply with the government regulations and have minimal
environmental impact.
• Textiles treated with antimicrobial finish should meet the standards in compatibility
tests (cytotoxicity, irritation and sensitisation) before marketing.
• It should be resistant to the aftercare processes of the textiles such as laundering, dry
cleaning and hot pressing.
• It should not negatively affect the quality of the fabrics
• It should preferably be compatible with textile chemical processes.
• It should be cost effective and eco-friendly.
The antimicrobial activity of various finishes can be divided into biocide or biostatic. The
biocides (e.g. bactericides and fungicides) kill the microorganisms, whereas the biostats
(bacteriostats and fungistats) inhibit their growth. Most of the antimicrobial agents used in
the textile industry utilise a controlled release or leaching mechanism
All these antimicrobial finishes have two different functions:
• protection of the textiles from the damage caused by the microorganisms.
• protection of the textile users against pathogenic or odour causing microorganisms.

Types of antimicrobial finishes

Quaternary ammonium compounds: The quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs), have
been widely used as antiseptics and disinfectants. The attractive interactions between the
cationic ammonium groups of the QACs and the negatively charged cell membrane of the
microbe create the antimicrobial activity, which in turn results in the formation of a
surfactant-microbe complex. This process interrupts the essential function of the cell
membrane and the protein activity. Furthermore, the QACs also affect bacterial DNA, causing
a loss of multiplication ability.
Polybiguanides: One of the most used polybiguanides is polyhexamethylene biguanides
(PHMB). The integrity of the cell membrane of the microbes is impaired by PHMB, which
increases on a weight basis with increased polymerisation. PHMB can be applied in a pad–
dry–cure process.
Metallic compounds: Several heavy metals in the free state or in compounds are toxic to
microbes at very low concentrations and kill the microbes by binding to intercellular proteins
and inactivate them. Silver (Ag) is the most widely used antimicrobial agent in textiles as it is
non-toxic and non-carcinogenic.

Triclosan
2,4,4′-trichloro-2′-hydroxydiphenyl ether (triclosan) is an antimicrobial agent against many
bacterial species. The antimicrobial effect is achieved by the migration of triclosan at a slow
rate to the surface of the fabrics during its use.
Chitosan
The deacetylated derivative of chitin, is the second most abundant polysaccharide available
on earth next to cellulose. Chitosan is well known for its antimicrobial activity is non-toxic,
biocompatible and biodegradable. Chitosan has been applied to cotton, wool and silk fabrics
for antimicrobial activity. In the case of woollen fabrics chitosan can be applied as a
shrinkproof polymer in addition to the antimicrobial activity.

Hydrophobic and oleophilic finishes

Usually the wetting behaviour of water onto a surface is simply determined and classified by
the contact angle of water deposited onto this surface. Surfaces with water contact angles of
90° or higher are considered hydrophobic while those below 90 are hydrophilic surfaces.
Hydrophobic finishes can be used to make water repellent and water proof textiles.
Water proof finishes; are those finishes which will not allow water to pass through regardless
of the time exposure. These finishes also adversely affect the comfort property as they limit
the passage of air.
Water repellant finishes; are which resist the penetration of water into the fabric but permits
the passage of moisture or air. If the fabric becomes very wet, water will eventually pass
through. The principle is that it is coated with the repellant chemical which permits the
passage of air and vapour between the interlacing in fabric. Water and the other liquid remain
on the surface in small bead rather than spreading out and getting absorbed.
Conventional fluorocarbons: Fluorocarbons applied by a wet chemical process are a state of
the art hydrophobic and oleophobic textile finish. The fluorinated compounds have to be
dissolved or dispersed to gain a finishing agent which can be applied by conventional dipping
and padding processes.
Plasma applications: As an alternative to wet chemical application, hydrophobic and
oleophobic functional groups can also be applied to the textile surface from the gaseous
phase. In plasma polymerization, the textile is exposed to the plasma and a monomer is
released into this plasma. The plasma activates the polymerization process and the resulting
polymer is deposited onto the textile surface.
Flame retardant materials
The term ‘flame retardant textile’ usually refers to textiles or textile based materials that
inhibit or resist the spread of fire. Textiles are usually made fire resistant by suitable chemical
treatments or by using fibres which are inherently fire retardant e.g PBO(Zylon).
Conventionally, flame retardants are generally applied to textiles either by impregnating the
textile material in a solution containing a flame retardant or by coating or spraying flame
retardant to one side of the fabric (back coating). Such flame retardant additives are usually
composed of organic and inorganic compounds of phosphorus (P), nitrogen (N), sulphur (S),
halogens (Br, Cl, F), silicone (Si), aluminium (Al), magnesium (Mg), antimony (Sb), tin (Sn),
boron (B), zinc (Zn), carbon (C; graphite), zirconium (Zr), titanium (Ti) and calcium (Ca). On
exposure to fire, these compounds become active either in the condensed phase or in the gas
phase.

