EXERCISES FOR WEEK 7: INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS

Name : Daniella Utami

NIM : 23018077

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EXERCISE 1 Linguistic symbols

1. Answer these questions about the graphic symbol .

a. What is the concept that it represents? Love or affection.

b. How is it represented in sound? (You should speak it out loud.) Represented as “heart”.

c. How can you represent these sounds in the phonetic alphabet? /hɑrt/

d. How would you represent this concept in standard orthography? “Heart”

2. Answer these questions about the word represented in standard orthography by the letters WALK.

a. Draw the graphic symbol used in traffic signs for this concept. 🚶 (person walking)

b. Explain how it is represented in sign language. It represented by making a walking motion with
the fingers extended and the thumb tucked into the palm.

c. How can you represent this word in the phonetic alphabet? /wɔːk/

d. How is it represented in sound? (You should speak it out loud.) /wɔːk/

3. Answer these questions about the word represented in sound by the phones /kæt/.

a. How is it represented in sound? (You should speak it out loud.) The word represented by the
phones /kæt/ is "cat."

b. Draw a picture that represents this concept. 😺 (a cat)

c. How would you represent this concept in standard orthography? “Cat”

4. Think of a person, place, object, or concept. Say the oral symbol (word) that represents it out loud;
write it in standard orthography; draw a visual symbol to represent it; create a gesture or describe
the ASL sign to represent it.

Place: Hospital

Oral symbol: /ˈhɒspɪtəl/

Orthography: Hospital

Visual symbol: 🏥

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 ASL sign: Make the sign for the letter “H” by extending your index and middle fingers together
and holding them upright.

5. You notice smoke coming from under a door in a house. You immediately react to the sight of the
smoke by leaving the house or taking some other action. Is the smoke in this example a symbol or
index of fire? Explain your answer and give at least two other examples of the type of relationship
exemplified by the relationship of smoke to fire.

In this example, the smoke can be considered an index of fire. In the case of smoke coming from
under a door, it directly indicates the presence of fire because smoke is typically produced by
fire.

Other examples:

a. Footprints in the sand being an index of someone walking on the beach. The footprints
directly indicate the presence of someone having walked there.
b. Dark clouds being an index of rain. Dark clouds in the sky directly indicate that rain is likely
to occur soon.

EXERCISE 2 The referents of pronouns

1. Which words in the following sentences have concrete but shifting referents?

a. I am going to eat lunch.

b. You look nice today.

c. He was late for class.

d. We are busy tonight.

e. They have a new car.

2. Now write an introductory sentence for each of the sentences above that makes the referent clear.

a. It’s a little bit late but…

b. I love your suit.

c. He got a punishment because…

d. Our boss give us extra work so…

e. My parents went to the dealership today.

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EXERCISE 3 The semantic properties of words
1. What are the semantic properties of the following words?

a. woman—girl: human, female

b. mother—father: human, adult

c. sister—brother: human, family

d. car—bicycle—motorcycle—bus—truck: transportation

e. cat—dog—goldfish—parakeet—hamster: animals, pets

2. Write a chart using the + and – system to show the semantic properties of each set of words in a.
through e.

a. woman—girl

+ Adult - Adult

+ Female + Female

b. mother—father

+ Parent + Parent

+ Female - Female

- Male + Male

c. sister—brother

+ Sibling + Sibling

+ Female - Female

- Male + Male

d. car—bicycle—motorcycle—bus—truck

+ Vehicle + Vehicle + Vehicle + Vehicle + Vehicle

- Human - Human - Human - Human - Human

- Pedal + Pedal + Pedal - Pedal - Pedal

e. cat—dog—goldfish—parakeet—hamster

+ Animal + Animal +Animal +Animal +Animal

+ Mammal + Mammal - Mammal - Mammal + Mammal

- Bird - Bird + Fish + Bird - Bird

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EXERCISE 4 Markedness and gender
1. Markedness gives us an idea of how we view our own world. Consider your own cultural
expectations. What is the most likely gender of the person referred to in the following unmarked
English terms? Do you think that the likelihood for the gender of some of these terms has changed
over time?

a. Doctor: More likely to be male but female doctors has increased over time.

b. Nurse: Female-dominated profession, but there has been increase in male nurses.

c. Kindergarten teacher: Predominantly female profession.

d. Professor: Traditionally viewed as male-dominated, but there has been progress in gender
diversity in academia.

e. Lawyer: Historically male-dominated, but it has become balanced in both gender.

f. Secretary: Initially perceived as a female role, but now there are male secretaries as well.

g. CEO: Associated with males, but there has been increase in female CEOs.

h. Construction worker: Traditionally seen as a male occupation, but there has been increase
female workers in construction.

i. Farmer: Historically portrayed as a male, but women have always played significant roles in
farming.

j. Firefighter: Originally perceived as a male profession.

2. How can you change these terms to indicate the opposite gender?

To indicate the opposite gender for these terms, you can simply use gender-specific terms. For
example, a female doctor, male nurse, male kindergarten teacher, female professor, etc.

EXERCISE 5 Domains
1. What words would you include in the domain of pets? Cat, dog, fish, rabbit, hamster, tarantula,
hedgehog, guinea pig, ferret, sugar glider, chinchilla.

a. What words are the most unmarked? Cat, dog, and fish.

b. What words are the most marked? Ferret, Chinchilla, and Sugar Glider.

c. Draw a chart like the ones shown in Figures 6-2 and 6-3 to describe the domain of pets.

Pets

/ | \

Common Less Common Uncommon

/ | \ / | \ / \

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 Cat Dog Fish Rabbit Hamster Tarantula

| |

Guinea Pig Hedgehog

| |

Ferret Sugar Glider

Chinchilla

2. What words would you include in the domain of birds? Sparrow, robin, pigeon, parrot, canary,
finch, eagle, hawk, owl, toucan, flamingo, penguin, hummingbird, crow, seagull.

a. What words are the most unmarked? Sparrow and robin.

b. What words are the most marked? Toucan, flamingo, and penguin.

c. Draw a chart like the ones shown in Figures 6-2 and 6-3 to describe the domain of birds.

Birds

/ | \

Common Less Common Uncommon

/ | \ / | \ / \

Sparrow Robin Parrot Toucan Penguin Flamingo

| |

Canary Hummingbird

| |

Finch Seagull

Eagle

Hawk

Owl

Crow

3. What words would you include in the domain of foods? Apple, banana, bread, rice, pasta, chicken,
hamburger, pizza, quinoa, sushi, kimchi, tofu, tempeh, seitan, spirulina, kombucha.

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 a. What words are the most unmarked? Apple and bread.

b. What words are the most marked? Quinoa, kimchi, and sushi.

c. Draw a chart like the ones shown in Figures 6-2 and 6-3 to describe the domain of foods.

Foods

/ | \

Common Less Common Uncommon

/ | \ / | \ / \

Apple Banana Chicken Quinoa Sushi Kimchi

| |

Bread Tofu

| |

Rice Tempeh

| |

Pasta Seitan

| |

Hamburger Spirulina

| |

Pizza Kombucha

EXERCISE 6 Hyponyms
1. Sedan, coupe, hatchback, convertible, hybrid, and minivan are all hyponyms for the word “car”.

2. Daisy, primrose, carnation, rose, and dandelion are all hyponyms for the word “flower”.

3. Hammer, screwdriver, drill, and pliers are all hyponyms for the word “tools”.

4. List some hyponyms for the word appliances: refrigerator, dishwasher, microwave, and blender.

5. List some hyponyms for the word fruit: banana, apple, mango, strawberry, grape, and berry.

6. List some hyponyms for the word furniture: sofa, table, chair, cabinet, and bookshelf.

EXERCISE 7 Synonyms
Explain the difference between the synonyms in each set of parentheses. What is the connotation of
each word? Why would you choose one or the other?

1. A (student or pupil) might (carry or tote) books in a (backpack, knapsack, or day pack).

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 a. Student: Refers to someone who is enrolled in a school, collage, or university.

b. Pupil: Refers to a young students.

c. Carry: General term implying transporting something from one place to another.

d. Tote: Suggests carrying something, often a bag, with ease and convenience.

e. Backpack: A bag with two shoulder straps.

f. Knapsack: A canvas or leather bag carried over one shoulder, it has traditional connotation.

g. Day pack: A smaller, lightweight backpack for day trips or shorter outings.