Mode of action of flame retardants

Gas phase inhibition is characterized by evolution of reactive species during the burning
process. This action is mostly exhibited by halogen and phosphorus based flame retardants.
The reactive species could be radicals of halogen (X•) or phosphorus derivatives which act as
free radical scavengers in the vapour phase. Halogen based flame retardants may release
halogen radicals which may form hydrogen halide (HX) by abstracting hydrogen from the
flame retardant (RX) or the polymer (PH). The hydrogen halide may react further with the
hydrogen and hydroxyl radicals formed from decomposition of polymers and thus interfere
with the burning cycle.

Condensed phase action is characterized by formation of a protective barrier between the

pyrolysing (decomposing at high temperature) polymer and the heat source. This protective
barrier/char is mostly formed by reaction of the flame retardant additive with the polymer
during the thermal decomposition of the polymer. The reaction of flame retardant additive
with the polymer is catalytic in nature and causes the decomposition of the polymer at lower
temperatures. The action of flame retardant is such that either it changes the pyrolytic
pathways of thermal decomposition or it could change the rate of formation of combustible
materials.
Antistatic finishes
Apart from a few selected applications, static generation on polymeric surfaces has a negative
impact on textile processes and products. Static generation accumulated during the
processing of textile fibres, yarns and fabrics leads to defects due to clinging of materials to
themselves and machine parts. Consumers may experience cling of clothing during wear and
safety issues as a result of static charge generated from walking on carpet.
Electrostatic phenomena are related to constant or slowly dissipating static charge that is
created on an insulating material by contact and separation with other material.
the process of controlling static charge on any non-conducting surface involves two clearly
differentiated processes:

• Controlling the extent of static generation during the contacting of the material with
differentiated surfaces
• Controlling the surface conductivity so that charge that is generated can be rapidly
conducted to ground.
Materials that are generally referred to as ‘antistatic finishing agents’ are additives that are
incoorporated into processing finishes to enhance the surface conductivity of the fibre or
fabric and function primarily by providing an efficient pathway for static charge to be
conducted to ground.
Ballistic and impact protection finishes for textiles
Different types of threats for civilian and military life producing personal injuries or death are
mainly stabbing, shooting, cutting, shrapnel (fragments of bomb shells and other objects
thrown by explosion), etc. The main textiles for protection against weapons and other impacts
are body armours. They are classified as hard and soft body armours.
Hard body armours protect torso and head against high speed projectiles. They are heavy and
rigid textile structures incorporating ceramic/steel plates.
On the other hand, soft body armours confer flexible personnel ballistic protection against
threats such as handguns, shotguns, hand grenades, and stab resistance. They are
multilayered woven or laminated fabric structures. These fibres are lightweight with high
tensile strength and low extensibility. The main fibres used for soft body armour are p-aramid
Kevlar and Twaron, high performance polyethylene fibres (Dyneema and Spectra), high-
tenacity Nylon and PBO (Zylon).
The main factors that affect impact protection
• Properties of fibres: Type of fibre, linear density, maximum force and elongation and
stiffness modulus.
• Properties of yarns: Number of filaments comprising a yarn and interyarn friction. For
example, the ballistic performance of Kevlar fabrics is significantly improved with
decreasing levels of lubrication.
• Properties of fabrics: Type of textile (i.e. nonwoven, woven, knitted), type of weave,
thickness of the fabric, number of fabric plies, interconnection between fabric layers,
boundary.
• Properties of impacted materials: Projectiles, puncture or cutting materials; projectile
shape; projectile mass.
• Parameters related to the impact: Impact velocity, angle of impact, interfacial friction
between projectile and fabric.