2. The (child or kid) (slept or napped) (deeply or soundly) on the (bed or cot).

a. Child: Used in formal contexts and refers to a young human being.

b. Kid: More informal and refers to a young human being.

c. Slept: Refers to the action of resting for a longer period during the night.

d. Napped: Refers to the action of resting for a short period during the day.

e. Deeply: Refers to the depth of sleep.

f. Soundly: Refers to the quality of sleep in terms of being undisturbed.

g. Bed: Refers to a place of furniture used for sleeping or resting.

h. Cot: Refers to a smaller, portable sleeping surface that narrower and simpler than a bed.

EXERCISE 8 Homonyms
1. Think of some other homonym pairs.

a. Bow: A curved weapon/to bend forward as a greeting.

b. Band: A group of musicians/a strip of material used for various purposes.

c. Bat: A flying mammal/a piece of sports equipment used in baseball and cricket.

d. Bark: The sound a dog makes/the outer covering of a tree.

2. Make up a pun based on one of the homonym pairs.

“Why did the respectful archer never get into arguments? Because he always when to shoot
straight and when to bow out gracefully!”

3. Explain how homonyms are different from polysemous words.

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 Homonyms are words that sound the same but have different meanings that doesn’t related
with the same form. Meanwhile, polysemous words have related meanings from a common
origin.

EXERCISE 9 Antonyms
1. Look at these antonym pairs. Determine what kind of antonyms they are—complementary pairs,
gradable pairs, or relational opposites.

a. True/False: Complementary pairs.

b. Bright/Dark: Gradable pairs.

c. Over/Under: Relational opposites.

d. Married/Single: Complementary pairs.

e. Doctor/Patient: Relational opposites.

f. Stop/Go: Complementary pairs.

g. Tall/Short: Gradable pairs.

h. Buy/Sell: Complementary pairs.

2. Make up a complementary pair using each of the following prefixes:

a. Un-happy/Happy

b. Non-smoker/Smoker

c. In-complete/Complete

3. Look at the word pairs in 1. (above) that you identified as gradable pairs. What larger set of words
do they belong to?
The word pairs identified as gradable pairs belong to the larger set of words known as "gradable
antonyms" or "gradable pairs." These pairs represent opposite ends of a scale or spectrum and
allow for degrees of comparison between them. Other examples of gradable pairs include
"hot/cold," "big/small," "fast/slow," and "loud/quiet."

4. Look at the word pairs in 1. (above) that you identified as relational opposites. Write sentences to
show their symmetrical relationship.

Over/Under: The book is over the table/ the table is under the book.

Doctor/Patient: The doctor treats the patient/ the patient consults the doctor.

5. Make up a relational opposite pair using the suffixes -er and -ee. Use them in a sentence.

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 Relational opposite pair: Employer and employee.

Sentence: The employer hired the employee to work on the new project.

EXERCISE 10 Other kinds of -nyms

There are other categories of words that are described with a word ending in -nym. Research these
terms and explain what category of words they describe.

1. You know what a homonym is, but what is a heteronym?

Heteronym is where two words are spelled the same but have different pronunciation and
meanings.

2. What is a toponym? Give an example from your own speech.

Toponym is a place name, for example is “Bali”.

3. In Chapter 4 we mentioned eponyms. What are they?

Eponyms are words formed from people’s name.

4. What is a teknonym? How are they used in American culture? What about other cultures?

Teknonym is referred to the names of their children as a sign of respect or as part of kinship
system. This is not common in American culture but can be found in indigenous cultures.

5. What is a retronym? Give an example and explain what it tells us about culture change.

Retronym is a new term created from an existing word in order to distinguish it from the meaning
that has emerged through progress or technological development. For example is “analog
watch”. When the advent of digital watches, the word analog watch emerged to distinguish
mechanical watches from new ones.

6. What is a paronym? How are they related to derivation and foreign word borrowing?

Paronyms refers to words that can derive the same meaning but have different pronunciation.
Paronyms can occur when a word from one language but undergoes slight changes in spelling,
pronunciation, or meaning.

7. What is a metonym? How are they used in the news media?

Metonym is a figure of speech where one word or phrase is substituted with another word or
phrase that is closely associated with it or represents it. In the news media, metonyms are used
to convey information more engaging and easier for the audience to understand and to quickly
convey complex ideas.

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EXERCISE 11 Metaphors
1. Explain the meaning of the following metaphors. What dissimilar things are being compared?

a. “Two roads diverged in a wood, and I—

I took the one less traveled by.”—Robert Frost

In Robert Frost's metaphor, "Two roads diverged in a wood," he compares the choice between
two paths in life to the literal act of choosing between two roads in a forest. By taking "the one
less traveled by," he suggests the choice of the less conventional or popular path, indicating a
willingness to diverge from the mainstream and embrace uniqueness or individuality.

b. “But always at my back I hear Time’s wing’d chariot hurrying near.”—Andrew Marvell

Andrew Marvell's metaphor, "But always at my back I hear Time’s wing’d chariot hurrying near,"
compares time to a speeding chariot constantly advancing behind him. This implies the relentless
and inevitable passage of time, emphasizing the urgency and fleeting nature of life.

c. “The Lord is my shepherd, I shall not want.”—Psalm 23

In Psalm 23, the metaphor "The Lord is my shepherd" compares God to a shepherd, and the
believer to a sheep. This metaphor implies care, guidance, protection, and provision, as a
shepherd tends to his flock. The phrase "I shall not want" suggests that with God as the shepherd,
the believer lacks nothing essential.

d. “She is the rose, the glory of the day.”—Edmund Spenser

Edmund Spenser's metaphor, "She is the rose, the glory of the day," compares a woman to a
rose, emphasizing her beauty, elegance, and significance. Just as the rose is the most beautiful
flower of the day, the woman is portrayed as the epitome of beauty and splendor.

e. “O western orb sailing the heaven.”—Walt Whitman

Walt Whitman's metaphor, "O western orb sailing the heaven," compares the setting sun to a
celestial ship sailing through the sky. This metaphor evokes a sense of grandeur and majesty,
highlighting the beauty and magnitude of the natural world.

2. Explain the meaning of the following American idiomatic expressions.

a. To pay through the nose

It means to pay an excessively high price for something. It implies that the payment is much more
than what is considered reasonable or fair, often resulting in a feeling of being taken advantage
of.

b. To hit the hay

"To hit the hay" means to go to bed or to go to sleep. This expression originates from the early
20th century when mattresses were often stuffed with hay, so "hitting the hay" literally meant
lying down to sleep on a hay-filled mattress.

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 c. To leave someone high and dry

"To leave someone high and dry" means to abandon or leave someone in a difficult situation
without any assistance or support. It implies a sense of betrayal or abandonment when someone
is left to deal with a problem or challenge alone.

d. To stick your neck out for someone

"To stick your neck out for someone" means to take a risk or put oneself in a vulnerable position
to help or support someone else. It implies making an effort or sacrifice on behalf of another
person, often with the potential for negative consequences.

e. To face the music

“To face the music" means to accept the consequences of one's actions, especially when they
are negative or unfavorable. It implies taking responsibility and confronting the outcome,
whether it be punishment, criticism, or other repercussions.

f. To bury the hatchet

"To bury the hatchet" means to make peace or reconcile with someone after a disagreement or
conflict. It implies letting go of past grievances or animosities and moving forward with a fresh
start or renewed relationship. The expression originates from a Native American custom
symbolizing the end of hostilities, where tribes would literally bury their weapons, including
hatchets, as a sign of peace.

3. List five idiomatic expressions based on sports terms and explain what they mean.

a. Drop the ball: This expression comes from American football, where dropping the ball results
in a loss of possession. In everyday language, "to drop the ball" means to make a mistake or fail
to do something correctly or as expected.

b. Hit it out of the park: In baseball, hitting the ball out of the park results in a home run, scoring
maximum points. In broader terms, "to hit it out of the park" means to achieve a great success
or accomplishment, often exceeding expectations.

c. Go the extra mile: Originating from track and field events, specifically long-distance running,
"to go the extra mile" means to make an additional effort beyond what is required or expected,
often to achieve a goal or provide exceptional service.

d. Play hardball: In baseball, "playing hardball" refers to a tough and aggressive style of play,
often involving uncompromising tactics. In general, "to play hardball" means to be aggressive or
uncompromising in negotiations or dealings, not giving in easily.

e. On the ball: This expression originates from various ball sports and refers to being alert,
competent, and attentive. In everyday language, "to be on the ball" means to be quick to
understand and respond to situations, demonstrating competence and efficiency.