Types of protective finishes

There are different types of protective finishes to achieve high mechanical properties onto
textile materials while reducing their weight and thickness.
Shear thickening fluids: In recent years, the most important and effective finishing chemicals
applied to achieve ballistic and stab resistance are shear thickening fluids (STF). STFs are non-
Newtonian fluids based on dense colloidal dispersions of solid particles of different materials
in a liquid carrier that present shear thickening behaviour beyond a critical shear rate, which
change viscosity from a liquid range to a solid-like range. A high quantity of impact energy can
be absorbed by STFs, complementing that absorbed by the lightweight high performance
multilayered textiles. Shear thickening behaviour is reversible, making the corresponding
body armour flexible enough for normal mobility of the soldier.
Dilatant powders: Emulsions of dilatant boron crosslinked organopolysiloxanes may be
coated or impregnated onto fabrics to provide an energy absorbing material in Active
Protection Systems (APS)
Thermal spray coatings: Electrically conductive and flexible flame sprayed aluminium
coatings have been successfully deposited onto polyester textile materials. Thermal spray has
also been applied to ‘clothing for protection against stab and bullet wounds . Thermal spray
coatings are based on a wide range of metal, ceramic and composite materials deposited onto
many different kinds of substrates.
Latest developments in textile functionalisation

Stimuli-sensitive polymers : stimuli-responsive polymers’ or ‘smart-polymers’ or ‘intelligent-

polymers’, are a class of polymers that show a reversible transformation from one state to
another as a response to various stimuli from the environment.
Shape memory textiles; Shape memory materials (SMMs) can rapidly change their shapes
(configuration or dimensions) under appropriate stimuli such as heat, moisture/water, pH
value electricity, light , magnetic field and solvent . Various shape memory clothing items and
accessories have been designed for their aesthetic interactive and functional effects on
textiles. An Italian design house designed ‘lazy shirt’ fabric which was joined with SMA wires
and nylon fiber. When outside temperatures are high, the shirtsleeves can quickly wind up
from wrist to elbow. When the temperature drops the sleeves automatically return to their
original shape. Shape memory fabrics were used in the intelligent window curtain where
they can self-regulate their structures and performances in response to room temperature.

UV-blocking fabrics: These are not only an important element in the campaign against skin
cancer, but also in prevention of photosensitive disorders and photoaging. Dyes are used in
textiles as UV absorbers however their effect depends on the position and intensity of the
absorption bands of the dyes in the UV wavelength and the concentration of the dye in the
textile.
Thermal regulating textiles: Garments made from a smart fabric whose functional properties
adjust with changes in the external environment can provide superior protection to the
wearer in extreme environmental conditions. Phase-change material (PCM) is one such smart
material which has the ability to store and release energy in a certain temperature range..

THE END

ASSIGNMENT 2
Discuss the different methods used for surface modification of textiles
• Plasma technology
• Solgel technology& Electrospinning
• Microencapsulation & Nanoencapsulation
• Surface grafting &Layer by layer technique
• Electroless deposition &Vapour deposition
• Pad dry methods &Use of cyclodextrines and dendrimers
• Surface characterisation techniques for textiles.