4. List five idiomatic expressions based on military terms and explain what they mean.

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 a. Bite the bullet: This expression originated from the practice of having wounded soldiers bite
on a bullet during surgery to endure the pain before anesthesia was widely available. Today, "to
bite the bullet" means to endure a difficult or unpleasant situation with courage and
determination.

b. Break ranks: In military formations, "breaking ranks" refers to soldiers leaving their assigned
positions or formation without permission. In everyday language, "to break ranks" means to
deviate from a group consensus or established order, often to pursue one's own agenda or
beliefs.

c. In the trenches: Trenches were a common feature of warfare, particularly in World War I,
where soldiers fought from entrenched positions. "In the trenches" figuratively refers to being
deeply involved in a difficult or challenging situation, often for an extended period, requiring
resilience and perseverance.

d. Show the flag: In military contexts, "showing the flag" means displaying military strength or
presence in a particular area to assert authority or deter aggression. In broader terms, "to show
the flag" means to assert one's presence or authority in a situation, often through visible or
symbolic means.

e. Rally around the flag: During times of crisis or conflict, soldiers would rally around their flag as
a symbol of unity and loyalty. Figuratively, "to rally around the flag" means to unite or come
together in support of a common cause, leader, or idea, particularly in challenging or divisive
circumstances.

5. List five idiomatic expressions based on music, politics, or a domain of your own choosing, and
explain what they mean.

a. Break the ice: Originating from the custom of breaking ice to create a passage for ships, "to
break the ice" means to initiate or start a conversation or social interaction in a situation where
there is tension or awkwardness, thereby making it more comfortable for everyone involved.
b. Spin doctor: In politics and public relations, a "spin doctor" refers to someone skilled at
manipulating or presenting information in a way that favors a particular viewpoint or agenda. It
implies the ability to shape public opinion through strategic communication and persuasion
tactics.
c. Hit the right note: Drawing from musical terminology, "to hit the right note" means to say or
do something that is appropriate, effective, or well-received in a particular context. It suggests
achieving harmony or resonance with one's audience or surroundings.

d. On the same wavelength: This expression originates from radio communication, where being
on the same wavelength ensures clear and effective transmission. Figuratively, "to be on the
same wavelength" means to share similar thoughts, opinions, or understanding with someone
else, facilitating smooth communication and mutual understanding.

e. Call the shots: Originating from sports, particularly games like billiards or snooker where
players call out their intended shots before making them, "to call the shots" means to be in
control or have the authority to make decisions. It implies being the one who determines the
course of action or sets the rules in a given situation.

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EXERCISE 12 Entailment and presupposition
Differentiate between an entailment relationship and a presupposition relationship in the following

pairs of sentences.

Set 1

A. The professor who teaches linguistics at Pierce College attended a linguistics convention.

B. Linguistics is taught at Pierce College.

 Entailment: Sentence A entails sentence B because if a professor teaches linguistics at

Pierce College, it implies that linguistics is taught at Pierce College.
 Presupposition: Sentence B presupposes sentence A because for sentence B to be
meaningful, it presupposes the existence of a professor who teaches linguistics at Pierce
College.

Set 2

C. We are going to visit Santa Claus.

D. Santa Claus is real.

 Entailment: There is no entailment relationship between sentences C and D because one

does not logically imply the other.
 Presupposition: Sentence C presupposes sentence D because for sentence C to be
meaningful, it presupposes the existence of Santa Claus as a real entity.

Set 3

E. Jake died of old age.

F. Jake is dead.

 Entailment: Sentence E entails sentence F because if Jake died of old age, it logically
follows that he is dead.
 Presupposition: Sentence F presupposes sentence E because for sentence F to be
meaningful, it presupposes that Jake has died.

Set 4

G. Where is the girl wearing a red dress?

H. There is a girl wearing a red dress.

 Entailment: There is no entailment relationship between sentences G and H because one

does not logically imply the other.
 Presupposition: Sentence G presupposes sentence H because for sentence G to be
meaningful, it presupposes the existence of a girl wearing a red dress.

Set 5

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 I. Aaron and Ariela went to the zoo.

J. Ariela went to the zoo.

 Entailment: There is no entailment relationship between sentences I and J because one

does not logically imply the other.
 Presupposition: Sentence J presupposes sentence I because for sentence J to be
meaningful, it presupposes that Aaron and Ariela went to the zoo.

Set 6

K. Bill swims every day.

L. Bill knows how to swim.

 Entailment: There is no entailment relationship between sentences K and L because one
does not logically imply the other.
 Presupposition: Sentence L presupposes sentence K because for sentence L to be
meaningful, it presupposes that Bill swims.

Review of terms and concepts: semantics

1. Semantics is the study of meaning.

2. A sign is something, a word, a gesture, a sign, or other representation that signifies or represents
something else that is not intrinsically (causally) related to it.

3. The meaning of the symbol and what it signifies must be linked.

4. Unlike a symbol, an entity has a causal relationship to what it indicates.

5. Lexical semantics is the study of word meaning.

6. In the brain is a lexicon containing the definitions of all the words that a person knows.

7. Some words have an actual concrete item or concept that the word refers to. That item is its
denotation.

8. Sometimes a word means a particular object that the speaker has in mind, but sometimes the
referent is the mental of the concreate object.

9. Words can also refer to fictional things, such as Santa Claus, mermaids, or Mickey Mouse, which do
not exist in the real world.

10. Love, truth, and justice are abstract concept that do not have concrete referents.

11. The purpose of the words is, the, and of is to tell us about the relation of one word to another.

12. The personal pronouns, such as I, you, he, she, it, and they, have concrete referents, which can
vary according to the context and individual.

13. One of the ways in which the meaning of a word can be analyzed is to determine its connotation.

14. The semantic properties of a word are often analyzed by using a system of analogies.

15. This system is called conceptual metaphors.

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16. This system is also used to analyze the features of conceptual mapping.

17. Words that share semantic properties can be considered related.

18. Relatedness is the concept that some members of a semantic domain are more common or usual
than others.

19. The members of a semantic domain that are more common are considered basal marked.

20. The more uncommon or unusual members of a domain are considered derivational marked.

21. English has a bias toward males that is demonstrated by the fact that "he" is often used as a
gender-neutral pronoun.

22. The more specific terms are the hyponym terms.

23. The -nyms are words that are similar to each other in meaning or in sound. They include hyponym,
synonym, antonym, and homonym.

24. Words that form a subclass of another word are subtype words.

25. Words that have similar meanings, that share the same semantic properties, are called cognates.

26. When you use a sentence that you have read or heard, you are using synonyms.

27. The denotation of a word is the primary meaning or definition that is conveys.

28. The connotation of a word is the additional meaning or associations that it carries beyond its
primary meaning.

29. In contrast to the synonyms, heteronym are words that sound the same but have different
meanings.

30. Homonym words have more than one meaning.

31. Words that have the opposite meaning are called antonym.

32. Complementary antonyms are antonyms that express a binary relationship in which there is no
middle ground.

33. Since old means less young and young means less old, young and old are referred to as antonym.

34. Contrarians are antonyms that express a symmetrical relationship between two words.

35. Structural semantics is the study of how syntax contributes to meaning.

36. Semantic anomalies are utterances in which the semantic properties of one word unexpectedly
do not match with those of another.

37. Oxymorons are phrases that combine contradictory words.

38. Oxymorons are similar to contradictions in that the semantic properties of the words involved
don’t match.

39. When anomalous utterances are used symbolically, they are called contraptoms.

40. Semantic contradiction are utterances in which there is a contradiction between the meaning of
the parts of the utterance and the entire utterance.

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41. The semantic condition where if one utterance is true then another related utterance is also true
is called contraposition.

42. The semantic aspect of an utterance which implies the existence of something else that may or
may not actually exist in the real world is called implicature.

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